Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
PUP College of Engineering and Architecture Building
NDC Compound Anonas cor. Pureza St. Sta Mesa, Manila, Philippines

MEEN 30233
Material Science and Engineering for ME

Experiment No. 1
Determination of Tensile Strength

Group No. 2
Group Members:
Bugtong, Emmanuel Ceazar R.
Babangga, Karlstein John R.
Bonaobra, Kenjie S.
Clarin, Daniella Rose S.
Nuñez, Sherly L.

June 2024
Table of Contents:
I. Objectives
II. Material and Apparatus
III. Procedures
IV. Safety Precautions
V. Theory/Concepts/Principles
VI. Experimental Set-up
VII. Problem
VIII. Solutions and Conclusions
IX. References
I. Objectives:
The objective of this paper is to acquire basic knowledge and skills in determining the
tensile strength if steel round bar by requiring students to perform the actual test which are
significantly related to the required skills in industry.

II. Materials and Apparatus

a. Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
The instrument used to test the tensile and compressive properties of materials by applying
controlled loads until failure. It consists of a load frame, crosshead, load cell, and various grips
and fixtures to accommodate different types of specimens.

Specimen Dimension:
Two typical standard test specimens used for
determining the tensile properties of material are shown
in Figure 1. In view (a) to be tested is 0.505 inch in
diameter, or 0.2 in2 in area. The specimen is enlarged at
each end of the test section so that it can be held properly
in the testing machine.

Figure 1- Specimen

b. A370 Standard Specimen for Tensile Strength Test

This standard test method is used to determine the tensile strength of steel products. The test
involves preparing a specimen, mounting it in a tensile testing machine, and applying a load until
the specimen fractures.
III. Procedures
a. Machine the prescribed dimensions on the actual material using lathe machine.
b. Set the round steel bar to the clamping portion of the UTM, put spacer if necessary.
c. Input the material diameter of the test piece into the UTM machine computer.
d. Switch the hydraulic power on and push the button to move the clamp upward.
e. Wait until the round bar has been cut.
f. Inspect the actual cut bar and record the load shown in the computer monitor when the bar was
cut.
g. Compute the tensile strength of the round steel bar by the formula: Stress = force/area; where:
𝜋
Area = 4 𝑑 2 .

IV. Safety Precautions

a. Always follow the lab technician instructions in operating the UTM.
b. Move away and keep safe distance from the machine while the tensile test is ongoing
c. Never touch any part of the machine or the test piece during testing operation.

V. Theory/Concepts/Principles
Tensile strength is a basic property that describes a material's ability to resist a pulling force
applied to it before it breaks. It is normally analyzed by gradually applying a tensile load to a
normal-sized sample material up to the point of breakage. The experiment aims to identify the
relationship between the applied load and the corresponding amount of deformation of the steel
round bar specimen.
Tensile testing is a well-established and standardized procedure for determining the tensile
strength of a material. A specimen—a small, carefully prepared sample of the material—is
mounted in a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) and pulled until it breaks. In the beginning, while
the applied load is small enough, the deformation of the solid is purely elastic in nature, meaning
the material will return to its original shape once the load is taken off. That part of the tension
curve which is recoverable after unloading is called elastic, and the remaining part, which is the
amount of plastic deformation, is the yield strength of the material. Other materials exhibit necking
and the beginning of plastic deformation with a sudden drop of load, showing one or more upper
and lower yield points. Materials that do not exhibit sharp yield points are called 'many flow'
materials. At larger extensions of plastic deformation, strain hardening is no longer able to
compensate for the decrease in section and the load will reach a peak and then start to decrease.
This peak load divided by the original cross-sectional area, is called "Ultimate Strength." Once
loaded, the neck forms and then ruptures. During the entire tensile test, the UTM calculates and
logs the load applied and the specimen elongation.

Figure 5.1: A UTM with a round steel bar specimen gripped between the clamps and a pulling
force applied
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sabarinathan-
Chellamuthu/publication/289029747/figure/fig5/AS:431149857153026@1479805544092/Schematic-diagram-of-Tensile-Testing-Machine.png

The UTM applies an increasing pulling force on the steel bar specimen. As the force is
being added, the specimen elongates (stretches). The UTM records both the force and the change
in length of the specimen. The data thus obtained is plotted in graphical form to give a stress-strain
curve.
 Figure 5.2: Stress-Strain Diagram
https://www.educationalstuffs.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/stress-strain-diagram.png

A stress-strain diagram or curve may be defined as a graphical representation of the

behavior of a material under an applied loading. It shows the nature or behavior of the material
when the load (stress) is applied as compared to how it responds to the deformation (strain).

