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pSYLLABUS BASED
MAP WORK AND
INTERPRETATION

By: Chipoza Henry M.

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FORWARD

The syllabus based Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE) Map work and
interpretation has been designed in relation to the standards of the senior Geography
teaching syllabus of Malawi. It has been compiled to be a user friendly and easy to
understand material worth to be used by both the teacher and students. It is
document that will be trusted by the user while preparing for Malawi National
Examination Board Examinations as far as Map Work and interpretation is
concerned. I wish you well as you are going through the document.

Chipoza H.M.

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 TOPICS
1) GRID REFERENCES
2) MEASURING OF WINDING
ROADS, RIVERS AND RAILWAYS
3) DIRECTION
4) BEARINGS
5) GRADIENT
6) MAP ENLARGEMENT AND
REDUCTION
7) CROSS SECTION
8) LANDFORMS
9) DRAINAGE PATTERNS
10) INTERVISIBILITY
11) SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
12) OCCUPATION
13) CALCULATION OF AREA
COVERED BY A CERTAIN
FEATURE SUCH AS A FOREST
RESERVE
14) REASONS FOR PRESENCE OF
SETTLEMENTS
15) DESCRIPTION OF RELIEF
16) LAND USE ON TOPOGRAPHIC
MAPS
17) REASONS FOR ABSENCE OF
SETTLEMENTS

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MAP WORK AND INTERPRETATION

GRID REFERENCES

DEFINITION OF A GRID

· A network of horizontal and vertical lines.

· Grid reference is the use of grid to refer to features on the map extract given.

WAYS OF USING A GRID REFERENCE

i. Naming a feature at a certain given six figure grid reference

ii. Giving a six figure grid reference for a given feature.

PROCEDURE OF GIVING A SIX FIGURE GRID REFERENCE

Easting and northings are used.

a. Eastings: They are vertical lines running from north to south but the
numbers representing them range from West to East.
b. Northings: These are horizontal lines running from West to East but their
numbers range from South

- When giving a six figure Grid Reference we start with the Eastings and then
Northings
- Therefore the feature in the Grid Reference above is on 547678.
- It is done by counting the number of lines eastwards or northwards
- In the absence of the lines, estimation is done.

MEASURING OF WINDING ROADS, RIVERS AND RAILWAYS

Three ways are used namely:

i. By using a string

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 ii. By using a divider
iii. By using a straight edged paper

The divider method is the best way as brings more accurate results.

a. STRING METHOD
- Lay a piece of string along the route between two points and use a pen to
mark the points
- Follow the route up to the second point and mark this point on the string
- Straighten out the string and transfer the measured distance onto the linear
scale and read off the distance

HOW TO READ OFF THE DISTANCE ONTO THE SCALE

NOTE:

1. Always start from zero on your straight edge and not the 1 to the right of
zero
2. All whole numbers are measured to the right side from zero
3. All fractions are measured to the left from zero
4. The final answer is the total from the whole number plus that of fractions

b. USING A DIVIDER

- Use a pen or pencil to cut the distance from the first point after any part that
makes a straight line
- Use a divider to transfer the distance from the winding road, river or railway
line to any piece of paper starting from the first to the last point.
- Join the two points with a smooth line
- Measure using a ruler
- Convert using the scale to actual length on the ground

NOTE: The aim of cutting distance and transferring it into a certain piece of paper is
to straighten the winding road, river and railway line so that distance can easily be
measured using a ruler. This brings more accurate measurements than using a ruler.

DIRECTION

- Direction talks about cardinal points e.g. north, south, west, east which can
also be split into further 32 cardinal points
- Bearings are angles calculated from north

NOTE: In order to give direction one must now where north is and other points will
be given in relation to it.

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CARDINAL POINTS

Here are 16 cardinal points which can also be split into 32 cardinal points.

These are the ones used frequently

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What is the direction of A from B?

