CE2214

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

LECTURE 9 Basic Units of Measure

COMPUTATION CONCEPTS • Biodegradable Micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3 )
Ideal Gas Law | At the same temperature and ◦ Measures of concentration
pressure, different kinds of gases have densities • Parts per million (ppm)
proportional to their molecular masses. ◦ Measures of concentration
𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚 ◦ Volume-to-volume ratio
1 𝑃𝑀
𝑁=
𝑠2 • Micron (μ) or micrometer (μm)
𝜌= ◦ Indicate particle size
𝑅 𝑇 𝑘𝑔 ⋅ 𝑚2
𝐽 =𝑁⋅𝑚 =
𝑠2 Changes in temperature and pressure do not change the ration of the
 = density of gas, kg/m 3 volume of pollutant gas to the volume of air that contains it.

P = absolute pressure, kPa Conversion of g/m3 to ppm

M = molecular mass, g/mol The conversion of g/m3 and ppm is based on STP
𝑱
R = Universal gas constant = 8.3143
𝒎𝒐𝒍⋅𝑲 The equation that converts the mass of the pollutant
T = absolute temperature, K Mp in grams to its equivalent volume Vp in liters at
➢ 𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15
standard temperature and pressure (STP) is:
5
➢ ℉ 𝑡𝑜 ℃ = (℉ − 32) ×
9 𝑀𝑝
𝑉𝑃 = × 22.414 𝐿
𝐺𝑀𝑊
◦ General Formula
𝑛𝑅𝑇 GMW = gram molecular weight of the pollutant.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ; 𝑃 = 𝑉
For reading made at temperature and pressure
◦ STP – Standard Temperature and Pressure other than STP, the standard volume, 22.414L, must be
Condition corrected.
◦ T = 273.15 ⁰K
◦ P = 101.325 kPa Using the ideal gas law to make the corrections,
◦ n = 1 mole of gas
◦ V = 22.414 L 𝑃𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑃2 𝑉2
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure | Total pressure by a
=
𝑇𝑠 𝑇2
mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures
that each type of gas would exert if it alone occupied the
container. 𝑇3 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 +… 𝑉2 = 22.414 𝐿 × ×
273.15 𝐾 𝑃𝑠
𝑛1 𝑅𝑇 𝑛2 𝑅𝑇 𝑛3 𝑅𝑇 T2 and P2 = absolute temperature and absolute pressure at which the readings are made.
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑉
+ 𝑉
+ 𝑉
+…
𝑀𝑝 𝑇2 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑅𝑇 𝑉𝑃 = × 22.414 𝐿 × ×
𝑃𝑡 = (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + 𝑛3 + ⋯ ) 𝐺𝑀𝑊 273.15 °𝐾 𝑃2
𝑉
Vp = volume of pollutant when not in standard temperature and pressure (STP).
Pt = Total Pressure of the Mixture

P1, P2, P3 = Partial Pressure

ppm can be rewritten as (volume-to-volume ratio): Given:
Oxygen = 8.583 moles /m3
𝑉𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = Nitrogen = 15.93 moles/m3
𝑉𝑎
STP Condition:
Va = volume of air at temperature and pressure of the reading
Vp = volume of pollutant ◦
T = 273.15 ⁰K
◦
P = 101.325 kPa
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
◦
n = 1 mole of gas
Problem 1
◦
V = 22.414 L
What is the density of oxygen gas (O2) in kg/m3 at a
Required: Partial Pressure of Oxygen and Nitrogen
temperature of 273.0 ⁰K and at pressure of 98.0 kPa? (R =
𝐽
8.3143 ) Solution:
𝑚𝑜𝑙⋅𝐾
Given: Solving for the Partial Pressure of Oxygen
T = 273 K 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐽
(8.583 ) ( 8.3143 ) (273.15 °𝐾)
P = 98 kPa 𝑃𝑂 = 𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ⋅ 𝐾
1𝑚 3

Required: Density of oxygen gas 𝐽 𝑁⋅𝑚

𝑃𝑂 = 19 492.431 × = 𝟏𝟗 𝟒𝟗𝟐. 𝟒𝟑𝟏 𝑷𝒂
𝑚3 𝑚3
Solution:
1 mole of oxygen is 16 g, so the molar mass of Solving for the Partial Pressure of Nitrogen
O2 = 2(16 g) = 32 g 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐽
(15.93 ) ( 8.3143 ) (273.15 °𝐾)
𝑃𝑁 = 𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ⋅ 𝐾
1𝑚 3
𝑘𝑔⋅𝑚
Convert g to kg (since 𝑁 = )
𝑠2 𝐽 𝑁⋅𝑚
𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑃𝑁 = 36177.843 × = 𝟑𝟔𝟏𝟕𝟕. 𝟖𝟒𝟑 𝑷𝒂
32 × = 0.032 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000 𝑔
Convert kPa to Pa Solving for the Total Pressure
𝑘𝑁 1000 𝑁 𝑁
98 × = 98 000 1𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚2 1 𝑘𝑁 𝑚2
𝑃𝑡 = (19 492.431 + 36177.843 )𝑃𝑎 ×
Solve for the Density 1000 𝑃𝑎

1 𝑃𝑀 𝑷𝒕 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟔𝟕𝟎 𝒌𝑷𝒂

𝜌=
𝑅 𝑇
Problem 3
𝑁
1 (98 000 ) × (0.032 𝑘𝑔) A 1.0 m3 sample of air was found to contain 80𝜇g/m3 of SO2.
𝜌= [ 𝑚2 ]
𝐽 273 𝐾 The temperature and pressure were 25C and 103.193 kPa
8.3143
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ⋅ 𝐾
when the air sample was taken. What was the SO2
𝒌𝒈 concentration in ppm?
𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖𝟐
𝒎𝟑

