THE LNG TANKER Chapter – 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This course is intended for officers and key ratings that have not previously
served on board liquefied gas tankers as part of the regular complement. It
covers mandatory minimum training requirements prescribed by Regulation V/1,
paragraph 1.2 of the International Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watch keeping for Seafarers, STCW-95 and it includes basic
safety and pollution-prevention precautions and procedures, layouts of different
types of liquefied gas tankers, types of cargo, their hazards and their handling
equipment, general operational sequence and liquefied gas tanker terminology.

The background for and the purpose of the course as being:

- The STCW-95 Convention contains mandatory minimum requirements for

training and qualification of masters, officers and ratings of liquefied gas tankers.

- This training is divided into two parts:

· Level 1: liquefied gas tanker familiarization – a basic safety-training course for

officers and ratings on board.

· Level 2: advanced training in liquefied gas tanker operations for masters,

officers and others who are to have immediate responsibilities for cargo handling
and cargo equipment.

- This course covers the requirements for level 1 training required by Regulation
V/1, paragraph 1.2 of the International Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watch-keeping for Seafarers, STCW-95
WHAT IS LNG ?
Liquid Natural Gas is natural gas cooled to a temperature of - 2600F / -1620 C at
atmospheric pressure. It weighs 45% the weight of water. It is odorless,
colourless, non-corrosive and non-toxic.

It is composed primarily of methane (at least 90%) but may also contain ethane,
propane and heavier hydrocarbons. The liquefaction process removes the
impurities from the gas and can be designed to purify the LNG to almost 100%
methane. It has a flammable range from 5% to 15% when mixed with air and
neither can the liquid or the vapour explode in an unconfined environment.

LNG is stored as a ‘boiling cryogen’ i.e. It is a very cold liquid at its boiling point
for the pressure it is being stored at. Just as the temperature of boiling water
does not change even with the application of heat, as it is cooled by evaporation
(steam generation). In the same manner LNG will stay at near constant
temperature if kept at constant pressure. In the case of a boiling kettle the steam
escapes through the spout, In the tank the LNG vapour escapes as ‘boil off’. This
phenomenon is known as ‘auto-refrigeration’

When liquefied it is reduced to 1/600 of its volume, making it ideal for carriage
and transportation by sea.
1.2 HISTORY OF LPG/LNG , CARRIAGE BY SEA

What is the history of LNG?

The liquefaction of natural gas dates back to the early 1900s. The first practical
compressor refrigeration machine was built in Munich in 1873. The first LNG
facility was built in West Virginia in 1912 and began operation in 1917. The first
commercial liquefaction facility was built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1941.

In January 1959, the world's first LNG tanker, The Methane Pioneer, a converted
World War ll liberty freighter containing five, 7000 Bbl aluminum prismatic tanks
with balsa wood supports and insulation of plywood and urethane, carried an
LNG cargo from Lake Charles, Louisiana to Canvey Island, United Kingdom. This
event demonstrated that large quantities of liquefied natural gas could be
transported safely across the ocean.

The development of metals and special steels for the carriage of liquefied gas at
low temperatures, insulation of cargo tanks and re-liquefaction plants in the
1960’s saw the advent of the semi-pressurized and fully refrigerated ships. Ship
size and tank capacities began increasing. In 1964 the first purpose built LNG
carriers were in service Methane Princess and Methane Progress operating
between Algeria and UK.

In 1969 Gaz transport membrane system vessels Polar Alaska and Artic Tokyo
began operating from Alaska to Tokyo.

In 1971 Kvaerner developed the Moss spherical containment system.

In 1979 Formation of SIGTTO.(Society of Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators)

In 1993 Polar Eagle and Arctic Sun with IHI Prismatic containment system began
service from Alaska to Tokyo.

As of March 2005 there are 175 LNG Vessels in operation

( Source UK P & I Club article titled UK Club defends Gas Carrier Safety
dated 9th March 2005 )
METHANE PIONEER
1.3 TANKER TYPES
LNG

LNG is natural gas from which most of the impurities such as sulphur and carbon
dioxide have been removed. It is cooled to or near its boiling point of -165ºC at
or near atmospheric pressure and is transported in this form as predominantly
liquid Methane. Methane has a critical pressure of 46.5kg/cm² at a critical
temperature of - 82.5ºC, i.e. the pressure and temperature above which
liquefaction cannot occur, so that Methane can only be liquefied at very low
temperatures

LNG is carried at atmospheric pressure at – 162 C. They do not have a re-

liquefaction plant and the boil-off is burnt in the main propulsion unit.

The ships are large, in the range of 40,000 m3 ~ 135,000 m3. However in recent
years smaller vessels between 18000 m3 ~ 19000 m3 have been built to meet
the varying demands.

The ships are fitted with 4 ~ 6 cargo tanks of Type – A , B or Membrane type.
The tanks are heavily insulated and the space between the primary barrier and
secondary barrier is inerted except in the case of Type – B systems with a partial
secondary barrier. The arrangement for primary and secondary barrier varies
from system to system. The ships are fitted with full double bottoms and side
ballast tanks.
1.4 GAS TANKER TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS

Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure is the total of the gauge pressure plus the pressure of the
surrounding atmosphere.

Absolute Vapour Density

The mass of a unit volume of gas (vapour) under stated conditions of
temperature and pressure.

Absolute Temperature
The fundamental temperature scale with its zero at absolute zero and expressed
in degrees Kelvin. One degree Kelvin is equal to one degree centigrade or one
degree Celsius. For the purpose of practical calculations in order to convert
Celsius to Kelvin add 273. It is normal for the degree Kelvin to be abbreviated in
mathematical formulae to ‘K’ with the degree symbol being omitted.

Absolute zero.
The temperature at which the volume of a gas theoretically becomes zero and all
thermal motion ceases. It is generally accepted as being – 273.160 C.

Activated Aluminia
A desiccant (or drying) medium which operates by adsorption of water
molecules.

Adiabatic.
Describes an ideal process undergone by gas in which no gain or loss of heat
occurs.

Aerating
Aerating means the introduction of fresh air into a tank with the object of
removing toxic, flammable and inert gases and increasing the oxygen content to
21 % by volume.

Airlock
A separation area used to maintain adjacent areas at a pressure differential. For
example, the airlock to an electric motor room on a gas carrier is used to
maintain pressure segregation between a gas dangerous zone on the open deck
and the gas-safe motor room which is pressurized.

Anti-freeze
An agent which lowers the freezing point of water, e.g. alcohols, ethanol,
methanol.

Approved Equipment
Equipment of a design that has been type tested and approved by an appropriate
authority such as a governmental agency or classification society. Such an
authority will have certified the particular equipment as safe for use in a special
hazardous atmosphere.

Asphyxia
The condition arising when the blood is deprived of an adequate supply of
oxygen so that loss of consciousness may occur.

Asphyxiant
A gas or vapour, which may or may not have toxic properties, which when
present in sufficient concentrations, excludes oxygen and leads to asphyxia.

Auto-ignition Temperature
The lowest temperature to which a liquid or gas requires to be raised to cause
self-sustained spontaneous combustion without ignition by a spark or a flame.

BLEVE
This is the abbreviation for a boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion. It is
associated with the rupture, under fire conditions, of a pressure vessel containing
liquefied gas.

Boil-off
Boil-off is the vapour produced above the surface of a boiling cargo due to
evaporation. It is caused by heat ingress or a drop in pressure.

Boiling Point
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to the pressure
on its surface ( the boiling point varies with pressure )

Booster Pump
A pump used to increase the discharge pressure from another pump ( such as a
cargo pump)

Bonding (electrical)
The connecting together of electricity conducting metallic objects to ensure
electrical continuity

Brittle Fracture
Fracture of a material caused by lack of ductility in the crystal structure resulting
from low temperature.

Bulk Cargo
Cargo carried as a liquid in cargo tanks and not shipped in drums, containers or
packages.
Canister Filter Respirator
A respirator consisting of a mask and replaceable canister filter through which air
mixed with toxic vapour is drawn by the breathing of the wearer and in which
toxic elements are absorbed by activated charcoal or other material. A filter
dedicated to the specific toxic gas must be used . Sometimes this equipment
may be referred to as a cartridge respirator. It should be noted that a canister
filter respirator is not suitable for use in an oxygen deficient atmosphere.

Cargo Area
That part of the ship which contains the cargo containment system, cargo pumps
and compressor rooms, and includes the deck area above the cargo containment
system. Where fitted cofferdams, ballast tanks and void spaces at the after end
of the aftermost hold space or the forward end of the forward most hold space
are excluded from the cargo area.

Cargo containment systems.

The arrangement for containment of cargo including, where fitted, primary and
secondary barriers, associated insulations, inter-barrier spaces and the structure
required for the support of these elements.

Cargo Operations
Any operation on board a gas carrier involving the handling of cargo liquid or
vapour, e.g. cargo transfer, re-liquefaction, venting etc.

Cargo Tank
The liquid- tight shell designed to be the primary container of the cargo and other
liquid tight containers whether or not associated with insulation or secondary
barriers or both.

Cargo Transfer
The transfer of cargo liquid and/or vapours to or from the ship.

Cavitation
A process occurring within the impeller of a centrifugal pump when pressure at
the inlet to the impeller falls below that of the vapour pressure of the liquid being
pumped. The bubbles of vapour which are formed collapse with impulsive force
in the higher pressure regions of the impeller. This effect can cause significant
damage to the impeller surfaces and, furthermore, pumps may loose suction.

Certificate of Fitness
A certificate issued by a flag administration confirming that the structure,
equipment, fittings, arrangements and materials used in the construction of a gas
carrier are in compliance with the relevant Gas Code. Such certification may be
issued on behalf of the administration by an approved classification society.
Certified Gas Free
A tank or compartment is certified to be gas free when its atmosphere has been
tested with an approved instrument and found in a suitable condition by an
independent chemist. This means it is not deficient in oxygen and sufficiently free
of toxic or flammable gas for a specified purpose.