STEPS

1. Check or find out where the two points are on the map extract
2. Join the two points with a smooth line using a pencil
3. Reread the question and not the point/place/feature which comes after the
word “From” and put your pencil there. Then extend a line northwards
running parallel to the easting lines for accuracy
4. You can deduce and know the direction of A from B if and only if North is
known or detected by referring to it

Therefore, point A from B is North West

BEARINGS

Compass directions can be given in degrees and all points of the compass add up to
360º, beginning and ending at North. These angles are called Bearings.

NOTE: The angle of a bearing is always measured in a clockwise direction from

North position,

Calculate the bearing of X from Y

STEPS

1. Firstly, find out where X and Y are on the map extract

2. Draw a line using a pencil joining the places concerned
3. Read the question and note the point/place that comes after the word “from”
and put the pencil there then extend to the True North or Grid North. Make
sure that the line is parallel to the easting lines
4. Place protractors in correct position using the North line
5. Measure the angle in a clockwise direction from the line which has been
extended to the North to the joining points given
6. State the Degrees

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GRADIENT

DEFINITIONS

GRADIENT is the angle of slope of land which is also expressed as a ratio of the
height between two points on land and the distance between them.

VERTICLE INTERVAL (V.I.) is the distance between the two points on the actual
ground

HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT (H.E.) is the distance between the two points on the
actual ground

Gradient (AB) = Vertical Interval (BC)

Horizontal Equivalent (AC)

Mathematically:

Hypotenuse = Opposite

Side

AB = BC

AC

HOW TO FIND VERTICAL INTERVAL

Simply subtract the lowest value at the lowest point/place in altitude from the high
value at the highest point given

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Vertical Interval as per above is

400m – 100m = 300m

HOW TO FIND HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT

a. Take a ruler to measure the distance between the two points given and then
convert to the actual length on the ground by using the scale of simple
mathematical solving
b. Use a string to transfer the distance the distance between the two points to
the linear scale
c. Use a piece of paper to measure the distance between the two points given
and later on transfer the distance to the linear scale in order to convert it to
the actual length on the ground. 1 cm between points A and B will give us
1Km on the linear scale

1. USING SCALE

Go straight to the scale and always start from zero

LINEAR SCALE

2. SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL STATEMENT

When you measure the distance between A and B, you find that it is 2cm which
when converted becomes:

If 1 cm = 50,000 cm

Then 2 cm = ? (More)

= 2 cm X 50,000

1 cm

= 100,000 cm

= 1 Km

3. DIVISION STAGE

Normally there is scale given for uniformity purposes and the value of H.E. is
always larger as compared to the value V.I. This because H.E. relates to the actual
distance on the ground. Therefore, the units must be made the same by proper
conversation. The answer has no values because the units cancel each other out at
this division stage. The answer can be a fraction, ratio or a decimal point number.

MAP ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION

The figure below shows map of Malawi. It can be enlarged twice as much as its
original size by using a scale.

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PROCEDURE

1. Draw a new convenient grid for the map. Make each side as big as it was
before. In this case 2 cm instead of 1 cm.
2. Copy the details from each block of the original into the new blocks
3. Remember to enlarge the scale by diving it by 2

Map reduction follow the same procedure except that the distance between the
lines on the new grid will be less than on the old grid. And the same decreased
map will have less ground detail and decreased distance

NOTE: Remember to either enlarge or reduce scale after reduction or enlargement

of maps. Do not forget that reduced scales have large values while increased
scales have small values

CROSS SECTION

DEFINITION: This is a side view of a piece of land. It is used to see the slope and
form of land between two points.

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SCALES USED TO DRAW A CROSS SECTION

1. Vertical Scale: This represents the contour heights between two points and
it is the only scale that can be adjusted
2. Horizontal Scale: This is the same as the one used on the map extract i.e.
The distance of the baseline should be the same as the distance between the
two places given.

HOW TO DRAW CROSS SECTION

STEPS

1. Establish the contour interval on the map you are using i.e. the contour
interval is the difference in value between two contour lines as above it is 50
metres

NOTE: If there are no values between the two points given, you are supposed to
follow the lines up to where they end, somewhere you get the figures

You can also use values of adjacent contour lines which can help you to find the
contours interval. This contour interval can either be added to or subtracted from
the last value close to the distance between the two points.