Given:
SO2 = 80𝜇g/m3
Problem 2
A sample of air contains 8.583 moles /m3 of oxygen and 15.93 T = 25C
moles/m3 of nitrogen at standard temperature and pressure P = 103.193 kPa
(STP). Determine the partial pressures of oxygen and nitrogen Required: SO2 concentration in ppm
in 1 m3 of the air.
Solution:
Solve for the GMW of SO2
GMW for S = 32.064
O = 32.00
GMW = 32.064 + 32 = 64.064 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 ◦ Cold air then pushes under the warmer air rising from the
valley, creating the inversion
Solve for ppm ◦ Normal or Thermal Lapse Rate | as temperature
80 25 + 273.15 101.325 decreases, the altitude increases
(22.414)( )( )
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 64.064 273.15 103.193
𝐿
1𝑚3 (1000 3 ) Smog | Mix of smoke and fog. It is an effect of temperature
𝑚
inversion where warm air forms a layer over cold air.
𝒑𝒑𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑
Composition of Atmosphere
NOTE: (from lecture 4)
𝑔𝑚 𝜇𝑔
𝜇𝑔 1𝑚3 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ( ) ∙ 106
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑔
= × If the volume ratio
𝑚3 106 𝑚3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚3
22.4 × 10−3 of nitrogen and
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
carbon dioxide is
AIR POLLUTION more than what is
Occurrence of Air Pollution indicated in the
Shanghai, China (2004) | table, meron nang
People in China wear masks air pollution
even without pandemic due to
severe air pollution
Sources of Air Pollution
Donora Smog in Natural Sources | Natural processes that create air
Pennsylvania (1948) | pollution
Caused by a factory that melted • Dust blown by wind
zinc
• Pollutants from wildfires and volcanoes
• Volatile organics released by plants
Santiago, Chile |
• Withdrawing groundwater
Photochemical smog; visible in
Human Sources | mostly in industrialized and/or
higher ground elevation
urban areas
• Stationary sources
◦ Manufacturing plant
• Mobile source
Air Pollution and Meteorology ◦ Vehicles and automobiles (75% of the pollution)
Meteorology | science of the atmosphere ◦ Tires | component of automobiles that
◦ Atmospheric processes (through wind and exchange of also causes air pollution
heat) dictate the fate of the pollutant • Areal source
◦ Pollutants go through Transport, Dispersion, and ◦ Unpaved roads (alikabok na galing don)
Transformation stages ◦ Industrial Park in one compound
Air Pollution Meteorology | the study of how these
atmospheric processes affect the fate of the Pollutants in the Atmosphere
pollutants Primary Pollutants | emitted directly from the source such
◦ Sunset looks better due to air pollution as manufacturing plants or vehicles
Temperature Inversion | Deviation from normal Secondary Pollutants | When the air pollutants that
change of an atmospheric property; Refers to an come from the manufacturing plants mix with the air from
inversion of the thermal lapse rate the atmosphere
◦ Occur most often when a warm, less dense air mass
moves over a dense, cold air mass.
Major Air Pollutants Effects of Air Pollution
*mentioned in lecture Health Effects
Soot | finer timber (part of
Short Term Effects Long Term Effects
the production of timber)
• Headache • Central Nervous System
Fly ash | like pulverized
• Coughing Diseases
charcoal (abo) • Pneumonia (could be • Cardiovascular Diseases
H2S – Hydrogen Sulfide | long term) • Respiratory Diseases
colorless gas known for its • Bronchitis (could be • Impacts on Liver
pungent “rotten egg” smell long term) • Impacts on
CO – Carbon Monoxide | • Skin irritation Reproductive System
harmful when inhaled Environmental Effects
because it replaces the
• Acid Rain | The precipitate has an elevated levels
oxygen in the body
of hydrogen ions (low pH). The normal pH level of
water ranges from 6.5 to 8.5. When there is an acid rain,
Some Gaseous Air Pollutants
the average pH level ranges from 4-5.
• Ozone Layer Depletion | It is the gradual
thinning of the ozone layer
• Global Warming | gradual increase in the overall
temperature of the Earth. It is caused by the
increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other
pollutants.

Other Sources of Air Pollution

Radon | commonly present

in basements

ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION
Factor Affecting Dispersion of Air Pollutants
Source Characteristics | describes the movement of the
effluent discharge from the stack
◦ Most industrial effluents are discharged vertically into the
open air through a stack or duct
◦ As the contaminated gas stream leaves the discharge point,
the plume tends to expand and mix with ambient air
◦ Horizontal air movement will tend to bend the discharge
plume toward the downwind direction
◦ While the effluent plume is rising, bending, and beginning
to move in a horizontal direction, the gaseous effluents are
being diluted by the ambient air surrounding the plume
 Downward Distance | distance from the point of Powerplant Plumes
discharge to the ground
◦The greater the distance between the point of discharge
and a ground level receptor downwind, the greater the
volume of air available for diluting the contaminant
discharge before it reaches the receptor.
Wind Speed and Direction | determines the direction
in which, the contaminated gas stream will move across
local terrain. ◦ mas maganda ‘pag mataas ang smoke stack kasi
◦ The greater the distance between the point of discharge makakapag-disperse nang maayos ‘yong smoke
and a ground level receptor downwind, the greater the ◦ the smoke emitted must be a light color (bad indication if
volume of air available for diluting the contaminant
the smoke is dark)
discharge before it reaches the receptor.
◦ An increase in wind speed will decrease the plume rise by
bending the plume over more rapidly.
◦ The decrease in plume rise tends to increase the
pollutant’s ground level concentration.
◦ An increase in wind velocity will increase the rate of
dilution of the effluent plume, tending to lower the
downwind concentrations.
Stability | turbulence in the velocity of the atmosphere
◦ The turbulence of the atmosphere follows no other factor
in power of dilution.
◦ The more unstable the atmosphere, the greater the
diluting power.
◦ Inversions that are not ground based, but begin at some
height above the stack exit, act as a lid to restrict vertical
dilution.

