Lesson 1: Introduction to Mythology

Learning Outcome: Show understanding of the relationship and difference of mythology with Science,
Religion, and Primitive Culture

Introduction

With rare exceptions—such as a recently discovered Amazonian tribe, the Pirahãs—every

human culture has developed its own mythology to explain its origins and make sense of the
phenomena observed in the natural world.

The word “mythology” comes from the Greek muthos, meaning “story,” and logia, “knowledge.”
Myths tell of the creation of the world or predict its end; they explain how animals were made and the
land formed; they bridge the world of humans and the world of the spirits or gods; they try to impose
order on a terrifying chaos, and to confront the mysteries of death. Crucially, myths are also the
foundation of religions: they define cultures and codify their values.

Defining A Myth

A myth, defined simply, is a fictitious story or half-truth, but it goes much deeper than that.
Scholars of mythology have struggled to pinpoint an exact definition that encompasses all of the
attributes contained within a myth. It’s funny how such a small word both defines and gives purpose to
lofty ideas, such as the meaning of life. It’s no wonder an accurate definition has not been settled on!

In popular usage, the word myth usually refers to a fictitious story or a half-truth. For example,
you might see a report in the media that uses myth for some commonly held belief that the reporter
wants to prove is untrue. But myths go much deeper than false beliefs or made-up stories. Scholars of
mythology have struggled to agree on an exact definition, one that encompasses everything myth can
mean. Myths may deal with questions of origins—who you are and where you came from. They may
teach values or attempt to explain natural phenomena. Myths are often intertwined with religion, and
some look ahead to the end of time.

Ancient Civilizations

In ancient Mesopotamia—in the crucible of civilization of the 4th millennium BCE, when
humankind first learned to live in cities—the Sumerians developed the first recorded pantheon of
deities. It was preserved in statues, carvings, and ancient texts, such as The Epic of Gilgamesh, in which
the eponymous hero searches for immortality. Such a quest was repeated in myths the world over.
Subsequent Mesopotamian civilizations developed, demoted, or culled the Sumerian gods and the
myths associated with them. The powerful goddess Inanna, for example, became Ishtar in the
Babylonian pantheon and later the Phoenician goddess Astarte.

Like other civilizations, ancient Mesopotamia was shaped by the narratives it used to explain the
cosmos. Its rulers were guided by the gods, whose capricious will was interpreted by priests. The gods
had to be continually praised and placated. During the Akitu, a 12-day festival held in the great temple
of Marduk, people chanted the Enuma Elish, the Babylonian myth of Creation, with the force of a
magical incantation in their ritual reenergizing of the cosmos.
Great Cultures

Myths had a great influence on the societal fabric of history’s greatest civilizations. The rich and
complex mythology of ancient Egypt emphasized the creation of order out of chaos. Such stories
validated the governance of society and legitimized a status quo in which the pharaoh himself was
viewed as divine and therefore worthy of being served. The Egyptians also saw time as cyclical; events
that happened in their society were merely repeating what had happened before and had been
recorded in their myths.

In ancient Greece and Rome, the foundation myths of city-states were fundamental to the
concepts of citizenship; they bound ideas of patriotism and common interest with divine authority. In
Greece, which consisted of more than 1,000 city-states, each had a founding myth and a protective
deity, which led to a highly complex set of myths that was often contradictory. It took the poets Homer
and Hesiod to create a comprehensive, pan-Hellenic record of Greek mythology. Homer’s epic stories—
the Iliad and Odyssey—and Hesiod’s Theogony comprised the first and most authoritative attempts to
weave the disparate Greek myths into one narrative thread.

In ancient Rome, the local myths of Italic peoples, such as the Latins and the Etruscans, blended
with the Greek myths that had gone before them. The poet Virgil composed a foundation myth for
Rome, the Aeneid, consciously modeled on the epics of Homer, while Ovid retold many Greek myths in
his narrative poem Metamorphoses and recorded the myths of a number of purely Roman deities in his
poem on the religious year, Fasti. The Romans enriched the mix by adding deities from Phrygia (such as
the Great Mother Cybele), Egypt (the goddess Isis), and Syria (Elagabal, or Sol Invictus, briefly the chief
god of Rome).

Living Religions

Many tribal peoples—including the Dogon of Mali, the Baiga of central India, the Tikopia of the
Solomon Islands, and the Ifugaos of the Philippines—still live in a world suffused by what outsiders
might call myths. Oral tradition in these societies is remarkably enduring: as proven by the abundant
myths or Dreamings of the Aboriginal Australians, the myths of the déma (creation spirits) among the
Marind-Anim people of New Guinea, or the eloquent Chantways of the Navajo in North America. Many
myths from these peoples, however, have not reached the outside world because they are secret, or
they have not been collected or translated, or they have been lost as exposure to outsiders has attacked
and destroyed indigenous cultures.

Mythology is the territory of poetic imagination, and the stories individual cultures tell are a
profound expression of the creative impulse. Yet myths are more than simply stories; they are the
stories cultures tell themselves about the great mysteries that perplex and intrigue us all: questions of
birth and death and everything in between. Even now, myths remain the bearers of tradition and the
spiritual and moral guide of peoples all across the globe.