2. Select a suitable vertical scale. This normally given for uniformly sake
3. Draw a baseline of the same length as the distance between the two points
on the map.
4. Place a straight edged piece of paper along a line joining the two places given
on the map extract. On the edge of this paper mark the end points of your
cross section. Mark all points where the contour crosses your paper. Write
the height of each contour next to the point where it is marked on your
paper
5. Place your paper along the baseline of the cross section grid and mark the
heights of each contour shown as crosses
6. Join the marks on the grid with a smooth line. The shade the section.

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DRAW A CROSS SECTION OF THE FOLLOWING RIVER

NOTE: The height is metres

INTERVISIBILITY

- By studying the contours you usually tell whether two points are intervisible
- That is, whether they can be seen from one another.
- If it is possible to tell from the Contours, then this may be done by section
drawing or more simply by plotting the heights of summits (High area) along
a line of sight.

LANDFORMS

DEFINITION: Features that cover the land.

TYPES

. Riverine (Rapids, waterfalls, meanders, oxbow lakes, deltas, estuaries

. Coastal (spit, headland, bay, lagoon, cape, cliff, spur, gorge, col, saddle, disserted
plateau, ridge and escarpment.

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DRAINAGE PATTERNS

DEFINITION: Patterns displayed by the rivers from the source.

TYPES

Trellis pattern

- It is a regular and triangular pattern found where rivers and tributaries flow
more or less parallel to each other.
- Found in areas where there are alternate bands of hard and soft rock
- The rivers find it easier to follow weak cross joining lines in softer rock

Dendritic pattern

- It resembles a branch of a tree

- Found where rocks have the same resistance to erosion and weathering
- Rivers follow the angle of slope from the sources to the mouth

Radial pattern

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 - It shows rivers flowing from one source or watershed in and outwards
direction like the spokes in a bicycle wheel i.e. a hill
- Rivers flow in all directions downstream and it can be identified looking at
the closeness of contour lines with the stream emanating from the central
point (source) within a certain radius to the circumference (mouth)

Disappearing pattern

- The river is obstructed by a marsh or a swamp but goes through to a sea or

lake

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

A settlement is a place where people live. Things that make people to settle in a
certain place are called pulling factors.

TYPES

a. Compacted/Nucleated
b. Linear or Ribbon
c. Dispersed/scattered
d. Cross (Nucleated and linear)
e. Isolated

COMPACT/NUCLEATED SETTLEMENT PATTERN

The shape made rounded or square but in all cases the buildings are close together
and they are connected by roads, or foot paths or both as shown below

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LINEAR OR RIBBON SETTLEMENT PATTERN

Linear type form a line, straight or curved which may follow a line of movement e.g.
a road, a relief feature, for example a coast, the base of a ridge. See below:

DISPERSED/SCATTERED SETTLEMENT

The houses are often far apart and they are associated with extensive farming, e.g.
the wheat and sheep regions of South – East Australia. See below:

CROSS TYPE SETTLEMENT PATTERN

These form where two lines of movement cross e.g. the crossing of two roads. See
below:

OCCUPATION

A HINT TO REMEMBER WHEN IDENTIFYING OCCUPATION

Look at certain features on the map extract e.g.

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 a. Lakes and rivers: Fishing
b. Cultivation symbols: Farming
c. Schools: Learning and learning
d. Hospitals: Nursing
e. Markets and road infrastructure: Trading is done

CALCULATION OF AREA COVERED BY A CERTAIN FEATURE SUCH AS A

FOREST RESERVE

Grids are also used to calculate the area features on the map extracts. Most of the
features are irregular. See figure below:

Calculate the area covered by Mtope Forest Reserve above

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING

- Number of full squares + number of half squares

As per above it will be:

= 1 + 7/2

= 1 + 3½

= 4½ Squares

(Each square is 2 cm by 2 cm which is equivalent to 1 km by 1 km)

1 km x 1 km = 1 km²

Therefore: Area covered by Mtope

Forest = 4½ squares x 1 km²

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 1 square

= 4.5 x 1 km²

= 4.5 km²

DESCRIPTION OF RELIEF

- Contour lines on a map extract are used.