Dispersion Modeling
Dispersion Model | mathematical description of the
meteorological transport and dispersion process that
is quantified in terms of source and meteorological parameters AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION
during a particular time. Ways to Mitigate Air Pollution
◦ Resultant Numerical Calculations | yield Renewable Fuel and Clean Energy | most basic solution
estimates of concentrations of the particular for air pollution is to move away from fossil fuels,
pollutant for specific locations and times. replacing them with alternative energies like solar,
◦ Meteorological Parameters | required for use of the
wind and geothermal.
models include wind direction, wind speed, and
◦ Wind Turbines (Rizal, Ilocos Norte, Guimaras)
atmospheric stability.
◦ Solar Power
◦ In some models, provisions may be made for including lapse
Energy Conservation Efficiency | most basic solution for
rate and vertical mixing height.
◦ Most models will require data about the physical stack air pollution is to move away from fossil fuels, replacing
height, the diameter of the stack at the emission point, the them with alternative energies like solar, wind and
exit gas temperature and velocity, and the mass rate of geothermal.
emission of pollutants. ◦ Wind Turbines (Rizal, Ilocos Norte, Guimaras)
◦ Solar Power
 Eco-friendly Transportation | Shifting to electric Air Pollution Control of Mobile Sources
vehicles, hydrogen vehicles and promoting shared • Positive crankcase ventilation valves | To direct
mobility (i.e. carpooling, and public transports) crankcase blowby emissions into the engine
◦ Carpooling • Charcoal Canister | Sequester volatile
◦ Public transports hydrocarbons for later burning in the engine
Green Building | From planning to demolition, green building • Exhaust gas recirculation valves | reduce NOx
aims to create environmentally responsible and formation during fuel combustion
resource-efficient structures to reduce carbon footprint. • Catalytic Converters | designed to oxidize partially
◦ Rainwater harvesting combusted hydrocarbons and CO to CO2
◦ Reusing local materials ◦ walang catalytic converters ‘yong mga tricycles sa
◦ Taking advantage of natural lighting Philippines kaya isa ito sa mga main contributors ng
air pollution
Air Pollution Control of Stationary Sources
Different Types of Engines
Settling Chamber | Uses the force of gravity to
Gasoline Engine | One kg of gasoline can burn completely
remove solid particles. The large particles settle and
when mixed with about 15 kg of air (1:15 ratio of
recollect at the dust hoppers.
◦ Particle Size | remove large particles from air gasoline to fuel). However, for maximum power, the
(>10 µm). proportion of air to fuel must be less.
◦ Note | Not good for sticky pollutants because ◦ When combustion is incomplete, and substantial
it will stick to the walls of the chamber. amounts of material other than carbon dioxide and
Electrostatic Precipitators | The precipitators water are discharged.
electrostatically charge the air particles in the gas stream. ◦ One result of having an inadequate supply of air is
the emission of carbon monoxide instead of carbon
The charged particles are attracted to the plates.
dioxide. Other by-products are unburned gasoline
When the plates have accumulated enough particles (can
and hydrocarbons.
either be wet or dry), the plates are shaken off by
Diesel Engine | A diesel normally operates at a higher
mechanical rappers to fall into a hopper (at the
air-to-fuel ratio than does a gasoline engine.
bottom of a unit). ◦ The fuel is injected directly to the combustion
◦ Can tolerate an operating temperature of 700 ⁰K chamber, so no carburetor is required. The power
◦ Particle Size | Efficient in removing small output is changed by the rate of fuel injection.
particles (>0.01 µm) ◦ There is no spark ignition system. The air is heated by
◦ Note | can be utilized for dry and wet particles compression. That is, the air in the engine cylinder is
Inertial Separator or Cyclone | Works like a centrifuge squeezed until it exerts a pressure high enough to
(outward circular path) with continuous air flow raise the air temperature to about 540 ⁰C, which is
inside. The particles stick to the walls then fall at the enough to ignite the fuel oil as it is injected into the
cylinder.
bottom of the vessel
◦ A well-designed, well-maintained, and properly
◦ Particle Size | remove large particles from air
adjusted diesel engine will emit less CO and
Bag house and Filter | The air passes through fabric
hydrocarbons
filters or bag houses to remove dust or respirable ◦ Higher operating temperatures lead to substantially
particles from a gas stream higher NOx emissions
◦ Particle Size | Efficient in removing fine
particles (>0.01 µm diameter)
CLEAN AIR ACT Methods of Waste Disposal and Management
Republic Act No. 8749 | comprehensive air quality management • Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable | Basic form of
policy and program which aims to achieve and maintain waste disposal and management; Widely used in the Philippines
healthy air for all Filipinos. • Paper, Plastic, Metal, Glass, Food, and Others | Proper
segregation of solid wastes; Done if you are serious in
Prohibited Acts (Mentioned in the quiz) managing solid waste
Incineration | defined as the burning of municipal,
bio-medical and hazardous wastes, which process Health Impacts of Solid Waste
emits toxic and poisonous fumes is prohibited. • Negative Impacts to Human Health | Due to exposure to
Open Burning | No person shall be allowed to burn any hazardous waste. Incinerators are the best way to treat
materials in any quantities which shall cause hazardous wastes
the emission of toxic and poisonous fumes. • Air Pollution | Due to improperly operated incineration plants
Smoking | Implement or enforce a ban on smoking • Spreading of Diseases | Due to improperly managed and
inside a public building or an enclosed public designed landfills, which can attract all types of insects and
place including public vehicles and other means of rodents
transport or in any enclosed area outside of one's private • Chronic Diseases | Due to direct handling of solid waste