Chemical Absorption Detector

An instrument used for the detection of gases or vapours which works on the
principle of a reaction between the gas and a chemical agent in the apparatus;
the gas discolours the agent or the agent dissolves some of the gas.

Closed Gauging System

A system in which the contents of a tank can be measured by means of a device
which penetrates the tank, but which is part of a closed system preventing the
release of tank contents. Examples are float type systems, electronic probes,
magnetic probes and blubber tubes.

Cofferdam
The isolating space on a ship between two adjacent steel bulkheads or decks.
This space may be a void space or ballast space.

Condensate
Re-liquefied gases which collect in the condenser and which are then returned to
the cargo tanks.

Combustible Gas Detector (Explosimeter)

An instrument for detecting a flammable gas / air mixture and usually measuring
the concentration of gas in terms of its Lower Flammable Limit (LFL). No single
instrument is reliable for all combustible vapours.

Critical pressure
The pressure at which a substance exists in the liquid state at its critical
temperature. (In other words it is the saturation pressure at the critical
temperature)

Critical Temperature
The temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied by pressure alone.

Cryogenics
The study of the behavior of matter at very low temperatures.

Dangerous Cargo Endorsement

Endorsement issued by a flag state administration to a certificate of competency
of a ships officer allowing service on dangerous cargo carriers such as oil
tankers, chemical carriers or gas carriers.
Density
The mass per unit volume of a substance at specified conditions of temperature
and pressure.

Dew-point
The temperature at which condensation will take place within a gas if further
cooling takes place.

Endothermic
A process which is accompanied by the absorption of heat.

Exothermic
A process which is accompanied by evolution of heat.

Explosion Proof / Flame Proof Enclosure

An enclosure which will withstand an internal ignition of a flammable gas and
which will prevent the transmission of any flame able to ignite a flammable gas
which may be present in the surrounding atmosphere.

Filling Limit
That volume of a tank, expressed as a percentage of the total volume, which can
be safely filled, having regards to the possible expansion (and change in density)
of the liquid

Flame Arrestor
A device fitted in gas vent pipelines to arrest the passage of flame into enclosed
spaces.

Flame Screen
A device incorporating corrosion resistant wire meshes. It is used for preventing
the inward passage of sparks (or, for a short period of time, the passage of
flame), yet permitting the outward passage of gas.

Flammable
Capable of being ignited and burning in air

Flammable Gas
A vapour / air mixture within the flammable range.

Flammable Limits
The minimum and maximum concentrations of vapour in air which form
flammable (explosive) mixtures are known as the lower flammable (LFL) and
upper flammable limit (UFL) respectively.
Flammable Range.
The range of gas concentrations in air between which the mixture is flammable.
This describes the range of concentrations between the LFL and the UFL.
Mixtures within this range are capable of being ignited.

Flash Point
The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives of sufficient vapour to form a
flammable mixture with air at the surface of the liquid. The flash point
temperature is determined by laboratory testing in a prescribed apparatus.

Gas Codes
The Gas codes are the codes of construction and equipment of ships carrying
liquefied gases in bulk. These standards are published by the IMO

Gas danger space or Zone

A space or zone (defined by the Gas codes) within a ships cargo area which are
designated ads likely to contain flammable vapour and which is not equipped
with approved arrangements to ensure that its atmosphere is maintained in a
safe condition at all times.

Gas Free Certificate

A gas free certificate is most often issued by an independent chemist to show
that a tank has been tested, using approved testing instruments, and is certified
to contain 21% oxygen by volume and sufficiently free from toxic, chemical and
hydrocarbon gases for a specified purpose such as tank entry and hot work. ( In
particular circumstances, such a certificate may be issued when a tank has been
suitably inerted and is considered safe for surrounding hot work )

Gas Free Condition

Gas free condition describes the full gas freeing process carried out in order to
achieve as a safe atmosphere. It therefore includes two distinct operations:
Inerting and Aeration

Gas Freeing
The removal of toxic, and/or flammable gas from a tank or enclosed space with
inert gas followed by the introduction of fresh air.

Gassing-up
Gassing up means replacing an inert atmosphere in a tank with the vapour from
the next cargo to a suitable level to allow cooling down and loading.

Gas-Safe Space
A space on a ship not designed as a gas dangerous space.
Gas Scope
A trade name for an instrument used to detect and indicate the presence of cargo
vapour.

Hard arm
An articulated metal arm used at terminal jetties to connect shore pipelines to the
ships manifold.

Heel
The amount of cargo retained in a cargo tank at the end of discharge. It is used
to maintain the cargo tanks cooled down during the ballast voyages by re-
circulating through the sprayers. On LPG ships such cooling down is carried out
through the re-liquefaction plant and on LNG ships by using the spray pump.

Hold Space
The space enclosed by the ships structure in which the cargo containment
system is situated.

Hot Work
Work involving flames, incendive sparks or temperatures likely to be sufficiently
high to cause ignition of flammable gas. The term includes any work involving the
use of welding, burning or soldering equipment, blow torches, some power driven
tools, portable electrical equipment which is not intrinsically safe or contained in
an explosion proof housing, and equipment with internal combustion engines.

Hot Work Permit

A document issued by an authorized person permitting specific work to be done
for a specified time in a defined area employing tools and equipment which could
cause ignition of flammable gas.

Hydrates
The compounds formed by the interaction of water and hydrocarbons at certain
pressures and temperatures. They are crystalline substances.

Hydrate Inhibitors.
An additive to certain liquefied gases capable of reducing the temperature at
which hydrates begin to form. Typical hydrate inhibitors are methanol, ethanol
and isopropyl alcohol.

IACS
International association of classification societies.

IAPH
International association of ports and harbors.
ICS
International chamber of shipping.

IGC Code
International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Liquefied Gasses in bulk.

IMO
International maritime organisation. This is the United Nations specialized
agency dealing with maritime affairs.

Incendive Spark
A spark of sufficient temperature and energy to ignite a flammable gas mixed
with the right proportion of air.

Inert Gas
A gas, such as nitrogen, or a mixture of non-flammable gases containing
insufficient oxygen to support combustion.

Inerting
Inerting means:
- The introduction of inert gas into an aerated tank with the abject of attaining an
inert condition suited to a safe gassing-up operation.
- The introduction of inert gas into a tank after cargo discharge and warming –up
with the object of:-
(a) Reducing existing vapour content to a level below which combustion cannot
be supported if aeration takes place.
(b) Reducing existing vapour content to a level suited to gassing-uo prior to next
cargo.
(c) Reducing existing vapour content to a level stipulated by local authorities if a
special gas free certificate for hot work is required.

Insulating Flange
An insulating device inserted between metallic flanges, bolts and washers to
prevent electrical continuity between pipelines, section of pipelines, hose strings
and loading arms or other equipment.

Inter-barrier Space
The space between a primary and secondary barrier of a cargo containment
system, whether or not completely or partially occupied by insulation or other
material.

Intrinsically Safe
Equipment, instrumentation or wiring is deemed to be intrinsically safe if it is
incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal
conditions or specified fault conditions to cause ignition of a specific hazardous
atmosphere in its most easily ignited concentration.

ISGOTT
International safety guide for oil tankers and terminals.

Isothermal
Descriptive of a process undergone by an ideal gas when it passes through
pressure or volume variations without a change in temperature.

Latent Heat
The heat required to cause a change in state of a substance from solid to liquid
(latent heat of fusion) or from liquid to vapour (latent heat of vaporization). These
phase changes occur without change of temperature at the melting point and
boiling point, respectively.

Latent heat of vaporisation.

Quantity of heat to change the state of a substance from liquid to vapour (or vice
versa) without change of temperature.

Liquefied Gas
A liquid which has saturated vapour pressure exceeding 2.8 bar absolute at 37.80
C and certain other substances specified in the Gas Codes.

LNG
This is the abbreviation for Liquid Natural Gas, the principal constituent of which
is methane.

Lower Flammable Limit (LFL)

The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air below which there is insufficient
hydrocarbon to support combustion.

LPG
This is the abbreviation for Liquid Petroleum Gas, this group of products includes
propane and butane which can be shipped separately or as a mixture. LPG’s
may be refinery by-products or may be produced in conjunction with crude oil or
natural gas.

MARVS
This is the abbreviation for the Maximum allowable Relief Valve Setting on a
ships cargo tank, as stated in the ships Certificate of Fitness

MARPOL
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships, 1973 as
modified by its Protocol of 1978.
mlc
This is the abbreviation for meters liquid column and is a unit of pressure used in
some cargo pumping operations.

Molar Volume
The volume occupied by one molecular mass in grams (g mole) under specific
conditions . For an idea gas at standard temperature and pressure it is 0.0224
m3/g mole.

NGL’s
This is the abbreviation for Natural gas Liquids. This are liquid components found
in association with natural gas. Ethane, propane, butane, pentane, and
pentanes-plus are typical NGL’s

NPSH
This is the abbreviation for Net Positive Section Head. This is an expression
used in cargo pumping calculations. It is the pressure at the pump inlet and is the
combination of the liquid head plus the pressure in the vapour space.

OCIMF
Oil Companies International Marine Forum

Oxygen Analyser
Instrument used to measure oxygen content in percentage by volume.

Oxygen-Deficient Atmosphere
An atmosphere containing less than 21 percent oxygen by volume.

Pressure
Force per unit area

Primary Barrier
This is the inner surface designed to contain the cargo when the cargo
containment system includes a secondary barrier.

Purging
The introduction of a suitable cargo vapour to displace the existing tank
atmosphere.

Relative Liquid Density

The mass of a liquid at a given temperature compared with the mass of an equal
volume of fresh water at the same temperature or at a different given
temperature.
Relative Vapour Density
The mass of a vapour compared with the mass of an equal volume of air, both at
standard conditions of temperature and pressure.

Re-liquefaction
Converting cargo boil-off vapour back into liquid by refrigeration

Restricted Gauging
A system employing a device which penetrates the tank and which, when in use,
permits a small quantity of cargo vapour or liquid to be expelled to the
atmosphere. When not in use, the device is kept completely closed.

