TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1.0

INTRODUCTION

Transportation is essential for a nation’s development and growth. In both the public and private sector, opportunities
for engineering careers in transportation are exciting and rewarding. Elements are constantly being added to the world’s
highway, rail, airport, and mass transit systems, and new techniques are being applied for operating and maintaining the
systems safely and economically. Many organizations and agencies exist to plan, design, build, operate, and maintain the
nation’s transportation system.

For as long as the human race has existed, transportation has played a significant role by facilitating trade, commerce,
conquest, and social interaction, while consuming a considerable portion of time and resources. The primary need for
transportation has been economic, involving personal travel in search of food or work, travel for the exchange of goods
and commodities, exploration, personal fulfilment, and the improvement of a society or a nation. The movements of
people and goods, which is the basis of transportation, always has been undertaken to accomplish those basic objectives
or tasks that require transfer from one location to another. For example, a farmer must transport produce to market, a
doctor must see a patient in the office or in the hospital, and a salesman must visit clients located throughout a territory.
Every day, millions of people leave their homes and travel to a workplace— be it a factory, office, classroom, or distant
city.
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION

Tapping natural resources and markets and maintaining a competitive edge over other regions and nations are linked
closely to the quality of the transportation system. The speed, cost, and capacity of available transportation have a
significant impact on the economic vitality of an area and the ability to make maximum use of its natural resources.
Examination of most developed and industrialized societies indicates that they have been noted for high-quality
transportation systems and services. Nations with well-developed maritime systems (such as the British Empire in the
1900s) once ruled vast colonies located around the globe. In more modern times, countries with advanced
transportation systems—such as in the United States, Canada, Asia, and Europe—are leaders in industry and commerce.
Without the ability to transport manufactured goods and raw materials and without technical know-how, a country is
unable to maximize the comparative advantage it may have in the form of natural or human resources. Countries that
lack an abundance of natural resources rely heavily on transportation in order to import raw materials and export
manufactured products.

TRANSPORTATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

Good transportation, in and of itself, will not assure success in the marketplace, as the availability of transportation is a
necessary but insufficient condition for economic growth. However, the absence of supportive transportation services
will serve to limit or hinder the potential for a nation or region to achieve its economic potential. Thus, if a society
expects to develop and grow, it must have a strong internal transportation system consisting of good roads, rail systems,
as well as excellent linkages to the rest of the world by sea and air. Thus, transportation demand is a by-product derived
from the needs and desires of people to travel or to transfer their goods from one place to another. It is a necessary
condition for human interaction and economic competitiveness.

The availability of transportation facilities can strongly influence the growth and development of a region or nation.
Good transportation permits the specialization of industry or commerce, reduces costs for raw materials or
manufactured goods, and increases competition between regions, thus resulting in reduced prices and greater choices
for the consumer. Transportation is also a necessary element of government services, such as delivering mail, defense,
and assisting territories. Throughout history, transportation systems (such as those that existed in the Roman Empire
and those that now exist in the United States) were developed and built to ensure economic development and efficient
mobilization in the event of national emergencies.
SOCIAL COSTS AND BENEFITS OF TRANSPORTATION

The improvement of a region’s economic position by virtue of improved transportation does not come without costs.
Building vast transportation systems requires enormous resources of energy, material, and land. In major cities,
transportation can consume as much as half of all the land area. An aerial view of any major metropolis will reveal vast
acreage used for railroad terminals, airports, parking lots, and freeways. Transportation has other negative effects as
well. Travel is not without danger; every mode of transportation brings to mind some major disaster— be it the sinking
of the Titanic, the explosion of the zeppelin Hindenburg, the infrequent but dramatic passenger air crashes, and highway
accidents that each year claims about 40,000 lives in the United States. In addition, transportation can create noise, spoil
the natural beauty of an area, change the environment, pollute air and water, and consume energy resources.
Society has indicated a willingness to accept some risk and changes to the natural environment in order to gain the
advantages that result from constructing new transportation systems. Society also values many social benefits brought
about by good transportation. Providing medical and other services to rural areas and enabling people to socialize who
live some distance apart are just a few examples of the benefits that transportation provides. A major task for the
modern transportation engineer is to balance society’s need for fast and efficient transportation with the costs involved.
Thus, the most efficient and cost-effective system is created, while assuring that the environment is not compromised or
destroyed. In carrying out this task, the transportation engineer must work closely with the public and elected officials
and needs to be aware of modern engineering practices to ensure that the highest quality transportation systems are
built consistent with available funds and accepted social policy.