The stress-strain curve gives useful information about the steel's mechanical properties, such as:

Proportional Limit: The point on the curve up to which the stress and strain are proportional. In
this region of the curve, the material deforms elastically, and upon the removal of the stress, it
springs back to its original state.
Yield Point: Metals deform plastically from this point onward on the curve. After this point, the
material is subject to a certain amount of persistent strain, even when the stress is relieved.
Ultimate Tensile Strength: The maximum strength of the material which is capable of resisting
it before rupture. This is the highest point on the curve on the stress-strain curve.
Fracture Point: The point on the curve where the specimen breaks.
VI. Experimental Set-up
ASTM A370 is one of the most recognized standards for determining the tensile strength
of metals. Although the material references different test types including charpy impact, bend, and
Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests, ASTM A370 focuses primarily on tensile strength. Moreover,
this standard is most broadly referenced in material specifications and used in quality control
procedures to ensure that steel products adhere to the required properties for their intended
application.
In this experiment, the researchers used the standard specification for Standard Round
Tension Test Specimens found in ASTM A370.

To measure the tensile strength of the material, the indicated material specifications was
first modelled in Fusion 360, as shown in the picture below.
 The file was exported as a STEP File from Fusion 360 and uploaded to ANSYS Online
Simulation for the actual tensile strength test. The researchers used STEEL 4340 as the material to
be studied in this testing.

STEEL 4340 is a low alloy steel containing chromium, nickel and molybdenum. This
material is known for its high toughness, strength, and excellent hardenability which is why is it
mostly used in applications where strength and toughness is a primary requirement including
aircraft landing gears, transmission gears, crankshafts, and other components related to aerospace,
automotive, and machinery industry.

Additionally, in the picture shown below, the right-hand side of the specimen was assigned
at the fixed support and the left-hand side as the displacement. The specimen was assigned to have
a displacement of 20 mm on the x-axis to ensure that the material will break. Furthermore, the
equivalent plastic strain of the material as well as the equivalent stress are the selected variables
for the solution section.
VII. Results and Discussion
In this section, the results of ANSYS simulation for Steel 4340, conducted in accordance
with ASTM A370 standards, are presented and discussed. The simulation aims to determine the
tensile strength of a steel round bar and comprehensively evaluate the mechanical behavior of Steel
4340 under varying loading conditions.

In the simulation, we obtained both Engineering Stress-Strain and True Stress-Strain

Curves to comprehensively assess the material's response to applied forces, which will give a
thorough understanding of the mechanical properties of the material including its ultimate tensile
strength, fracture properties, and elastic and plastic deformations.

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

The Engineering Stress-Strain shows the nominal stress and strain, which are calculated
based on the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, respectively. Initially, the
curve displays a linear relationship between stress and strain, which represents the elastic region
of the material. In this region, the material deforms elastically, meaning it will return to its original
shape upon unloading. The slope of this linear portion is known as the modulus of elasticity or
Young's modulus.

As the applied load increases, the curve reaches a point where it begins to deviate from
linearity; this is known as the yield point. At this point, the material undergoes plastic deformation,
where the deformations are permanent, and the material will not return to its original shape even
if the load is removed. The stress corresponding to this point is called the yield strength. Beyond
the yield point, the curve continues to rise until it reaches the maximum stress value, known as the
ultimate tensile strength (UTS). This point signifies the maximum load-bearing capacity of the
material. After reaching the UTS, the material starts to neck, leading to a decrease in the cross-
sectional area and, consequently, a reduction in the load-carrying capacity until the material
ultimately fractures.
True Stress-Strain Curve

The True Stress-Strain Curve, on the other hand, provides a more accurate depiction of the
material's behavior, especially during plastic deformation and necking. Unlike the Engineering
Stress-Strain Curve, the True Stress-Strain Curve accounts for the actual cross-sectional area of
the specimen as it changes during deformation. True stress is calculated by dividing the applied
load by the instantaneous cross-sectional area, while true strain considers the continuous
deformation of the material.

In the True Stress-Strain Curve, the stress value continues to increase even after the
material has begun to neck, reflecting the actual stress on the reduced cross-sectional area. This
curve does not show a drop-off after the ultimate tensile strength as the engineering curve does,
because it provides a continuous measure of the material's capacity to withstand increasing loads
until fracture. The true strain also offers a more accurate measure of deformation, particularly after
the yield point, giving a better understanding of the material's ductility and toughness.

Figure 7.1: Tabular Data of the Equivalent Stress

 Figure 7.2: Graph of the Engineering Stress

Figure 7.1 and 7.2 shows the different parameters in the stress-strain curve. Based on the
graph and the table, the proportionality limit of the material or the maximum stress a material can
withstand while maintaining elastic deformation is measured at 1130.9 MPa. On the other hand,
the ultimate strength, which represents the maximum stress that a material can handle before
fracture, is 1215.5 MPa. Strains up to this point are assumed to be uniform throughout the sample
length. From this point on, deformation intensifies in the weakest section of the sample and the
neck region, where contraction begins to form. Beyond the yield point, elongation or yielding of
the material without any increase of load is expected. This explains why the load in the graph
declines after the ultimate strength of the material. Also, the rupture stress is measured at 814.07
MPa.
Figure 7.3: Tabular Data of the Plastic Strain

Figure 7.4: Graph of the Engineering Strain

TRUE STRESS-STRAIN VALUES

The Stress and Strain Curve as shown in figures 7.2 and 7.4 does not truly represent the
actual stress or strain in a test piece during the tensile test. In a typical stress-strain curve, stress is
defined as the applied force divided by the initial cross-sectional area of the test specimen, and the
strain is the change in length divided by the original length. This stress and strain various are
approximations of the true stress and strain in the specimen, hence we call this “Engineering Stress
and Engineering Strain”.