Responsible Officer
The Master or any officer to whom the Master may delegate responsibility for any
operation of duty.

Responsible Terminal Representative

The shore supervisor in charge of all operators and operations at the terminal
associated with the handling of products or his responsible delegates.

Rollover
The phenomenon where the stability of two stratified layers of liquid of differing
relative density is disturbed resulting in a spontaneous rapid mixing of the layers
accompanied in the case of liquefied gases, by violent vapour evolution.

Saturated Vapour Pressure.

The pressure at which a vapour is in equilibrium with its liquid at a specified
temperature

Secondary Barrier
The liquid resisting outer element of a cargo containment system designed to
provide temporary containment of a leakage of liquid cargo through the primary
barrier and to prevent the lowering of the temperature of the ships structure to an
unsafe level.

Sloshing
Wave formations which may arise at the liquid surface in a cargo tank from the
effects of ships motions.

Silica Gel.
A chemical used in driers to absorb moisture.

SIGTTO
Society of International Gas Tankers and Terminals.
Slip Tube,
A device used to determine the liquid vapour interface during the ullaging of semi
and fully pressurized tanks.

SOLAS
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 ; as amended.

Span gas
A vapour sample of known composition and concentration used to calibrate gas
detection equipment.

Specific Gravity
The ratio of the density of a liquid at a given temperature to the density of
freshwater at a standard temperature.

Specific Heat
This is the quantity of energy in Kilo Joules required to change the temperature
of 1 kg mass of the substance by 10 C. For a gas the specific heat at constant
pressure is greater than that at constant volume.

Spontaneous Combustion.
The ignition of material brought about by a heat-producing chemical reaction
within the material itself without exposure to an external source of ignition.

Static Electricity.
Static electricity is the electrical charge produced on dissimilar materials caused
by relative motion between each when in contact.

Submerged Pump
A type of centrifugal cargo pump commonly installed on gas carriers and in
terminals in the bottom of a cargo tank. It comprises a drive motor, impeller and
bearings totally submerged by the cargo when the tank contains bulk liquid.

Superheated Vapour
Vapour removed from contact with its liquid and heated beyond its boiling
temperature.

Surge Pressure
A phenomenon generated in a pipe line system when there is a change in the
rate of flow of liquid in the line. Surge pressures can be dangerously high of the
change of flow rate is too rapid and the resultant shock waves can damage
pumping equipment and cause rupture of pipelines and associated equipment.
Tank Access Hatch
The access hatch for tank entry, fitted to the tank dome.

Tank cover
The structure intended to protect the cargo containment systems against damage
where it protrudes through the weather deck, or to ensure the continuity and
integrity of the deck structure or both.

Tank Dome
The upward extension of a portion of the cargo tank. For below-deck cargo
containment systems the tank dome protrudes through the weather deck, or
through a tank skirt .

Tank Skirt
The vertical cylindrical structure attached to the ships foundation deck,
supporting a spherical cargo tank at its equator.

Toxicity Detector
An instrument used for the detection of gases or vapours. It works on the
principle of a reaction occurring between the gas being sampled and a chemical
agent in the apparatus.

Thermal Conductivity Meter

A fixed or portable instrument used to detect the presence of gas concentrations
from 0 to 100 %. It must be calibrated for a particular gas

Upper Flammable Limit (UFL)

The concentration of hydrocarbon gas in air above which there is insufficient air
to support combustion.

Vapour Density
The density of a gas or vapour under specified conditions of temperature and
pressure

Vapour Pressure
The pressure exerted by the vapour above the liquid at a given temperature.

Ventilation
The process of maintaining in a space an atmosphere suitable for human access,
by natural or mechanical means using a fixed or portable system.

Venting
The release of cargo vapour or inert gas from cargo tanks and associated
systems.
Void Space
An enclosed space in the cargo area external to a cargo containment system,
other than a hold space, ballast space, fuel oil tank, cargo pump or compressor
room or any space in normal use by personnel.

Water Fog
Very fine droplets of water generally delivered at a high pressure through a fog
nozzle.

Water Spray System

A system of sufficient capacity to provide a blanket of water droplets to cover the
cargo manifolds, tank domes, deck storage tanks, and boundaries of
superstructure and deck houses,
LNG PROPERTIES AND HAZARDS Chapter - 2

2.1 THE HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE

The smallest indivisible part of matter is an atom. Every substance is

made of atoms joined together to form molecules. If all the atoms in a molecule
are identical, then, the substance is called an element. If the molecule consists
of different elements, then it is called a compound. The Hydrogen atom has only
1 electron and it is the lightest element. A Carbon atom has 6 electrons with 4 of
them being in the outer shell.

Crude oil and its products have mainly Hydrogen and Carbon atoms and
are therefore known as hydrocarbons. Crude petroleum as discharged at the
wellhead is a mixture of a large number of hydrocarbons, with molecular weights
ranging from light to heavy. The structure consists essentially of Hydrogen
atoms linking with Carbon atoms in various ways. The relationship between light
and heavy hydrocarbon molecules can be explained with the following diagram.

Gaseous Liquid Solid

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 4 5 16 17 Number of Carbon atoms per
molecule

At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, hydrocarbons having 1 to 4

Carbon atoms per molecule (e.g. Methane and Ethane) will be in a gaseous
state, those having 5 to 16 carbon atoms (e.g. petrol, diesel oil) will be in
liquid state and those having 17 and more carbon atoms per molecule (e.g.
asphalt and bitumen) will be in solid.

A schematic diagram of Methane

H C H

CH4 : METHANE
B B
 The lightest molecules, Methane, are stripped off at the wellhead
together with any earthy solids. The remaining petroleum is termed Crude Oil.
Crude oil is a mixture of of hydrocarbons which under normal atmospheric
conditions are gaseous, liquid and solids. The process of refining Crude Oil will
produce a number of fractions. The refining process does not alter the
constituent molecules. Each petroleum fraction has a range of physical
properties specific to itself.

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.

LNG is odourless, colourless and a non-toxic gas which could cause

asphyxiation by displacing breathable air.

GAS Atmospheric Liquid Relative Vapour Relative

Boiling Point Density at Atm. Density
Boiling Point
(0C) (Water = 1 ) (Air = 1)
Methane - 161.5 0.427 0.554

PROPERTIES OF METHANE
Product Chemical Mol Boiling Critical Ignition Flash Flammable Density Density SVP
formula Wt. Temp. Temp. Temp. Point Range % Boiling Liquid 150 C
Temp 150 C (Bars)
Methane CH4 16 - 161 - 82.5 + 595 Low 5 – 15 0.425 Gas Gas

1. Boiling temperatures are given at atmospheric pressure

2. Saturated Vapour Pressure (SVP) listed are Absolute Pressures.

Saturated Hydrocarbons

Methane , ethane, propane, butane are colourless and odourless as liquids. They
are flammable gases that will burn in air and produce carbon dioxide and water
vapour.

2.3 HAZARDS OF LNG

- Flammability
- Low temperatures
- Static Electricity
FAMMABILITY
Like other products considered to be flammable liquids, LNG will not burn unless
it is vaporized, then mixed with air, and then exposed to an ignition source. Only
the natural gas vapor, which forms when LNG’s temperature rises, can be
ignited, but its flammability depends primarily on its air content. The flammable
range lies between 5% and 15% in air, by volume.

FLAMMABILITY RANGE

Fire Hazards
LNG vaporizes quickly as it absorbs heat from the environment, and the resulting
vapor is flammable when mixed in air at concentrations from 5 to 15% (volume
basis). Its fire-related properties are comparable to other light hydrocarbon fuels.
The only significant difference is that its molecular weight is considerably less
than air, so once it warms above approximately -162 ºF (-108 ºC) it will become
less dense than air and tend to rise and disperse more rapidly.

Three types of fires — pool fires, jet fires, and flash fires — are postulated
for the purposes of this study.

Pool Fire – When a flammable liquid is released from a storage tank or pipeline,
a liquid pool may form. As the pool forms, some of the liquid will evaporate and, if
flammable vapor finds an ignition source, the flame can travel back to the spill,
resulting in a pool fire, which involves burning of vapor above the liquid pool as it
evaporates from the pool and mixes with air.

Jet Fire – If compressed or liquefied gases are released from storage tanks or
pipelines, the materials discharging through the hole will form a gas jet that
entrains and mixes with the ambient air. If the material encounters an ignition
source while it is in the flammable range, a jet fire may occur. For LNG stored at
low pressure as a liquid, as it is in an LNG carrier, this type of fire is unlikely. Jet
fires could occur during unloading or transfer operations when pressures are
increased by pumping. Such fires could cause severe damage but will generally
affect only the local area.

Flash Fire – When a volatile, flammable material is released to the atmosphere,

a vapor cloud forms and disperses (mixes with air). If the resultant vapor cloud is
ignited before the cloud is diluted below its LFL, a flash fire may occur. The
combustion normally occurs within only portions of the vapor cloud (where mixed
with air in flammable concentrations), rather than the entire cloud. A flash fire
may burn back to the release point, resulting in a pool or jet fire but is unlikely to
generate damaging overpressures (explode) when unconfined.

Explosions As discussed in the previous section, a flash fire can occur if LNG is
released into the atmosphere and ignited. If ignited in open (unconfined) areas,
pure methane is not known to generate damaging overpressures (explode).
However, if some confinement of the vapor cloud is present, methane can
produce damaging overpressures.

Confinement can be provided by spaces within the ship or nearby structures,

such as a building on shore or another ship. Areas congested with equipment
and structures can also facilitate damaging overpressures if a vapor cloud is
ignited within such an area.

Rapid Phase Transition (RPT) RPT is the term used to describe a phenomenon
recognized in some LNG release experiments involving the nearly instantaneous
transition from the liquid to vapor phase and an associated rapid pressure
increase.

When LNG forms a pool on water, the heat from the water rapidly vaporizes the
LNG; however, this boiling is not the phenomenon referred to as RPT.

LOW TEMPERATURES

Spillage
Spillage besides causing brittle fracture will also generate large quantities of
vapour which may create a fire and or health hazard.