TRANSPORTATION IN THE UNITED STATES

Is transportation very important? Why should you study the subject and perhaps consider transportation as a
professional career? Many “gee whiz” statistics can be cited to convince the reader that transportation is vital to a
nation, but before doing so, consider how transportation impacts people’s daily lives.

Perusal of a local or national newspaper will inevitably produce one or more articles on transportation. The story might
involve a traffic fatality, road construction project, the price of gasoline, trends in purchases of motor vehicles, traffic
enforcement and road conditions, new laws (such as cell phone use while driving), motor vehicle license requirements,
neighborhood protests regarding road widening or extensions, proposals to increase road user fees or gasoline taxes to
pay for maintenance and construction projects, the need for public transit services, or the debate over “sprawl” versus
“smart growth.” The enormity of transportation can be demonstrated by calculating the amount of land consumed for
transportation facilities, such as sidewalks, parking lots, roads, driveways, shoulders, and bike paths, which in some
cases can exceed 50 percent of the land area.
The examples cited suggest that transportation issues are largely perceived at local and state levels where people live.
Mayors and governors are elected based on their promises to improve transportation without (of course) raising taxes!
At the national level, transportation does not reach the “top 10” concerns, and transportation is rarely mentioned in a
presidential address or national debate. At this level, issues of defense, health care, immigration, voting rights, taxes,
and international relations take center stage. While most Americans probably know the name of the Secretary of State
or Defense, few could answer the question, “Who is the Secretary of Transportation?”

The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies periodically publishes a list of “critical issues” in
transportation which are posted on their Web site. Among the issues identified are: (1) congestion, (2) emergencies such
as terrorism and natural disasters, (3) energy and the environment, (4) older drivers, (5) vehicle safety and driver
behavior, and (6) relationships between national, state, and local governmental institutions. Each issue suggests the
importance of transportation and the priorities of concern to the transportation professional community.

The importance of transportation in the United States also can be illustrated by citing statistics that demonstrate its
national and worldwide influence. Extensive data are furnished by the Bureau of Transportation Statistics of the U.S.
Department of Transportation and posted on their Web site.

• Approximately 18 percent of U.S. household expenditure is related to transportation.

• Transportation accounts for about 28 percent of total energy consumption.

• Almost 100 percent of the energy utilized for propelling transport vehicles is derived from petroleum resources.

• Over 50 percent of all petroleum products consumed in the United States are for transportation purposes.

• Over 80 percent of eligible drivers are licensed to operate a motor vehicle.

• Each person in the Unites States travels an average of 12,000 miles each year.
• Over 10 percent of the work force is employed in a transportation-related activity.

• There are almost four million miles of paved roadway, of which 754,000 miles are used for intercity travel and 46,800
miles are interstate highways.

• There are approximately 140,300 miles of freight railroads, 5300 public use airports, 26,000 miles of navigable
channels, and 359,000 miles of oil and gas pipelines.

The Bureau of Transportation Statistics has also provided direct evidence of the economic importance of transportation
services with the following key findings as quoted from its Web site:

• Transportation services contributed about $313 billion (or 5 percent) of the value generated by the U.S. economy in
1992. This is roughly comparable to the value added by the wholesale/retail trade industry or the health industry and
more than the individual shares of the agriculture, mining, and computer industries.

• Trucking accounts for 65 percent of the total value added by transportation services. The biggest contributors are in-
house trucking, accounting for 38 percent, and for-hire trucking, accounting for 27 percent. The next largest contributors
are air transportation and railroads, accounting for 13 percent and 11 percent of the total value added of transportation
services, respectively.

• Transportation will continue to play a key role in the economy—even as it shifts from manufacturing to a focus on
services. The provision of services is the largest and fastest growing sector in the U.S. economy.