To determine the true stress and strain values of the specimen, it is necessary to consider
the change in the dimensions of the specimen throughout the duration of the test. In this case, the
actual stress-strain curve will look like this:

Based on the picture, we can easily determine which is the Actual Curve and the
Engineering Curve. Engineering Curves tends to drop after necking whereas the true curve is
always increasing.

Formulas for the Actual Stress-Strain Curve

𝜀𝑇 = (1 + 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠) ∗ (1 + 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)

 Figure 7.5: Graph of the Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

Figure 7.6: Graph of the True Stress-Strain Curve

The provided data from figure 7.5 and 7.6 comprises of two sets of stress-strain graphs:
Engineering Stress-Strain and True Stress-Strain. Engineering Stress-Strain represents the
relationship between the applied load and the resulting deformation, considering the original
dimensions of the cross-sectional area of the specimen, while true stress-strain accounts for
changes in the specimen's dimensions as it deforms.
 Figure 7.7: Graph of the Engineering Stress and True Stress

Figure 7.8: Graph of the Engineering Strain and True Strain

Upon observing the provided data of the Engineering Stress and True Stress in figure
7.7 being obtained from the ANSYS simulation, distinct patterns emerge in the behavior of the
material under increasing load. Initially, both stress measurements rise in tandem with the
increasing strain as shown in figure 7.8, which demonstrates the material's response to applied
force. Notably, in the engineering stress-strain graph, stress increases linearly with strain,
indicating elastic deformation. This linear region represents the material's proportional limit, where
stress and strain have a direct relationship. As stress continues to rise, the material reaches its yield
point, marked by a deviation from linearity, indicating the onset of plastic deformation. Beyond
the yield point, the material undergoes plastic deformation. The ultimate tensile strength, denoting
the maximum stress before failure, is observed at the peak stress value of 1215.5 MPa and the
rupture strength is at 814.07 MPa. In contrast, the true stress-strain graph considers the material's
changing dimensions during deformation. Stress increases continuously with strain, reflecting the
material's true resistance to deformation. The ultimate tensile strength is recorded at 2582.13 MPa
as is known as the maximum stress of the material before failure. Additionally, the rupture strength,
corresponding to the stress at failure based on the graph is at 1975.67 MPa. The differences
between the behaviour of the two graphs are due to the consideration of specimen dimensions.
Engineering stress, calculated with respect to the original specimen dimensions, reaches a peak
and then begins to decline. This decline is attributed to the constant consideration of the initial
cross-sectional area which overlooks the reduction caused by necking or localized deformation. In
contrast, true stress, which factors in the changes in the specimen’s dimensions, continues to rise
until failure and provides a more accurate reflection of the material's strength.

VIII. Conclusion
In conclusion, this experiment yielded a comprehensive analysis of the tensile strength of
Steel 4340, adhering to the guidelines outlined in ASTM A370 standards. Through a combination
of physical testing using a Universal Testing Machine and simulations with ANSYS Online
Simulation, we successfully measured and compared the Engineering and True Stress-Strain
behaviors of the material. The results indicates that the Steel 4340 has a remarkable tensile
strength. The Engineering Stress-Strain Curve reveals an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 1215.5
MPa, while the True Stress-Strain Curve shows a UTS of 2582.13 MPa. These findings emphasize
the significance of taking into account of the specific dimensions of specimens when studying
deformation in order to accurately evaluate material properties. This experiment not only deepened
our understanding of the mechanical properties of Steel 4340 but also highlighted the significant
distinctions between engineering and true stress-strain analysis. The knowledge gained from this
study is extremely valuable for practical applications in industries that prioritize material strength
and reliability.
IX. References

Clinton, J. (2020, March 19). Starrett | Tensile Testing Principles – Fundamentals, Methods &
Challenges. Michelli Weighing & Measurement. https://www.michelli.com/tensile-
testing-principles-fundamentals-methods-
challenges/?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR3U_opqdykaij-yf5GwA-
lQzn1gzM9kxh-
7WBMtAct7v_uDuedtxnQFfrs_aem_AdqliKw1JzkTBF4u59cYHFQL3g2DR1CS7yN7n
KS-yW4uMSNRZvAXf-eM0H2ZoPbqiZj45milePSb_8iqTEn7_MPO

Yalcin, D. (2021). Tensile Testing Concepts & Definitions.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351392014_Tensile_Testing_Concepts_Definio
ns