Brittle fracture
Liquefied gas spilled onto the ships deck will chill the steel to a temperature
where it becomes brittle. Stresses within the structure along with stresses
resulting from differential contraction can cause fractures in the cooled areas.
Cryogenic Effects LNG carriers are designed to prevent LNG from contacting
the inner and outer hulls, but incidents can be postulated that would place LNG in
contact with the hulls. It is possible that a release of liquid LNG to the inner hull
would cause low temperatures for areas of the hull structure that are not
designed for cryogenic temperatures. (The international ship design rules require
areas where cargo tank leakage might be expected to be designed for contact
with cryogenic LNG.)

A study by Lloyds (2001) includes brief descriptions of 10 LNG spills involving

LNG carriers that occurred between 1965 and 1989. Seven of these ten spills led
to brittle fracture of the deck or tank covers, but none of them caused serious
structural damage. Given where the damage occurred (i.e., to the deck or tank
cover), it is likely that all of these releases occurred from piping systems used
during LNG transfers.

Also, vessels built since 1976 have to comply with current ship design rules and
are designed with steel rated for low temperature in areas where LNG leakage
might be expected to contact decking or internal structures.

Also areas where spills are likely to occur should be adequately protected with a
wood or fiber glass sheathing and provided with drip trays made of stainless steel
or wood en sheets. Care should be taken to avoid spillages, specially when
disconnecting hoses,

Cool down is carried out to prepare the tanks for loading cargo well below
ambient temperatures. If the cool-down is too rapid, the stresses and thermal
shock could cause brittle fracture.

Cool down operations should be carried out carefully in accordance with

manufacturers instructions and should never be more than 100 C / minute.

Ice Formation
Low cargo temperatures can freeze water and moisture in the system to form ice
which could both block and damage valves, pumps, sensors and spray lines.

This can be avoided by the addition of antifreeze compounds which require the
prior permission of the shipper, before adding.

Rollover
Roll over is a spontaneous rapid mixing which occurs in large tanks as a result of
density inversion.

Stratification develops when the liquid layer adjacent to the liquid surface
becomes denser than the layers beneath, due to the boil off of lighter fractions
from the cargo. This unstable situation relieves itself with a sudden mixing which
is termed as a rollover. Liquid hydrocarbon cryogenic liquids are most prone to
rollover specially LNG.

Rollover can also occur if similar or compatible cargoes of different densities are
loaded in the same tank. It can also occur when two part cargoes are loaded in
the same tank.

Rollover is experienced in shore tanks and vessels anchored for a while and
seldom occurs in vessels on a passage.

Rollover is mainly experienced in shore LNG tanks where stratification takes

place.

Frostbite
Liquefied cargoes are shipped at low temperatures or are at very temperatures.
Contact with cold liquid or vapour or un-insulated pipes and equipment can
cause cold burns or frost bite. Inhalation of cold vapour can cause permanent
damage to the lungs.

Frost bite refers to a cold injury where the tissue is destroyed by freezing. The
most commonly affected parts of the body are the fingers, toes, cheeks, ears and
nose.

The patient may not be aware of his condition at first, the frostbitten tissue
appears white or grayish-yellow. He may experience pain or an aching stinging
sensation. In severe cases the affected area feels numb, hard and solid. As the
tissue thaws it becomes red and swollen. Gangrene and tissue death can occur.

Appropriate clothing should be worn at all times to avoid body contact. Care
should be taken when handling liquid in drip trays.
Treatment involves wet, rapid warming till the thawing is complete. The affected
part should be immersed in warm water between 420~ 440 C. Dry heat should
never be used.
Thawing may take 15 to 60 minutes and should be continued till the flesh turns
pink or red. Pain killers and tranquillisers may be administered to ease the pain.

After warming clean the affected area and apply a soft sterile dressing. Keep the
patient warm in bed with the affected part elevated. Seek medical advise.

STATIC ELECTRICITY

Electrostatic charges are formed when LNG flows in pipelines, during filtering,
mixing, discharging and filling operations. These electrostatic charges have
caused accidents when sparks formed ignite the extremely flammable liquid or
vapour.

PRESSURE SURGE

Also referred to as ‘liquid hammers’ or ‘shock pressures’ results from the rapid
operation of valves which causes the flow in a liquid line to be stopped too
quickly.

The hazard is the greatest when cargo is being transferred over long distances
and at a high velocity. Under such circumstances if a valve in the line is shut too
rapidly, the deceleration of the large column of liquid in the line sets up shock
waves which can travel up and down causing extremely high surge pressures
which could result in a hose burst.

To avoid surge pressures the following precautions should be taken:

- During the transfer of liquids, valves should not be opened or shut suddenly. All
the valves on the line should be set in position before the transfer and only
valves required for controlling the flow should be operated bearing in mind the
appropriate closure time.
- When loading and changing over tanks, the valves of the tank above to receive
cargo
should be fully opened before the valves on the other tank are fully shut.
- On completion of loading the valves on the terminal line should be shut to
prevent the cargo hose from overstressing.
- During discharge the flow should be controlled by the pump discharge valve or
the valves on the tank dome to minimize pressure effects and to restrict them to
a short length of pipe mostly within the cargo tank.
- The pump discharge valve should be shut before the ship / shore manifold is
shut.

To keep the LNG in its liquid state, it should be ensured that any rapid changes
in pressure in the cargo liquid lines, due to emergency operating such as rapid
valve closure or pump trip, don’t allow the vaporization pressure of the liquid to
be reached and so allowing the LNG to change state and boil

To dampen the pressure surge under such conditions, numerous ESD valves are
fitted on the system which automatically close when the pressure signal from the
loading/unloading arm manifold drops below a prescribed level.

ENCLOSED SPACE – OXYGEN DEFICIENCY.

ENCLOSED SPACES ON GAS CARRIERS INCLUDE

Enclosed Spaces in Enclosed Spaces Enclosed Spaces
Cargo Area Elsewhere Entered Routinely
Cargo Tanks Void Spaces Deck Houses/Stores
Hold Spaces Bunker Tanks
Inter-barrier Spaces Cofferdams
Duct keels Ballast tanks
Spaces containing Cargo Spaces adjacent to
Lines Cargo Spaces having
Unsafe Atmospheres
NOTE: Even if a space is already considered gas free and fit for entry,
where it is immediately adjacent to a tank having a dangerous and
pressurized atmosphere, the space should always be entered with caution
and only after suitable checks have been made

Enclosed spaces have hazardous atmospheres and should only be entered

when it is essential to do so.

The oxygen content of the atmosphere in an enclosed space may be low for
several reasons. The most obvious one is if the space is in an inert condition,
and the oxygen has been displaced by the inert gas. Chemical reactions such as
rusting or the curing of paint coatings can also remove oxygen.

As the normal available oxygen decreases below the normal 21 % by volume

breathing tends to become faster and deeper. While individuals vary in
susceptibility, all will suffer impairment if the level falls to 16 % by volume.
Exposure to an atmosphere of less than 10 % oxygen by volume inevitably
causes unconsciousness. Death will result unless the victim is moved to fresh air
and resuscitated.

No entry should be permitted unless the appropriate company / terminal

procedures are followed, company /terminal and Maritime Safety Card with
Safety Check List is filled out and the required permits issued.
Only experienced, trained personnel with proper PPE and equipment should
carry out rescue operations in enclosed spaces.
CARGO CONTAINMENT AND HANDLING. Chapter - 3

3.1 TYPES OF TANKS, LOCATION AND SURVIVAL CAPABILITIES

The IGC Code divides ships carrying liquefied gas into four categories,
depending on the hazard the cargoes present, namely:

All gas carriers complying with the IGC code are issued with a Certificate of
Fitness which lists the cargo grades the ship is certified to carry. It is valid of a
period of 5 years assuming the ship does not change her flag. Surveys required
to maintain the validity of the COF are an initial survey before the vessel is put in
service, a periodical survey before the end of a period not exceeding 5 years, an
intermediate survey half way between the periodical survey, an annual survey
and a survey after an accident or any important renewals.

Type 2G
A gas carrier intended to transport products indicated in chapter 19 of the IGC
code which require significant preventive measures to preclude the escape of
such cargo.
Eg. Ethane, ethylene, methane (LNG),

Survival Capabilities

760 mm

B/15 or 2M

LOCATION OF CARGO TANKS IN SHIPS OF TYPES 2G, 2PG AND 3G

 Cargo containment Systems

Comprise of the total arrangement for containing the cargo and include:
- A primary barrier which is basically the cargo tank
- A secondary barrier if fitted
- Thermal insulation
- Intervening spaces
- Adjacent structure if required.

Types of cargo tanks found on LNG Tankers

Three basic tank designs have been developed for LNG cargo containment
systems:
- Prismatic Free standing
- Spherical
- Membrane
Type – B Tanks
They may be constructed of Flat surfaces or may be spherical

Prismatic
They are IHI Type – B (Known as SPB) self –supporting prismatic tanks, with a
centerline bulkhead and a transverse swash bulkhead to control sloshing. The
tanks have a stiffened plate structure of aluminium and require a partial
secondary barrier. They rest on reinforced plywood supports which allow them to
expand and contract freely.
Spherical
They are referred to as the free standing, Moss Rosenberg system and comprise
of spherical tanks made of aluminum alloy or 9% nickel-steel, with external
insulation, supported by a skirt attached to the equatorial circumference of the
sphere and supported by the ships structure. A spray shield, made of a material
capable of withstanding low temperatures may be fitted on the inner hull to
deflect any leakages into an insulated drip pan beneath the tank. These tanks
protrude well above the main deck level.

A new design to minimize filling restrictions due to sloshing effects has been
developed. The tank design calls for an elongated cylindrical tank with spherical
dished ends.

The 180,000m3 carrier design features five of these large 36m diameter vertical
cylinder tanks each holding a volume of 36,000m3 of LNG. The vertical
arrangement of the tanks provides greater storage capacity for the footprint size.
Membrane Systems
This is a containment system which comprises of primary and secondary barriers
made of thin material which are supported by the inner hull via insulation.