residence, private place of work or any duly designated
smoking area which shall be enclosed. HIERARCHY OF WASTE MINIMIZATION
1. Prevention (Ideal) | Avoid consumption/use
2. Minimization | Limit consumption/use
LECTURE 10 3. Reuse | Does not alter physical attributes of materials (reuse of
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT containers, soda bottle plant pots)
Characteristics of Solid Waste 4. Recycle | Alter physical attributes and repurposes the
Point of Origin | Domestic, Institutional, Commercial, materials (chair out of plastic bottles)
Industrial, Street, Demolition or Construction 5. Energy Recovery | Production of energy out of the waste
Nature of Material | Organic, Inorganic, Combustible, (combustion, gasification, etc.)
Non-combustible, Putrescible, Non-Putrescible 6. Disposal | Doing nothing
Kinds of Material
• Garbage | Food Wastes; Biodegradable waste that has
PROCESS CARRIED OUT DURING SOLID WASTE
moisture content
MANAGEMENT
• Rubbish | Consists of both combustible and non-
1. Waste Collection | Collection and storage of solid waste
combustible solid wastes, but does not include garbage for transportation to a disposal or treatment site.
• Trash | Component of rubbish which consists of ◦ No treatment done yet
combustible materials such as paper, rags, cartons, boxes, 2. Segregation | Sorting and separation of waste types into
woods, furniture, tree branches, and yard trimmings degradable and non-degradable waste to facilitate recycling and
• Non-Combustible | Cannot be burned at ordinary proper onward disposal
incinerator temperatures of 700 – 1000 oC. In the meantime, ◦Tin cans are recycled, or biodegradable wastes are
incinerators are banned in the Philippines. composted, etc.
3. Recycling/Reusing | Repurposing an item into raw
ISWM - Integrated Solid Waste Management material to be used again, usually a completely new product
1. Source Reduction (targets point of generation) ◦ Tin and scrap material may be smelted to reform cans
2. Recycling ◦ Paper may be broken down to recreate paper products
3. Waste Combustion 4. Shredding/Pulverizing | Reducing the size of the solid
4. Landfilling waste, resulting in a uniform mass of material.
 ◦
Shredded and pulverized can be disposed of, or reused WASTE SEGREGATION
directly; glass smelted to form glass, materials for Material Recovery Facility & Transfer Station
composting, etc. MRF - Material Recovery Facility | Specialized plant
5. Composting/Decomposing | Process wherein organic that Recycles, Reuses, and Segregates recyclable
wastes is broken down by microorganisms into simpler materials for marketing to consumers
forms, which may be used to enrich soils ◦ Sec. 32 of RA 9003 (Ecological Solid Waste
Management Act of 2000) states that material recovery
WASTE COLLECTION facilities shall be established in every barangay
Transfer Station | A processing site for the temporary
Collection Methods
storage, unification, and gathering of waste. This allows
Curbside or Alley Pickup | Most Common, quickest,
greater quantities to be carried at once to the final
and economical; Household set their waste containers by the
disposal sites
curbside. Collectors empty the containers into the collection
vehicle.
RECYCLING / REUSING
Set-Out, Set-Back Collection | A collector group enters the
Recycling | altering the physical properties of a material to
property to collect waste, and another group returns the bins
create an entirely different object (chairs from PET bottles)
◦ Set-Out Crew | Carries full containers from
Reusing | Reusing the material for its intended purpose
residential storage location to curb before collection
vehicle arrives (water containers)
◦ Collection Crew | Loads refuse to vehicle
◦ Set-Back Crew | Returns empty cans to residences SHREDDING OR PULVERIZING
Backyard Pickup | Similar to “Set-Out, Set-Back Collection”, Benefits
but makes use of tote barrels to collect from multiple • Reduces overall volume by 40%
houses at once. Removes the need for Set-Back crew • Increases surface area availability for decomposition
• Facilitates easy handling of moisture content and aeration
Truck Routing Method
Daily Route Method | Simplest and most common method; COMPOSTING / DECOMPOSING
Crew has a definite route that must be finished before Composting | Process that converts organic materials into a
going home. compost through natural decomposition, resulting in a dark
◦ Homeowner knows when waste will be picked up. Route organic matter in soil called Humus
sizes can be adjusted to maximize crew and truck utilization Decomposing | General process of rotting; process by which
◦
Crew must work overtime if not finished. Resulting dead organic substances are broken into simpler organic and
additional expenses and tendency for crew to rush the job
inorganic matter
Large Route Method | Crew has a route that must be
completed in a week
Variations and Techniques
◦ Crew picks a time anytime within the week
Aerobic Composting | Decomposition of organic matter
◦ Only good for backyard pickup since pickup time is not set
using microorganisms that require oxygen
Single Load Method | Routes are planned to get a full truck
Vermicomposting | A natural process wherein
load. Each crew is assigned as many loads as it can collect
bacteria and earthworms are added and used to
per day
convert waste material with rigid structures into compost
◦ Planned routes minimize and optimize travel time
Pyrolysis | Chemical decomposition of organic
◦ Number of homes serviced before truck is filled is indefinite
Definite Working Day Method | Crew has assigned
materials by heating in the absence of oxygen or other
number of hours and quits
reagents, except possibly steam, only leaving carbon as
◦ Regularity is sacrificed. Residence has little idea when residue
pickup will occur
DUMPING AND DISPOSAL 4. Pipes are installed to collect and ventilate the methane
gas generated, which may also be used to generate
electricity
5. Once the landfill’s height exceeds its initial height and the
presence of methane gas is controlled, the land may be
repurposed