- If they are very close, it is a hilly area.
- It is also possible to describe other relief features e.g. marshes, lakes,
valleys, vegetation with their related features

REASONS FOR ABSENCE OF SETTLEMENTS

- Presence of relief features i.e. vegetation, mountains, rivers, marshes,

absence of social amenities
- Symbols are used and a key is referred to for their meanings.

REASONS FOR PRESENCE OF SETTLEMENTS

- Flatness of the area for farming purposes i.e. use of machinery , irrigation
and construction of houses
- Presence of social amenities e.g. schools, markets, hospitals, roads, water
electricity.
- Absence of forest reserves makes it possible for the construction of roads
and railways i.e. it facilitates movement and accessibility.

LAND USE ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

a) Cultivation
b) Settlements
c) Communication
d) Quarrying or mining
e) Forestry
f) Tourist resort
g) Industrial area
h) Parks and game reserves

LANDFORMS ON A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

a. A GORGE

A steep sided river valley whose floor is narrow and almost flat e.g. Mpatamanga
Gorge along Shire River in Malawi, Kafue Gorge in Zambia

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b. BAY

An indentation or curve in the coast line where the lake meets the land between
two head lands. e.g. Nkhata, Domira Monkey and Chitmba Bays.

c. BEACH

A lake related feature formed by sand or pebbles often found in many of the
bays

d. AN ESTUARY
- A drowned river mouth or the mouth of the river where it meets a lake or sea
e. PENINSULA
- A piece of land almost surrounded by water but still joined to the main land
by a narrow neck called Isthmus.
- The word “Pen” comes from Latin word meaning “almost” and “insula”
means “Island” i.e. Peninsula means almost an island.
- The other name for peninsula is cape e.g. Cape Maclear in Malawi.
f. STRAIT
A narrow stretch of water which connects bodies of water e.g. Strait of
Gibraltar connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.

g. LAGOON
A shallow stretch of water which is partly or completely separated from the
sea or lake by a narrow strip of land e.g. Chia lagoon in Malawi

h. DELTA
A Fan shaped streams at the mouth of the river where load is deposited after
entering the lake.

i. SWAMP
An area of low ground that is always flooded e.g. Bana, Limphasa in Malawi

j. CONFLUENCE
This is where a tributary (Branch of a river joins) joins the main river

k. HEADLANDS/POINTS

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 - A headland is part of the land which sticks out into the lake also known as a
point.
- Every bay has two head land one on each side of the bay

l. WATERSHED OR WATER DIVIDE OR WATER PARTING

The land lying between the headwaters of a stream flowing in one direction
and the headwaters of the stream in another direction. e.g. Viphya plateau
i.e. between streams draining to Lake Malawi and those draining to Rukuru
River.

m. A SPUR
- An area of high ground extending outward from a large mass of ground.
- It is shown by wedge shaped contours pointing away from the high ground.

n. VALLEY
An area of low ground whose contour lines are “V” shaped where the sharp
points towards the higher land

o. GAP
The depression between two hill masses which may or may not contain a
river e.g. Mlenje and Mchesi mountains in the southern region of Malawi and
Kafue gap in Zambia.

p. PASS
This is similar to but genrally narrower than a gap and it is found at high
altitudes e.g. Munal pass in Zambia

q. COL OR SADDLE
This is rather similar to a gap or pass and is generally reffering to a slight
depression in a ridge of hills e.g. cols in the Zeze Hills in Zambia and
between Sapitwa and Nakodzwe peaks on Mulanje Mountain in Malawi.

NOTE: It is important to know such land forms as well as the symbols and their
meaning used on topographic maps5

A RAPID

It is formed when a resistant rock is lying horizontally along the river course.

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A WATER FALL

It is formed when a resistant rock lies vertically along the river course and are good
for HEP.

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