The two principal systems in use are the Gaz-Transport and Technigaz
membrane.

The Gaz-Transport membranes have identical primary and secondary barriers of

36% nickel-steel (Invar which is the short form of Invariable) which has a very low
co-efficient of expansion or contraction as caused by the cargo and hence only
moderate stresses.
The tanks are constructed from long strakes with turned –up edges, which act as
flanges which are used to weld to adjacent strakes to each other, and so make
up the tank. The insulating material is perlite in plywood boxes.
INTERNAL TANK VIEW ( SHOWING TRIPOD - PIPING TOWER)
The Technigaz membrane system consists of a primary barrier of Austenitic
stainless steel (Steel which, because of the presence of alloying elements, such
as manganese, nickel, chromium, etc., shows stability of Austenite at normal
temperatures.) in small plates welded together and having specially shaped
orthogonal pressed swedges (or waffles) to allow for expansion and contraction.

Earlier built vessels had a plywood secondary barrier and balsa insulation but
now days glass fiber aluminum foil (Triplex) membrane and polyurethane foam
insulation is used.

These tanks do not have a center line bulkhead. The upper region of the cargo
tanks extends above the main deck and has a pronounced chamfer and
reinforced insulation to reduce free surface and sloshing loads.
General Layout

On every gas tanker there are two distinct zones:

- Gas free zone which comprises of the engine room, accommodation,
motor room and forecastle stores/space which may contain the machinery
for the windlass.
- Cargo area which comprises of the deck area with the tank domes, cargo
pipe lines, manifolds and the compressor room.

The gas free zone is separated from the cargo area by means of cofferdams /
void spaces or deep tanks or other means of gas tight segregation.

3.2 CARGO TANK FITTINGS

Domes - Every cargo tank is fitted with a tank dome through which all the pipe
lines , cables and instrumentation, leading into /out of the tank are located .
Spherical tanks have a single dome located at the center of the tank ceiling
whereas membrane tanks have two domes. A vapour dome located at the center
of each tank ceiling and a liquid dome located at the after end of the tank, on the
centerline.

Vapour Line – It is used to vent vapours during loading, supply vapours to aid
discharge and vent the boil off during the passage.

Spray Line - Used for cooling down the tank

Purge Line – Lead from the discharge pipe of the cargo pump columns.
P/V Relief Valves – 2 nos. set at 220mbarg (Pressure) and – 10 mbar (Vacuum)
which are connected to a mast riser.

Pressure Sensors- Located in the tank and the pick-up is through the tank
dome.

Liquid Line – The main loading and discharging lines comprise of a 3-legged
stainless steel tripod suspended from the liquid dome and attached to the tank
bottom by means of a slide bearing which allows for the tanks thermal expansion
and contraction when empty or loaded . The tripod supports the access ladder,
piping and other instrumentation. The pumps both cargo and stripping /spray are
located at the base of the tripod.

Nitrogen Line - Located on deck and supply nitrogen to primary and secondary
barrier spaces and the cargo system.

Headers – All the cargo tanks are connected with common liquid, vapour and
stripping/spray headers located on the deck.

Cargo Tank Instrumentation – The main parameters monitored on LNG tankers

are pressure and temperatures of liquid and vapour in cargo tanks, pipe lines as
well as containment spaces , cargo liquid levels, and concentration of flammable
gases specially in confined cargo containment spaces and fire detection.

Pressure – From the following places is monitored :

- Cargo tank vapour space
- Liquid and vapour headers
- Inter Barrier Spaces (Primary and Secondary)
- Cargo Pump discharge
- Nitrogen storage tank.
Temperature – From the following spaces is monitored:
- Cargo tanks at different levels
- Inter barrier spaces
Level – Cargo levels are monitored by using more than one means of gauging
and are available locally, remotely and also fed us inputs to a computer for data
logging , cargo calculations and vessels conditions, during the various stages of
cargo operations.

These systems comprise of float gauges, capacitance level and radar gauges.
They are also linked to the various level alarms such as, Low level, High level,
High High lvel alarms which sound in the CCR, main deck and other remote
panels (Bridge during sea passage)
3.3 PUMPS

LNG carriers are normally fitted with submerged electric centrifugal cargo pumps
Smaller similar pumps are used for stripping or spraying of cargo
An auxiliary pump is also provided for use in the event of a failure of the main
cargo pumps.

Submerged Motor, Cargo Pumps

As they are installed at the bottom of the tank they facilitate efficient pumping.
The pump and motor share a common shaft which eliminates the use of
mechanical seal or coupling. Power is supplied to the motor via specially
insulated, stainless steel sheathed / armored cables which pass through a
junction box in the tank dome and are connected to the motor terminals.

These pumps are cooled and lubricated by the flow of cargo and prone to
damage by dry running and protected by safety devices such as an under-current
relay, low discharge pressure switch or tank low level switch. The pumps also trip
when ESD is activated, cargo tank / line pressure drops. Pumps can also be
stopped remotely from the CCR or any other location.

Prior to starting the pump the discharge valve should be partly opened and then
gradually opened once the pump has started. The valve may be further throttled
to obtain optimum discharge rate. If running more than one pump for the
operation, each pump should be started individually and the remainder pumps
must be started in the proper sequence.

Stripping / Spray Pumps – Are smaller, lower rated pumps used for:
- Stripping of cargo tanks.
- Cooling down of the cargo system prior loading/discharging
- Cooling down of tanks on the ballast voyage
- For pumping LNG from the cargo tanks to the Vaporiser when forced
vaporization of LNG s required in the boilers.
These pumps are started and stopped from the CCR. They are also fitted with
protection devices like the main cargo pumps. The pumps trip when ESD is
activated or the tank pressure falls.

They should be started whilst the liquid level in the tank is more than 0.5 meters
to avoid starting problems.

Auxiliary Pump - Some LNG carriers are fitted with an auxiliary pump well and a
portable pump for use in the event of the failure of the main pump.

The pump well has a foot valve which is kept closed by a loaded spring. The tank
pressure should be reduced as close as possible to atmospheric pressure and
the pump well should be inerted with nitrogen and a small flow should be
maintained until the pump is located in place.

The weight of the pump overcomes the compression of the spring and the foot
valve opens. Electrical connections from the pump are made to the junction box
located near the mouth of the pump well, this automatically transfers all the
safety devices fitted on the main pump to the auxiliary pump.

The auxiliary pump is also wired into the ESD and other safety systems and will
automatically trip when activated or the set parameters are reached.

3.4 GAS COMPRESSORS

There are generally two types of compressors on LNG carriers, namely High duty
and Low duty. These are basically motor driven, single stage centrifugal
compressors.

The motors are located in an enclosed motor room and separated from the
compressor room by gas tight bulkheads and bulkhead shaft seals.

The High duty compressors are used for:

- The transfer of displaced cargo vapours during loading to the terminal
 - The transfer of vapours generated as a result of spraying during the cool
down process
- The warming up of cargo tanks, by circulating hot vapours to the cargo
tanks.
- Purging of cargo tanks with LNG vapours and for drawing the vapour and
IG mixture formed in the tank .

The Low duty compressors are used for:

- Delivering the BOG to the ships boiler and thus maintain cargo tank
pressure

The compressors are fitted with the following devices:

- Bulk head seals which are lubricated and prevent the flammable vapours
from entering the motor room.
- A nitrogen ( from the nitrogen generator/system ) seal gas system which
prevents lube oil mist from entering the process stream and mixing with
the compressed LNG vapours. It also prevents the flow of gas to the lube
oil system and gear box.
- Lube oil Heater ( electric – immersion type) which maintains a constant
positive temperature and prevents condensation from taking place when
the compressor is stopped.
- Two lube oil pumps ( main and auxiliary ) which lubricate both the
compressor bearings and gears as well as the bulk head seals. In the
event of a failure of the main pump the alarm sounds and the auxiliary
pump starts.
- A surge control system which ensures that the compressor flow rate does
not fall below the designed minimum limit as this would cause the gas flow
to be unstable and the compressor to surge, the shaft to vibrate and get
damaged.
 - Inlet guide vanes fitted on the suction side of the compressor which aid in
achieving the required gas flow.

3.5 CARGO VAPORISERS

Cargo vaporisers are the shell and tube type, constructed of stainless steel and
use steam as the heating medium.

There are two types namely the Main vaporiser and the Forced vaporiser.

The Main Vaporiser is used for:

- Purging of cargo tanks. If IG containing carbon dioxide is used for inerting
the cargo tanks then the tanks have to be purged prior to cool down. This
is done by passing the LNG through the vaporiser to raise its temperature
to + 10o C prior to passing it into the cargo tanks.
- Evaporating the liquid nitrogen (from shore) for inerting of cargo tanks and
lines.
- Discharging cargo without a vapour return line. Vapour is drawn into the
vaporiser by using the stripping pump or by bleeding off the liquid
discharge line. The vapour produced is at – 150o C and when piped into
the cargo tank through the vapour line helps maintain the cargo tank
pressure

The Forced vaporsier is used to supplement BOG for fuel gas.

3.6 INERT GAS

Inert gas is used on gas carriers when gas freeing cargo tanks for man entry,
prior gassing up tanks for loading, inerting void spaces, hold spaces and inter-
barrier spaces.

IG GENERATORS
This gas is generated on board by means of :
- Combustion type generator
- Nitrogen generator
Alternatively IG/nitrogen may be obtained from the terminal or portable nitrogen
generators mounted on flatbed trucks or barges or in liquid form with the use of a
vaporizer.

IG generators fitted on gas tankers are governed by IGC regulations and typically
have an oxygen content of 1% or less. Some Chemical cargoes may require
even lesser or zero oxygen content in which case nitrogen gas is used.

The advantages of having an onboard IG generator are two fold. It is cost

effective and secondly it gives the ship the flexibility of carrying out operations
involving IG at sea or in port.