Sanitary Landfill | Carefully engineered depression in

the ground or built on top of the ground, wherein only
residual waste. Commonly created in high altitude areas (far
from municipalities) and avoiding flood. Notable parts of a
sanitary landfill include:
◦ Impermeable Barriers | Component that
prevents the escape of leachates (landfill juice) Bathtub Effect | Occurs when a more permeable cover is
◦ Landfill Liners | Prevents leachate placed over a less permeable bottom liner that then fills
migration into subsoil, and groundwater up like a bathtub. This increases the potential for generation
pollution often made of geomembrane and of leachate
geosynthetic clay liner (often fractured and cracked)
◦ Perforated Pipes | Holed pipes; added to collect Life Cycle of a Sanitary Landfill
waste extracts 1. Pre-Construction Stage | Involves surveys and
studies of the project area. Will also involve minor
Sanitary Landfill Design land clearance for land
2. Construction / Development Stage | The phase
wherein the landfill is being constructed. Includes site
clearing, use of heavy machineries, etc.
3. Operation Stage | This is the timeframe wherein the
landfill is in use
4. Post-Operation Stage | Refers to its final use in
1. Landfill is filled with the residual waste of the day
terms of deposited waste
2. By the end of the day, it is covered with a soil cover
5. Abandonment Stage | Occurs when the project does
(vegetation or crops residues)
not materialize as planned and is thus, abandoned.
3. The process allows the stacking of layers and is repeated
Gives the worst impact, posing the risk of direct
until the landfill is completely full. Upon filling, a thicker
contamination of environment, discharge of liquid waste,
soil cover layer is added to close it off
and direct impact in geomorphological features.

Payatas Dumpsite
• Payatas Tragedy/Landslide was a garbage disaster
that occurred on July 10, 2000
• The slope of accumulated garbage caused a large pile to
collapse and set to flame
• In 2004, the Payatas dumpsite was reconfigured as a • Monitors implementation of SWMP in cooperation with the
Controlled Disposal Facility, but was closed in private sector and NGOs
December 2010 • Recommends measures for preservation of ecosystem
• Suggests ways for the collection, transfer, storage,
HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL processing, recycling, or disposal of solid wastes (franchises
Hazardous Waste | A type of solid waste that contains or Build-Operate-Transfer agreements)
elements that may be dangerous to living things and SWMP - Solid Waste Management Plan | Includes
environment. These are characterized by its Toxicity, strategies and actions for reducing and managing all
Ignitability, and Corrosivity streams of solid waste. These include the following:
◦ Includes wastes used in Hospitals, X-ray rooms, etc. ◦ Waste Characterization | Categorized between
◦ A separate landfill for Hazardous waste is compostable, recyclable, non-recyclable, and special
recommended wastes
◦ Although banned, the use of incinerators in treating ◦ Proper Waste Collection and Transfer
Hazardous wastes is ideal ◦ Waste Processing
◦ Various accidents caused by hazardous wastes ◦ Waste Reduction at Source | Methods by which
include: Bhopal Incident, Payatas Tragedy, and Beirut LGUs can reduce enough waste within five
Explosion years, diverting at least 25% of solid waste to
recycling.
Types of Hazardous Wastes: ◦ Recycling | Involves the Department of Trade and
Radioactive Waste | A type of Hazardous Waste Industry as the market for recyclable materials,
and Department of Natural Environment and Natural
containing radioactive materials. Such as those found in
Resources which publishes all solid waste
Some of its categories include the following:
disposal facilities nationwide
◦ Low-Level Waste | Makes up 90% of all radioactive
◦ Source for Final Waste Disposal | The
wastes. Waste that has contacted with radioactive
Department of Agriculture shall publish an inventory
materials.
of existing markets and demands for
◦ High-Level Waste | Involves things related to Nuclear;
composts, updated annually
Includes used nuclear fuel from nuclear reactors and waste
generated from the reprocessing of nuclear fuel.
Medical or Biomedical Waste | Waste matter produced Other Trends in the Field of Waste Management

from health-related practice such as hospitals, laboratory, • Establishment of Material Recovery Facility (MRF) in
and dentist. Can transmit diseases such as: COVID-19, HIV, Barangay and City level
and Hepatitis B • Composting of biodegradable waste as organic fertilizer
◦ Infectious Waste | Biohazardous or biomedical waste • Innovative way of recycling non-biodegradable waste
that can cause infectious disease. Includes items • Innovative way of collecting segregated waste using dump
contaminated with blood, saliva, body substances, or trucks, tricycles, and pedicabs
those infected with pathogenic material • Construction of Sanitary Landfill