Modern-Day Mythology: Encountering Myths in Everyday Life

One way that the ancient myths of Greece and Rome live on is in the English language. Many
words and phrases have their origins in classical mythology. Earlier sections have mentioned some of
these terms; this section describes others you might recognize.
Common Words and Phrases
 Here are a few words and phrases that originated in classical mythology:

• An odyssey is a long, often difficult journey filled with adventures—just like Odysseus’s
trip home from Troy.
• The word panic, which means a sudden, overwhelming fear, traces its origins back to
the god Pan. During battle, Pan would let out a terrifying shriek that made the enemy
frantic with fear.
• An arachnid is a spider. This word comes from Arachne, the mortal woman who foolishly
challenged Athena to a weaving contest and was transformed into a spider.
• A phobia is a fear, often an irrational one. The word comes from Phobos, a son of Ares
who caused terror on the battlefield.
• The word aphrodisiac refers to a food or potion that causes sexual desire. The section
“Aphrodite” describes how Aphrodite liked to stir up sexual desire among both mortals
and immortals.
• An Adonis is a handsome young man—just like the Adonis who was loved by Aphrodite.
• When someone is consistently lucky, that person is said to have the Midas touch. As in
the myth of King Midas, everything the person touches turns to gold.
• Hermaphroditus, a son of Hermes and Aphrodite, merged physically with a nymph,
becoming both male and female. Today, the word hermaphrodite refers to an animal or
person born with both male and female sex organs.
• The element titanium, which takes its name from the Titans, is known for its strength.
Titanic means gigantic and powerful, just like the ancient Titans.
• Another element with a mythological name is mercury (the Roman name for Hermes). A
person with a mercurial nature is quick-witted, lively, and volatile.
• The names of several months come from Roman mythology: January is named for Janus,
a double-faced god of doorways and beginnings; March is named for Mars, the god of
war; April may come from a variant of Aphrodite; May’s name comes from Maia, an
earth goddess; and June is named in honor of Juno. Although many of the days of the
week take their names from Norse mythology, Saturday is named in honor of the
Roman god Saturn.

Psychology draws some of its terms from classical mythology. For example, narcissism, a
personality disorder characterized by excessive self-love, draws its name from the story of Narcissus,
found in “Achilles, Agamemnon, and Other Important Heroes.” Psychoanalysis teaches that people have
two drives, one toward life and one toward death; these drives are sometimes referred to as the Eros
instinct (life) and the Thanatos instinct (death).

Psychology’s Ancient Connection

The word psychology has its roots in Greek myth. Psyche means mind, soul, or spirit, but Psyche
was also a mythological character who had a love affair with Eros, the god of love.

Probably the most famous psychological term derived from classical mythology came from
Sigmund Freud, the Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis. Freud coined the phrase Oedipal
complex based on the myth of Oedipus, which you also read about in “Achilles, Agamemnon, and Other
Important Heroes.” An oracle proclaimed that Oedipus would kill his father and marry his mother, and
Freud believed that these feelings of jealousy toward the same-sex parent and love for the opposite-sex
parent were a phase that all children go through.

The world of sports also has references to classical mythology. The Olympic Games, which began
in ancient Greece, are the most obvious example. Nike, a popular brand of athletic shoes, is the name of
the Greek goddess of victory. And the word marathon comes from the myth of Pheidippides, an
Athenian messenger. During the Battle of Marathon, Pheidippides ran from Athens to Sparta to ask the
Spartans to join the Athenians in repelling an invasion. To get from Athens to Sparta, Pheidippides ran
about 140 miles in under two days—then had to run the 140 miles back to Athens with the Spartans’
reply.

Olympic Honor

Today’s Olympic Games are a variation on the festivals held in ancient Greece to honor the gods.
During these festivals, sports and artistic contests were held. Even then, winning an event in the Olympic
Games was an admirable and respected feat.

References to myths can appear where you least expect them, such as in the world of computer
science. In general usage, a Trojan horse —just like the one that led to the defeat of Troy—is something
that appears desirable but in fact presents a threat. In computer science, a Trojan horse (often called a
Trojan for short) is a computer program that looks useful and innocent, such as a free computer game,
but allows unauthorized access to your computer.

Written in the Stars

Other constellations include Ursa Major and Ursa Minor (Callisto and her son Arcas, whose
stories appear in “Artemis”; more on Callisto can also be found in “Zeus’s Many Affairs”); Andromeda,
Perseus, and Cetus (see “Perseus”); and Hercules (see “The Twelve Labors of Heracles”—the Greek
Heracles became the Roman Hercules).

The zodiac signs also come from classical mythology:

• Aries is the golden-fleeced ram.

• Taurus is the white bull that carried Europa to Crete.
• Gemini is Castor and Pollux, twin sons of Zeus and Leda.
• Cancer is the crab that Heracles faced.
• Leo is another enemy of Heracles, the Nemean Lion.
• Virgo is Astraea, the Roman goddess of justice.
• Libra represents Astraea’s scales.
• Scorpio is the scorpion that killed Orion.
• Sagittarius is the Centaur Chiron, a great archer.
• Capricorn is the goat Amalthea, who nursed Zeus.
• Aquarius is Ganymede, the gods’ cupbearer.
• Pisces is the fish that served as a disguise for both Aphrodite and Eros.

“Comparing Greek and Roman Mythologies” gives the Roman equivalents for the names of
Greek gods and goddesses. Most of the planets in the solar system are named after these Roman
deities. Other celestial bodies, such as some asteroids and several of Jupiter’s moons, are also named for
mythological figures.