Combustion type IG generator

It comprises of three main parts
- Combustion chamber
- Refrigerated drier, normally cooled by R22
- Absorption drier.
 - Oxygen analyser

Combustion Chamber – It is water jacketed and generally located in the engine

room. Combustion of diesel or gas oil is carried out. The burner is so adjusted to
achieve a low oxygen content by ensuring good combustion. Carbon monoxide
and soot are formed as a result of the combustion and these can increase with
the decrease of oxygen, hence a fine balance has to be maintained.

After combustion the IG produced is washed, cooled, scrubbed and filtered. Solid
particles and acid gases such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen etc are
removed. The IG is saturated with water vapour and at a temperature which is 5o
greater than the sea water temperature used.

Refrigerated Drier – Here the IG is cooled down to 4o C and most of the water
vapour is condensed. This is achieved using R22 gas as the coolant

Absorption drier- Here the IG is dried and the dew point is reduced to - 40o C or
below. This is achieved by using two vessels filled with silica gel or aluminia
which work on a 6 hour cycle of drying and regeneration alternatively, ie when
one is drying the other is regenerating. Furthermore a layer of molecular sieves
in the bottom of the driers can further improve the dew point. The entire system
has to be maintained at a constant pressure which is achieved by means of a
pressure control valve.

Oxygen analyzer - The oxygen content in the IG is checked and the IG is sent
through the delivery system if the content is below the preset parameter or
vented o the atmosphere.

The quality of the IG is dependent on various factors:

- Type of oil, gas oil is preferred over marine diesel oil
- Sulphur content, fuels with lesser sulphur content are preferred.
- Burner adjustment, balance between oxygen and carbon monoxide and
soot
- The presence of oxygen even in very small quantities may be detrimental
to oxygen sensitive cargoes and require the use of nitrogen.
Nitrogen Generator
Nitrogen is the preferred inert gas on LNG carriers. It is used to inert cargo tanks
and lines, inter barrier spaces, fuel gas lines and boiler furnaces and as a seal
gas in cargo compressors.

Typically nitrogen generators fitted on board use the separation process where
nitrogen is generated by separating air into its component gases by passing
compressed air over hollow fibre membranes.

The fast gases such as oxygen, water vapour and carbon dioxide permeate
through the membrane walls much faster than the slower gases thus separating
the two. Purity is achieved by adjusting the operating conditions.
3.7 BALLAST TANKS

Sufficient ballast water capacity must be provided to permit the ship to return to
the loading port safely under various sea conditions. LNG cargo tanks are not
used as ballast tanks because these tanks must contain minimal amount of LNG
to remain at cryogenic temperatures. Consequently, LNG ships must be
designed to provide adequate ballast capacity in other locations.

Ballast water tanks are arranged within the ships double hull. It is essential that
ballast water not leak into the containment system. To reduce the potential for
leakage, the ballast tanks, cofferdams, and void spaces are typically coated to
reduce corrosion.
A ballast control system, which permits simultaneous ballasting during cargo
transfer operations is also incorporated into each LNG ship. This system allows
the LNG ship to maintain a constant draft during all phases of its operation to
enhance performance. Under normal operating conditions, ballast water would
be taken on the ship during discharge of LNG at the terminal.
3.8 LNG TERMINALS

Loading Transportation Discharging

Safe jetty design

The ship shore interface is a vital area for consideration in the safety of the
liquefied gas trade. Considering jetty design (and the equipment which may be
needed), safety in this area requires a good understanding of ship parameters
before construction begins. In this context the following points are often
addressed by the terminal designers:-

¾ The berth’s safe position regarding other marine traffic.

¾ The berth’s safe position in relation to adjacent industry.
¾ Elimination of nearby ignition sources.
¾ Safety distances between adjacent ships
¾ The range of acceptable ship sizes.
¾ Ship’s parallel body length – for breasting dolphin positioning.
¾ Properly positioned shore mooring points of suitable strength.
¾ Tension monitoring equipment for mooring line loads.
¾ Suitable water depth at the jetty.
¾ The use of hard arm and their safe operating envelops.
¾ Nitrogen supply to the jetty.
¾ Emergency shut-down systems – including inter-linked ship/shore
control.
¾ A powered emergency release coupling on the hard arm.
¾ Systems for gas leak detection.
¾ A safe position for a ship to shore gangway.
¾ Design to limit surge pressures in cargo pipelines.
¾ Verbal communication systems
¾ The development to Jetty information and regulations.
¾ Jetty life saving and fire-fighting equipment.
¾ Systems for the warning of onset of bad weather.
¾ The development of Emergency Procedures.
¾ Vapour return facilities.
LNG Tanker Discharge Operation

LNG Storage at Terminals

LNG Storage
Two or more above ground tanks are generally installed for receiving and storing
LNG, though terminals have been designed by Kellogg and built with a single
tank. To reduce cost, designers try to minimise the number of tanks and
maximise the amount of storage per tank.

If the facility has only one tank then send out and LNG unloading will be from the
same tank.( as seen in the figure above). This does not cause any operating
difficulties when properly designed and operated.

The main tank types are

1. Single containment
2. Double containment
3. Full containment
4. Membrane
The single containment tank has an inner wall of 9% nickel steel that is self-
supporting. This inner tank is surrounded by an outer wall of carbon steel that
holds perlite insulation in the annular space. The carbon steel outer tank is not
capable of containing cryogenic materials; thus the only containment is that
provided by the inner tank. However, single containment tanks are surrounded by
a dike or containment basin external to the tank, either of which provide
secondary containment in the event of failure.

The double containment tank is similar to a single containment tank, but

instead of a dike there is an outer wall made of pre-stressed concrete. Thus if the
inner tank fails the outer wall is capable of containing cryogenic liquid. The outer
concrete wall adds to the tank cost but less land is required because the diked
area is eliminated. Should the inner tank fail, then whilst the liquid will be
contained, vapour will escape through the annular gap.

A full containment tank is one where the annular gap between the outer and
inner tanks is sealed. Generally this type of tank has a concrete roof as well as a
pre-stressed concrete outer wall. The outer wall and roof now can contain both
cryogenic liquid and vapour generated. The weight of the concrete roof permits a
higher design pressure [290 mbarg] than a metal roof tank [170 mbarg].

Double metallic tanks have also been constructed in Japan that can be
considered as full containment. The outer tank is made of materials that can
withstand LNG and retain both liquid and vapour. The size of LNG tanks has
been increasing over the years. In general the largest common tank size is
160,000 m3. Toyo Kanetsu K.K. has however now constructed a single
180,000m3 tank for Osaka Gas in Japan
.
The membrane type storage tank is a pre-stressed concrete tank with a layer of
internal insulation covered by a thin stainless steel membrane. In this case the
concrete tank supports the hydrostatic load which is transferred through the
membrane and insulation (in other words, the membrane is not self-supporting).
The membrane must shrink and expand with changing temperatures. Existing in-
ground membrane tanks have capacities up to 200,000 m3.

The decision to use single, double, or full containment is based on capital and
operating cost, land availability, separation distances to jetty and sometimes
protection from external events such as vapour cloud blast pressure, missiles or
small aircraft.

Full containment tanks are more expensive than single containment tanks.
Before a particular type is finally selected it is important to consider the higher
capital and operating cost of vapour handling equipment as well as the higher
cost of safety features such the firewater system associated with single
compared to full containment tanks. Where site conditions make land availability
restrictive or where special protection from external events is required
then a full economic analysis should be carried out that will generally favour
concrete roof tanks.

Current industry practice is to have all connections to the tank (e.g., filling,
emptying, venting, etc.) through the roof so that if a failure of a line should occur
it will not result in emptying the tank. Each tank has the capability to introduce
LNG into the top or the bottom section of the storage tank. This allows mixing
LNG of different densities and prevents the phenomenon known as “rollover”
which can result in rapid vapour generation. Filling into the bottom section
is accomplished using an internal standpipe with slots, and top filling is carried
out using separate piping to a splash plate in the top of the tank. It should be
noted that some tanks have been installed with a side wall penetration in Japan
but this could not be consider as popular in outside of Japan.

Vapour Handling

During normal operation, boil-off vapour is produced in the tanks and liquid-filled
lines by heat transfer from the surroundings. This vapour is collected in the boil-
off header that ties into the boil-off compressor suction drum. An in-line de-super
heater, located upstream of the drum will inject LNG into the gas stream if the
temperature rises above minus 80°C (LNG temperature is approximately minus
162°C). Boil-off vapours generated during normal operation (not
unloading) by heat leak into the storage tank and piping are compressed and
liquefied in a re-condenser.

During ship unloading, the quantity of vapour in the tank outlet increases
significantly. These additional vapours are a combination of volume displaced in
the tanks by the incoming LNG, vapour resulting from the release of energy input
by the ships pumps, flash vapour due to the pressure difference between the
ship and the storage tanks and vaporisation from heat leak through the unloading
arms and transfer lines.

Boil off gas compressor vendors are addressing the need to allow operation with
warm inlet gas and thus avoid the need for LNG injection and hence the
requirement for a compressor suction drum. From the compressor suction drum,
vapour can be routed to the boil-off gas blowers for vapour return to the ship or to
the boil-off gas compressors. The vapour that is not returned to the ship is
compressed and directed to the re- condenser. The amount of vapour that can
be re-condensed depends on the amount of LNG send-out. If there is not enough
LNG send-out to absorb the boil off vapour then the vapour must be compressed
to pipeline pressure, or flared or vented. Thus the priority for handling vapour is
in the following order of preference:

Make up displacement in ship and storage tanks

Re-condense into send-out LNG
Compress to pipeline pressure and send to pipeline
Flare or vent to atmosphere

Loading Arms

Hard arms
Are hard tubular connections used for cargo transfer’s. The arm is provided with
swivel joints to provide the required movement between the ship and shore rigid
connections. A counterbalance system is provided to ease off the weight on the
ships manifold and facilitate easy maneuvering of the arm for connection.

The hard arm due to its swivel joints and sheaves offers the vessel some
freedom of movement which is limited in all planes i.e. fore and aft, athwart ships
and for heave. This limited range that the vessel can safely move in without
endangering the hard arm and cargo operations is referred to as the ‘Operating
envelope” This envelope is dependent on the hard arm design, weather, sea
state, tidal conditions and efficiency of the moorings.