PHILIPPINES RECENT TRENDS IN THE FIELD Implementation Challenges Encountered

OF WASTE MANAGEMENT ◦ Cannot be effectively addressed by most LGUs alone
RA 9003 Ecological Solid Waste Management Act ◦ Not fully implemented, accepted, and institutionalized
• Enacted to provide a framework for managing the problem of by the people and institutions
solid waste in the country ◦ Only 2% of the cities nationwide has established a
• Gives prime importance to the roles of LGUs in managing their Sanitary Landfill due to lack of funds
respective solid wastes
SWMB - Solid Waste Management Board
• Prepares Solid Waste Management Plan (SWMP)
LECTURE 11 ERA - Environmental Risk Assessment
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AND EIA ◦ Process of evaluating how likely an environment may be
EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment | The process of impacted due to exposure to stressors
evaluating and predicting the likely impacts of a project on the EIARC - EIA Review Committee
◦ Composed of experts that reviews the submitted EIS
environment during construction, commissioning, operation, and
EMP - Environmental Management Plan
abandonment
◦ Plan within the EIS to ensure the project is implemented in
◦ The EIA process is implemented by the Department of
an environmentally suitable manner
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) and
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) EGF - Environmental Guarantee Fund
◦ Fund that proponent shall set used for the immediate clean-
EIS – Environmental Impact Statement | The
up or rehabilitation of areas affected by damages in the
documentation of findings passed to the Environmental
environment
Management Bureau (EMB), which is assessed to provide you an
DENR - Department of Environment and Natural
Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC)
Resources
◦ PD 1586 – Establishing of PEISS | Established
◦ Executive management responsible for governing and
the Philippine EIS System (PEISS), including
supervising the development, utilization, and conservation
other Environmental Management Related Measures.
of the country’s natural resources
States that an ECC is required before operating
EMB - Environmental Management Bureau
an ECP or in an ECA
◦ Formulates plans, programs, and standards for the
ECC – Environmental Compliance Certificate | The permit
protection of the environment
to allow construction or operation of an Environmentally
RED - Regional Executive Director
Critical Project (ECP) or locate in an Environmentally Critical Area ◦ Person responsible for directing and managing activities,
(ECA) policy development, and implementation
CNC – Certificate of Non-Coverage | Similar to an ECC, it is
certification issued by the EMB certifying that the project is not Background (EIA Laws)
covered by the EIS System and is not required to secure • PD 1151 (1977) | Philippine Environmental Policy
an ECC. • PD 1586 (1978) | Establishment of PEISS within the then
National Environmental Protection Council (NEPC) as the lead
General Process: agency
EIA → EIS → ECC / CNC → Development of Project • Administrative Order 42 (2002) | Rationalizing the
implementation of the PEISS giving authority to DENR
Commonly Used Acronyms Secretary, EMB Central, and Regional Office Directors to grant
PEISS - Philippine Environmental Impact Statement or deny issuance of ECCs
EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment • DENR Administrative Order (DAO) 96-37 | Highlights
◦ Action / Assessment importance of public participation and social
EIS - Environmental Impact Statement acceptability in environmental review process
◦ Documentation of assessment
• PD 2146 (1981) | Proclaims certain areas and types of
ECP - Environmentally Critical Project
projects as environmentally critical and within the scope
◦ Project poses risk to environment
of the PEISS
ECA - Environmentally Critical Area
◦ Has significant environmental value
IEE - Initial Environmental Examination PROJECTS OF THE PHILIPPINE EIS SYSTEM
◦ Preliminary review of effects on environment Categorization of Projects (ECPs and ECAs)
ECC - Environmental Compliance Certificate Category A | Projects classified under ECP under PD
◦ Permit to operate ECP or in an ECA 2146 (1981), PD 803 (1996), and other projects that may later be
CNC – Certificate of Non-Coverage declared as such by the President of the Philippines. These are
◦ Certifies that the project is not required to secure an ECC categorized as:
 i. Heavy Industries | Produces large and heavy ix. Recharged Areas of Aquifers | Sources of water
products, uses heavy equipment and large facilities replenishments
that has complex processes x. Water Bodies | All natural water bodies that
- Non-ferrous Metal - Petroleum & Petro- have been classified
Industries chemical Industries xi. Mangrove Areas | Areas mapped or identified by
- Iron and Steel Mills - Smelting Plants DENR
ii. Resource Extractive Industries | Firms that take xii. Coral Reefs | Also as mapped or identified by DENR
raw material including coal, oil, timber, and other Category C | Projects not classified under Category A and B
materials from the earth but aim to directly improve the environment’s quality
- Mining and - Dikes for/and
and addresses existing environmental problems .
Quarrying Projects Fishpond
Development Examples include:
- Forestry Projects
Projects ◦
Breakwater or Wave ◦ Manila Bay
iii. Infrastructure Projects | Focuses on creation and Barrier Rehabilitation
management of facilities, services, and systems ◦ Sewage Treatment Plant ◦ Vertical Forest
Category D | Projects that does not have substantial
- Dams - Reclamation Projects
- Power Plants - Roads and Bridges negative influence in the environment. Examples
iv. Golf Course Projects | All Golf Course regardless Include:
of size are under Category A. Aside from the series of ◦ Individual Residential ◦ Commercial Buildings or
holes, the type of grass, sewage systems, disposal Houses Structures
facilities, and artificial lakes may alter the ◦ Importation or Purchase ◦ Pedestrian Overpass
environment. Declared by PD 803 (1996) of Equipment (shall be ◦ Garment Manufacturing
subject to applicable (only involves spinning,
permit and requirement) cutting, and sewing)
Category B | Projects not classified under Category A but is
considered to have significant effect in the Categories A and B | requires an Environmental
environment and is under ECA. These are categorized as: Compliance Certificate (ECC)
i. National parks, Watershed reserves, Wildlife
Categories C and D | only requires a Certificate of Non-
preserves, and Sanctuaries | Areas declared
Coverage (CNC) and does not require a full-blown EIA
under RA 7586 (National Integrated Protection
Area System)
ii. Aesthetic Potential Tourist Spots | Declared
and discerned by the LGU, DOT, or other appropriate LECTURE 12
authorities for Tourism Development STAGES OF THE PHILIPPINE EIA PROCESS
iii. Habitat for any Endangered or Threatened
Species of Indigenous Philippine Wildlife | 1. Screening
Areas declared as local conservation areas or
identified as key biodiversity areas
2. Scoping
iv. Historical, Archeological, or Scientific
Interests | Areas declared as historic site under
3. EIA Study
RA 10066 (National Cultural Heritage Act), or areas and Report
proclaimed by the National Museum Preparation