TRANSPORTATION HISTORY

The story of transportation in the United States has been the subject of many books that have covered a 300-year period
and include the development of many separate modes of transportation. Among the principal topics are travel by foot
and horseback, automobile and truck travel, development of roads and highways, the building of canals and inland
waterways, expansion of the West, construction of railroads, the use of public transportation (such as bus and metro
systems in cities), and the development of air transportation.

AN OVERVIEW OF U.S. TRANSPORTATION HISTORY

In its formative years, the United States was primarily rural, with a population of about four million in the late 1700s.
Only about 200,000 persons or 5 percent of the population lived in cities; the remainder inhabited rural areas and small
communities. That pattern remained until the early 1900s. During the twentieth century, the urban population
continued to increase such that at present over 75 percent of the U.S. population lives in urban or suburban areas. Large
cities have been declining in population, and increases have occurred in suburban and rural areas. These changes have a
significant impact on the need for highway transportation.

Early Road Building and Planning

During the eighteenth century, travel was by horseback or in animal-drawn vehicles on dirt roads. As the nation
expanded westward, roads were built to accommodate the settlers. In 1794, the Lancaster Turnpike, the first toll road,
was built to connect the Pennsylvania cities of Lancaster and Philadelphia. The nineteenth century brought further
expansion of U.S. territorial boundaries, and the population increased from three million to 76 million. Transportation
continued to expand with the nation. The remainder of the nineteenth century saw considerable activity, particularly in
canal and railroad building.

The Canal Boom

An era of canal construction began in the 1820s when the Erie Canal was completed in 1825 and other inland waterways
were constructed. Beginning in the 1830s, this efficient means of transporting goods was replaced by the railroads,
which were being developed at the same time. By 1840, the number of miles of canals and railroads was approximately
equal (3200 mi), but railroads, which could be constructed almost anywhere in this vast, undeveloped land at a much
lower cost, superseded canals as a form of intercity transportation. Thus, after a short-lived period of intense activity,
the era of canal construction came to an end.

The Railroad Era

The railroad was the emerging mode of transportation during the second half of the nineteenth century, as railway lines
were spanning the entire continent. Railroads dominated intercity passenger and freight transportation from the late
1800s to the early 1920s. Railroad passenger transportation enjoyed a resurgence during World War II but has steadily
declined since then, owing to the competitiveness of the automobile. Freight rail was consolidated and remains viable.
Railroad mileage reached its peak of about 265,000 miles by 1915.
Transportation in Cities

Each decade has seen continuous population growth within cities, and with it, the demand for improvements in urban
transportation systems has increased. City transportation began with horse-drawn carriages on city streets; these later
travelled on steel tracks. They were succeeded by cable cars, electric streetcars, underground electrified railroads, and
bus transportation. City travel by public transit has been replaced largely by the use of automobiles on urban highways,
although rail rapid transit and light rail systems have been built in many large and medium-sized cities since the 1970s.

The Automobile and Interstate Highways

The invention and development of the automobile created a revolution in transportation in the United States during the
twentieth century. No facet of American life has been untouched by this invention; the automobile (together with the
airplane) has changed the way we travel within and between cities. Only four automobiles were produced in 1895. By
1901, there were 8000 registered vehicles and by 1910, over 450,000 cars and trucks. Between 1900 and 1910, 50,000
miles of surfaced roads were constructed, but major highway-building programs did not begin in earnest until the late
1920s. By 1920, more people traveled by private automobile than by rail transportation. By 1930, 23 million passenger
cars and three million trucks were registered. In 1956, Congress authorized a 42,500-mile interstate highway network,
which is now completed.
The Birth of Aviation

Aviation was in its infancy at the beginning of the twentieth century with the Wright brothers’ first flight taking place in
1903. Both World Wars I and II were catalysts in the development of air transportation. The carrying of mail by air
provided a reason for government support of this new industry. Commercial airline passenger service began to grow,
and by the mid-1930s, coast-to-coast service was available. After World War II, the expansion of air transportation was
phenomenal. The technological breakthroughs that developed during the war (coupled with the training of pilots)
created a new industry that replaced both ocean-going steamships and passenger railroads. A summary of the historical
highlights of transportation development is shown in Table 1.1.