The importance of being aware of the operating envelope, during cargo

operations cannot be strongly emphasized.
Ships Manifold / Hard Arm Connections.
These are basically of two types:
Bolted flanges - where the two flanges are bolted together.
Quick connect/disconnect (QCDC) coupling. The coupling is hydraulically
operated and the clamping /unclamping is manually controlled. During cargo
operations the ship/shore joint is maintained by a positive mechanical lock
independent of the hydraulic power.

Emergency Release Systems (ERS)

Emergency release systems are fitted on to hard arms in addition to QCDC or
bolted flange devices so that the hard arm can be released if the hard arm
operating limits are approached or in the event of an emergency.

It forms a second stage ESD system after the first stage ESD system which
shuts off pumps and valves on cargo lines. It quickly uncouples the hard arms
with a minimum of spillage.

The system is fitted with sensors and instrumentation to monitor the ships
position / movement and alarms and control systems which activate on reaching
the preset limits. It can be physically disconnected by activating the PERC

Powered Emergency Release Coupling (PERC) installed on the hard arm. It

comprises of a clamped flange interposed between two ball/butterfly valves. Two
hydraulic actuators mounted on the upper part of the coupler, are linked by
special linkages to the clamp ring and the two valves.

On activation the two valves close and the clamped coupling is released. The
lower part of the PERC and its valve remain on board attached to the ships
manifold and the upper part of the PERC and its valve attached to the hard arm
rise clear of the ship.

Mechanical and hydraulic interlocks prevent the coupling from opening before the
valves are shut and the spillage of liquid is minimal as the space between the
valves is minimal.
( See Figure on next page)
 Insulation Flange

They are used to prevent electrical flow through a loading arm or hose, which is
generated by electrolytic differences between ship and shore

It is fitted on the outer end of the hard arm or onshore close to the shore
presentation flange when hoses are used.
It should be maintained clean and unpainted and the insulating properties should
be regularly tested by a 500 V insulation resistance tester (Megger) and the
results recorded.

LOADING ARM WITH PERC AND QCDC

LOADING ARM

BALL VALVE

PERC

BALL VALVE
QCDC

MANIFOLD

ADJUSTABLE DECK
SUPPORTS
 LNG TANKER OPERATIONS Chapter – 4
4.1 CYCLE of OPERATIONS

Typically, the sequence of operations, starting from dry dock and covering one
loaded voyage, discharging and then returning to dry dock would be as follows:

- Inerting of cargo tanks and pipe lines

- Drying of cargo tanks
- Cool down of cargo tanks and lines
- Loading
- Loaded Passage
- Discharging
- Warm up of cargo tanks and lines
- Inerting of cargo tanks and lines
- Gas Freeing of cargo tanks and lines

This sequence differs from a normal trading pattern in that, once cool down has
been achieved it is normal to maintain tank temperatures as low as practical by
retaining a small quantity of liquid in the tank which is known as ‘heel’. This
quantity is normally initially purchased by the ship owner or charterer.

4.2 INERTING

This involves the reduction of oxygen content in the atmosphere within the tank
sufficiently to prevent combustion.

Two main gases/methods are used for inerting:

- Displacement of the tank atmosphere with Nitrogen
- Displacement of the tank atmosphere with IG produced by an IG
generator.

Nitrogen
Supplied by the terminal, tender vessel or an on board nitrogen generator. Liquid
nitrogen is first passed through a vaporizer and then through a heater. The gas is
then passed through the liquid header to the bottom of the tanks. The upward
flow exits through the vapour line to atmosphere.

The vaporizer takes the form of a steam heated matrix heater. A gas detector
may be fitted to the condensate drains from this heater to check for leaks.
Alternately manual measurements may be taken on a routine basis.

The nitrogen is maintained at a temperature 10 to 15'C below the temperature of

the atmosphere in the tank. This gives good stratification and reduces mixing
allowing for a much more efficient inerting process.
The tank pressure is adjusted by control of the liquid header isolating valves to
the tank.

Inert Gas

Generated onboard by an Inert Gas generator or from a tender vessel. The use
of IG is not a favored option due to the poor quality of the gas and carbon dioxide
content. IG generators fitted on board LNG carriers are capable of producing IG
with an oxygen content of 0.5 %

4.3 DRYING

The IG used for inerting contains moisture. Large drying plants may be used
to dry this gas, alternately, warmed methane may be used.

The methane is pumped from shore facility to the vessels liquid header then via
the bypass line to the spray line and on to the vaporizer. The gas is heated and
sent to the tanks via the vapour header.

The gas in the tanks is drawn out via the liquid loading line by the compressors
and returned to shore via the vapour return or to the forward mast riser, this
method is not permitted and generally not used due to atmospheric and safety
concerns.

The limit for the temperature of the gas is governed by the tank insulation. The
dew point of the exit gas is checked and drying stopped when desired dew point
and 100% CH4 is achieved.

4.4 COOL DOWN

The cool down process is required to ensure that excessive boil off, thus over
pressurisation, is prevented during cargo loading. This procedure is performed
before each loading operation.

Cool down is achieved by supplying liquid CH4 to the spray headers. The spray
enters the tank via distribution grids and may be directed to various levels as
required. Boil off vapour is drawn by the high duty compressors and sent back to
shore via the vapour line.

Boil off occurs during loading of LNG, this is passed to shore via the vapour line

Heat must be extracted from both the primary barrier and the insulation. Cool
down rates of 30 ~ 40o C/hour correspond to an overall rate of 8 ~ 10oC including
the insulation and secondary barrier.
When a liquid level is detected in the bottom of the tank then the cool down
process is considered to be complete. Primary insulation and secondary barrier
temperatures should be measured at - 80 to -100oC

Tank pressure is maintained by the use of the compressors and by varying the
flow of liquid to the spray headers.

Cooling the tanks will lead to a drop in pressure in the inter barrier space.
Nitrogen should be introduced as required. Test for methane in the barrier
space should be carried out during this procedure to ensure no leakage of
cargo.

4.5 LOADING
Before commencing loading the flow from shore used for cool down is initially
reduced. The liquid loading line to each tank is opened, the spray shut down. As
the liquid vaporisers in the header it is drawn out via the vapor line and returned
to shore.

Depending of the lie of the liquid in the header the tanks are isolated in sequence
to ensure each loading line is cooled.

Loading takes place using normal safe working practices. That is, slow start
building up gradually to full rate. Tank pressures are monitored, the capacity of
the compressors to return vapour to shore governs the maximum load rate.

Ballasting takes place with loading. Great care must be taken with some
designs of LNG carriers due to the 'L' shape of the ballast tank. The vertical
section (sometime called the 'pipe') empties vary rapidly and has a large
effect on the metacentric height.

Sloshing could take place in partially filled tanks due to the rolling and
pitching of the vessel. This is specially in the case of large Prismatic and
Membrane tanks without a centerline bulkhead.
Emergency Shut Down Systems-

The procedure for shut down is agreed upon between the ship and the terminal.
The terminal sometimes places a remote stopping device on the vessel. Due to
the potential damage that can be caused by shutting a valve against a flow of
liquid the shut down takes the form of a programmed sequence of events with
timed parameters. ( A number of valves are placed on the lines which close in a
sequence and prevent surge pressure)

On completion of loading, the high duty compressors are stopped and the vapour
line is disconnected. Once the tank pressure starts to rise it will be necessary to
commence gas burning in the boilers by starting the low duty compressor and
bringing into the use the steam dump system as required until the vessel sails.

4.6 LOADED PASSAGE

During the loaded passage a quantity of the Cargo will boil off removing heat that
has leached past the insulation. This gas is used in the propulsion plant as fuel.
Although progress has been made with fitting gas burning gear to large diesel
plants, the vast majority of LNG tankers are steam powered.

The boil off gas is fed to the propulsion plant by a low duty compressor via a
heater. The gas pipe entering the engine room is surrounded by a gas tight
enclosure whose atmosphere is monitored for hydrocarbons. The spaces around
the burner platform are positively ventilated and again monitored for
hydrocarbons. The gas flame in the boiler is extremely clean reducing soot
blowing from a daily requirement to a fortnightly requirement. However, the flame
is clear blue requiring either a special type of flame detector or for a small
quantity of fuel to be burnt which can be seen by normal flame detectors.

However newer dual fuel propulsion systems have been developed which drive
diesel engines or electric motors. Some LNG ships are fitted with re-liquefaction
plants to save losses due to boil off.

Inducing Boil-off

When the LNG cargo is first loaded generally it is super cooled. On sailing very
little boil off is experienced for a period which may extend to a few days. It is in
the operators, though obviously not the charters, interest to bring on the amount
of boil off as this will drastically reduce fuel oil consumption.

Cold spot inspection

It is possible to check the integrity of the insulation during the loaded passage by
entering the cargo and cofferdam spaces and looking for cold spots were ice has
formed. Ice is a very good thermal insulator and this causes the metal
underneath to cool to levels which may allow damage to occur. If the cold spots
are severe then warming of the metal is required. This is usually done by wetting
the surface or steam heating of the ballast.

Inter-barrier Spaces

The inert gas in the inter-barrier spaces is tested for hydrocarbons and moisture.
The pressure in the space is slightly below the head pressure in the tank in
membrane systems.

A test for membrane tanks during dry docking is to apply a small vacuum to the
inter-barrier space and then monitoring it over a period thereby checking for
leaks. On completion nitrogen is reintroduced slowly into these spaces.

Entering Port

Before entering ports it will be necessary to resume fuel oil burning. In addition
the propulsive load will be reduced. This may cause tank pressures to begin to
rise due to insufficient boil off gas being burnt. Steam vessels are fitted with large
steam dump facilities which allow steam to be dumped to a condenser increasing
boiler load.

It should be noted that the majority of countries and/or port authorities will not
allow venting with their port limits for obvious reasons.
4.7 DISCHARGE
The Liquid header is cooled down before arrival whilst still gas burning. To do
this a spray pump is started filling the spray line, then the liquid header via the
cross-over. Boil off and excess liquid flow back to the tank via the branch pipe.