v. Cultural communities or Tribes | Areas

4. EIA Report
historically occupied as Ancestral Lands by Review Evaluation
Indigenous Communities
vi. Calamity-Prone Areas | Geologic hazard, flood, 5. Decision
Making
typhoons, volcanic activity, etc.
vii. Critical Slopes | Areas with slope of 50% or more 6. Monitoring,
Validation, and
viii. Prime Agriculture Lands | Areas for Evaluation/Audit
agricultural development and use
SCREENING Objectives of Scoping
Screening | Who, What, & Why plus baseline conditions; the • To enhance the environmental benefits
first stage of the EIA process which results in a key EIA decision, • To ensure compliance with relevant local legislation
namely to either conduct the assessment (based on the • To consider alternatives to the proposal that should be
examined
likely significant impacts) or not conduct it (in the
• To identify any significant adverse environmental effects
anticipated absence of such impacts).
and identify action
◦ If a project is covered by the PEISS, screening further
• To provide for public consultation and input to the
determines what document type the project
identification of issues to be examined.
should prepare to secure the needed approval,
• To define the data needs and field survey activities. To
and what the rest of the requirements are in terms
determine the predictive techniques
of EMB office of application, endorsing and
decision authorities, duration of processing. Process of Scoping
◦ Screening is a decision-making process that is 1. Prepare a scoping outline.
initiated during the early stages of the development of a 2. Develop the outline through informal consultation
proposal. with environmental and health authorities.
3. Make the outline available.
EIA Report Types: 4. Compile an extensive list of concerns.
EIS - Environmental Impact Statement | A full- 5. Evaluate relevant concerns to establish key issues.
blown study that establishes detailed baseline 6. Organize key issues into impact categories.
characteristics of the land, air, water, biota and people 7. Amend the outline accordingly.
in the host site and vicinities of a proposed project. 8. Develop “Terms of Reference” (ToR) for impact
EPRMP - Environmental Performance Report and analysis.
Management Plan | Is normally required if projects 9. Monitor progress against the ToR and revise if
are existing and intend to expand. report focusing on necessary.
its environmental performance over the past 3 to 5 years of
Baseline Conditions and Potential Impacts
operation.
MEDIA EXAMPLE ISSUE TO CONSIDER
◦ Impacts of the expansion on the existing environmental
management plan are assessed and the necessary
Water - Quality
mitigating measures incorporated. - Quantity
IEE - Initial Environmental Examination | is an - Use
abbreviated EIS in that only general descriptions of - Accessibility
Soil - Pristine vs degraded
the environment are required.
- Infiltration and surface sealing (run-off
and flooding)
SCOPING
Flora/Fauna - Populations
Scoping | Who, What and Why; is a critical step in the
- Communities
preparation of an EIA, as it identifies the issues that are
- Habitats
likely to be of most importance during the EIA and - Functions
eliminates those that are of little concern. Air - Dust (including during construction)
◦ Systematic exercise that establishes the boundaries - Noise
of your EIA and sets the basis of the analyses you will
Built - Impacts to transport networks
conduct at each stage.
environment - buildings
◦ A quality scoping study reduces the risk of including
inappropriate components or excluding components
that should be addressed.
◦ Lays the foundation of an effective process, saves
time, and money and reduces conflict.
Impact Analysis EIA STUDY AND REPORT PREPARATION
Type Biophysical, social, health or economic EIA Study and Report Preparation
Nature Direct or indirect, cumulative, etc. Impact Assessment | Refers to the detailed
Magnitude High, moderate, low evaluation of the environmental and social
or Severity impacts of the planned project and identified
Extent Local, regional, transboundary, or global
alternatives
Timing Immediate/long term
◦ Qualitative descriptions | measuring high,
Duration Temporary/permanent
medium and low impacts
Uncertainty Low likelihood/high probability
◦ Quantitative descriptions | indicating the cubic
Reversibility Reversible/irreversible
meters of water withdrawn, sewage produced, and
Significance Unimportant/important
pollutants released
◦ This is done for the planned project as well as
Framework for Impact Mitigation the identified alternatives, allowing for
comparisons of these alternative for their impacts
on the local and regional environmental, and
socioeconomic and cultural characteristics.
◦ Once the detailed assessment is complete, mitigation
measures to reduce or avoid impacts are identified.
Mitigation Actions | These actions aim to prevent
adverse impacts from the planned project on the
environment and people, making sure that those that
are unavoidable are maintained within acceptable levels.
◦ Focus on incorporating mitigation measures
During the scoping phase the focus is on the
into the project design (and the alternatives) as
following list of activities (World Bank, 2010)
well as on providing guidance for the
Initial Announcement | posting scoping process in monitoring of the impacts during the whole
local or national newspapers. duration of the project
◦ Posting notices announcing the scoping process at the
site, in the neighboring area and at the offices of local
Key Contributions of Impact Assessment and
authorities.
Mitigation to a Good EIA
Leaflet or Brochure | Brief details of what is proposed
• Provides a clear and itemized list of relevant
with a plan or map, describing the EIA process and
impacts on the environment and people, including
the purpose of scoping, and inviting comments.
cumulative effects, social impacts, and health risks.
Letters or Questionnaires | Distributed to potentially
• Outlines any cumulative effects, bringing together
interested organizations.
identified impacts on environment, society, and health.
• Based on the results of the impact assessment, it lists the
For Publicity
adverse effects of proposed actions; a detailed list
• Telephone discussions or meetings with key organizations,
of mitigation actions is identified.
groups, or individuals.
• Public meetings (it may be helpful to invite an independent
Mitigation measures | Response to the findings of
person to chair public meetings).
the impact assessment; they need to cover all the areas
• Public exhibitions (an exhibition may be preferable to a
identified. The key focus should be on:
public meeting as people
◦ Preventive measures that avoid the occurrence of impacts
and thus avoid harm or even produce positive outcomes.
◦ Next are those that focus on limiting the severity and the
duration of the impacts.
 ◦ Identifying compensation mechanisms for those impacts Supporting Documents
that are unavoidable and cannot be reduced further. Proposals for Environmental Monitoring and
Guarantee Fund | Utilized for the immediate
Approaches to Impact Assessment and Mitigation clean-up or rehabilitation of areas affected by
• Impact assessment is done by a multidisciplinary damages in the environment
team of experts who have the skills and qualification to Accountability Statement | This is to certify that all
assess the impacts across the diverse environmental information in the enclosed Initial Environmental
resources and other areas. Examination (IEE)/Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is
• At the global level, international agencies and banks true, accurate and complete.
often provide a list of categories that the EIA
needs to include (for example the environment it needs EIA REPORT REVIEW AND EVALUATION
to cover, such as air, water and land). EIA Report Review and Evaluation | entails an EMB
• They also specify the types of impacts that need to be procedural screening for compliance to minimum
assessed, such as direct, indirect, and cumulative. requirements specified during Scoping,
◦ Substantive review of either composed third party
Outline of the EIS Document experts commissioned by EMB as the EIA Review
• EIS Summary | Contains an overview of the Committee for PEIS/EIS-based applications, or
DENR/EMB internal specialists, the Technical Committee,
contents of the EIS and a comparison of impacts
for IEE-based applications.
expected for the proposal and alternatives ◦ EMB evaluates the EIARC recommendations and
• Project Description |Includes location, scale, the public’s inputs during public
duration, rationale, alternatives, phases and components, consultations/hearings in the process of
resource requirements, manpower compliment, recommending a decision on the application.
estimate of waste generation from critical project ◦ The EIARC Chair signs EIARC recommendations including
activities and environmental aspects, and project cost issues outside the mandate of the EMB. The entire EIA
review and evaluation process is summarized in the Review
• Summary of Scoping Agreements | establish the
Process Report (RPR) of the EMB, which includes a draft
boundaries of your EIA and sets the basis of the decision document.
analyses you will conduct at each stage.
• Baseline Environmental Description | A study of the DECISION MAKING
original status of the environment (land, water, air, Decision Making |
Involves evaluation of EIA
and people) before the development work of the project recommendations and the draft decision document,
• Impact Assessment and Analysis | Detailed resulting to the issuance of an ECC, CNC or Denial
evaluation of the environmental and social Letter.
impacts of the planned project and identified alternatives ◦ When approved, a covered project is issued its certificate
compared to the baseline conditions. of Environmental Compliance Commitment (ECC) while an
• Environmental Management Plan | Consists of the set of application of a noncovered project is issued a Certificate
of Non-Coverage (CNC).
mitigation, monitoring, and institutional measures
◦ Endorsing and deciding authorities are designated by AO
to be taken during implementation and operation to
42, and further detailed in this Manual for every report
eliminate or reduce adverse environmental and social type. Moreover, the Proponent signs a sworn statement of
impacts. full responsibility on implementation of its commitments
◦ Specifies the impacts mitigation plan, areas of public prior to the release of the ECC.
information, education and communication, social ◦ The ECC is then transmitted to concerned LGUs and other
development program proposal, environmental GAs for integration into their decision-making process.
monitoring plans, and corresponding institutional and ◦ The regulated part of EIA Review is limited to the processes
financial requirements or arrangements. within EMB control.
 ◦ The timelines for the issuance of decision documents
provided for in AO 42 and DAO 2003-30 are applicable only
from the time the EIA Report is accepted for substantive
review to the time a decision is issued on the application

MONITORING, VALIDATION, AND EVALUATION

AUDIT (LEC 12)
Monitoring, Validation and Evaluation Audit | Assesses
performance of the Proponent against the ECC and its
commitments in the Environmental Management and
Monitoring Plans to ensure actual impacts of the
project are adequately prevented or mitigated