Cargo Pumps-Before starting the cargo pumps ensure that the electrical cables
are megger tested.

The pumps are started sequentially against shut discharge valve. After starting
the valves are slowly opened to prevent surging.

When nearing completion, and about half a meter of liquid cargo in the tank the
stripping pumps are started. Heel retained in the tank.

The Float gauges are hoisted and locked in place.

 MARINE POLLUTION Chapter – 5
5.1 LNG SPILL

Is an LNG spill detectable?

Within an LNG facility or onboard a ship, there are various types of detectors
used to alert personnel to a leak or spill. These could include detectors for the
presence of gas, flame, smoke, high temperatures or low temperatures. While
LNG vapors have no odor or color, if an LNG release occurs, LNG's low
temperature causes water vapor to condense in the air and form a highly visible
white cloud.

Would an LNG spill mean similar pollution to an oil spill?

If LNG were to leak, it would quickly evaporate leaving no residue when it came
into contact with soil or water; so there is no need for environmental clean up of
LNG spills on water or land.

Is LNG environmentally friendly?

When LNG is vaporized and used as fuel, it reduces particle emissions to near
zero and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 70 percent in comparison with
heavier hydrocarbon fuels. When burned for power generation, the results are
even more dramatic. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions are virtually eliminated and
CO2 emissions are reduced significantly.

If spilled on water or land, LNG will not mix with the water or soil, but evaporates
and dissipates into the air leaving no residue. It does not dissociate or react as
does other hydrocarbon gases and is not considered an emission source.

Additionally there are significant benefits when natural gas is used as fuel over
other fossil fuels. However, methane, a primary component of LNG, is
considered to be a greenhouse gas and may add to the global climate
change problem if released into the atmosphere.

Pollution on gas carriers is likely to occur during bunkering operations. This is

mainly due to the fact that the operation is not correctly monitored, the loading
arm or hose connections are not properly made, whilst disconnecting lines that
have not been properly drained or the vessel breaks away from the berth due to
the parting of mooring lines.

5.2 AIR POLLUTION.

Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which substances

are present at concentrations high enough above their normal ambient levels to
produce a measurable negative effect on man, animals, vegetation or materials.
MARPOL Annex VI has now introduced emission control legislation, focused on
reducing air pollution from ships. These rules set limits on sulphur oxide and
nitrogen oxide emission from ship exhausts and deliberate emissions of ozone-
depleting substances.
Modern tankers are fitted with vapour manifolds with the intention that the vapour
ensuing during cargo is sent ashore. This vapour will be processed prior being
vented to the atmosphere to minimize air pollution or burnt at the flare stack.

5.3 MARPOL

Annex VI – Deals with Regulations for the prevention of Air Pollution from Ships.
Come into force from 19th. May 2005.

Regulation 15 – Deals with Volatile Organic Compounds. (VOC’s)

The emission of VOC’s from tankers should be regulated in ports and terminals.
The ship should be provided with a vapour return line and the port or terminal
should provide the ship with vapour collection systems.

5.4 BALLAST WATER MANAGEMENT

Studies carried out in several countries have shown that many species of
bacteria, plants and animals can survive in a viable form in the ballast water and
sediment carried in ships, even after voyages of several months’ duration.
Subsequent discharge of ballast water or sediment into the waters of Port States
may result in the establishment of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens
which may pose threats to indigenous human, animal and plant life, and the
marine environment.

IMO has issued Guidelines for the control and management of ship’s ballast
water.

Areas considered inappropriate for the intake of ballast water:

• Where outbreaks, infestations or a history of the presence of
harmful aquatic organisms, germs and sediments containing them
exists
• Where the growth of certain harmful plankton is present
• Near sewage outfalls
• Near dredging operations
• Turbid regions of tidal streams
• Regions with poor tidal flushing
• Very shallow water
• Where the propeller movement may stir up sediment

The risk of contamination by ballast water can also be minimized by :

 • Exchange of ballast at least 200 miles from the nearest land and
where the depth of water is approximately 2000 meters or more
• Neutralization of the harmful contents of the ballast prior to its
discharge using approved techniques
• Discharge to authorized reception facilities

LNG carriers being built today are being designed for the sequential method of
ballast water exchange, which has each loaded ballast water tank completely
emptied and re-filled with the vessel underway in open waters.
A ship-specific ballast water management plan and log-keeping is recommended.
 SAFETY Chapter – 6
SAFETY IS NO ACCIDENT.

REMEMBER: SAFETY DOES NOT JUST HAPPEN

IT IS THE REWARD OF CARE, THOUGHT AND GOOD ORGANISATION.

ACCIDENTS JUST DO NOT HAPPEN BUT ARE MADE TO HAPPEN.

YOU CAN ENSURE THAT ACCIDENTS DO NOT HAPPEN BY NOT
COMPROMISING SAFE PRACTICES.

LIFE STARTED AT SEA – DO NOT LET IT END THERE

DO NOT BECOME THE NEXT CASUALITY YOURSELF

6.1 PRECAUTIONS FOR PROTECTION OF PERSONNEL AND SHIP

Precautions against Fire (SHIP)

In order to eliminate the risk of fire and explosion on a LNG tanker, it is

necessary to avoid a source of ignition and a flammable atmosphere being
present in the same place at the same time. It is not always possible to exclude
both these factors and precautions are therefore directed towards excluding or
controlling one of them.

Smoking is permitted only at times and in places specified by the Master.

Smoking is prohibited on the tank deck area or any other place where
gas/vapours may be encountered. The use of matches and lighters outside
accommodation spaces is prohibited. Matches and cigarettes should not be
taken outside the accommodation. Matches used on board should be of the
safety type. Smoking in bed is strictly prohibited.

Naked light (Open flame) is prohibited on the tank deck and in any other place
where there is a risk that cargo vapours/gas may be present.

Galley personnel should be instructed in the safe operation of galley equipment.

Unauthorized and inexperienced persons should not be allowed to use such
facilities. Galley vents should always be maintained in a clean condition ensuring
that fatty deposits are cleaned. Only galley equipment of an approved design
should be used.

Battery powered personal equipment should not be used. Walkie-talkies must be

intrinsically safe type. Batteries for these walkie-talkies should not be changed
on deck. On deck, use of portable radios, tape recorders, electronic calculators,
cameras containing batteries, photographic flash units, mobile phones, and radio
pagers is not allowed.

Flashlights that have been approved by a competent authority for use in

flammable atmosphere must be used on gas carriers.

Fixed electrical equipment must be of a type as approved by the IGC code.

Accommodation air-conditioning plant should be in the re-circulating mode and

the accommodation should be maintained at positive pressure. All
accommodation doors and windows should be closed.

Oily rags, waste and other flammable material should be correctly disposed.

Paints, which generate exothermic reactions, should not be used in hazardous

areas.

Radio aerials should be effectively earthed.

An important countermeasure to prevent electrostatic hazards on ships is to use

bonding. Bonding to earth is effectively accomplished by connecting all metal
objects to the ship’s structure. The ship’s hull is naturally earthed through the
seawater.

Metal tools can create sparks if dropped. Care should be taken when using
tools. The former concept of having spark-free tools is not really valid.

Precautions against Fire (TERMINAL)

Visitors who could either knowingly or unknowingly introduce a source of ignition,

therefore, control of the access to the gas carrier is vital. Persons who have no
legitimate business on board, or who do not have the master’s permission, should
be refused access to the tanker. The terminal, in agreement with the master,
should restrict access to the jetty or berth.

Lighting during darkness, the means of access to the tanker to be well lit &
adequate lighting should be arranged to cover the area of the ship to shore cargo
connection and any hose handling equipment so that the need for any adjustment
can be seen in good time and any leakage or spillage of cargo detected.

Ship to shore bonding cable: A ship/shore bonding cable is not effective as a

safety device and may even be dangerous. A ship/shore bonding cable should
not therefore be used. Due to local regulations if the ship/shore bonding cable is
to be used then the bonding cable is to be visually inspected that the cable is
electrically and mechanically sound and a switch of type suitable for use in Zone
1 hazardous area should be provided on the jetty well away from shore manifold
area. The switch is to be switched off and then only the bonding cable is to be
connected to the ship well away from the ship’s manifold area. The connection of
the bonding cable should be carried out before connection of the hose/hard-arm
and similarly the disconnection has to be carried out after disconnection of the
hose/hard-arm and the switch should be in off position. It is much safer to use an
insulated flange.

Terminals should issue appropriate instructions to the operators of authorised

craft on the use of engines and other apparatus & equipment so as to avoid
sources of ignition when going alongside a tanker or jetty. These will include
advice on spark arresters and proper fenders. Crafts should not normally be
permitted alongside during cargo transfer.

While discharging liquefied gas cargoes, critical periods are when commencing
discharging and stopping discharge, as the systems may be subjected to pressure
surges. The potential hazards of pressure surges (shock pressures or liquid
hammer) resulting from rapid operation of valves should be emphasized to all
personnel engaged in cargo operations. Pressure surges can be created when
the flow in a liquid line is stopped too quickly. Pressure surges are most likely to
occur during cargo transfer as a result of the following occurrences:
¾ Closure of quick closing shut off valve
¾ Rapid closing of or opening of manually or power operated valve
¾ Slamming shut of non-return valve
¾ Starting or stopping of a pump.
The hazard is greatest when the cargo is being transferred over a long distance
and at high velocity. If the valve is shut too quickly under these conditions the
deceleration of the large column of liquid in the line sets up shock waves which
can travel down the line causing extremely high surge pressures. The cargo
hose/hard arm is most vulnerable to failure in these circumstances.

6.2 FIRE-FIGHTING

This topic is covered thoroughly in the Fire-fighting course and so will be dealt
with only briefly here.

Fire requires a combination of fuel, oxygen and a source of ignition. Fires can be
controlled and extinguished by the removal of heat, fuel, air or breaking the
chemical chain reaction.

Fire Detection.
Almost all LNG carriers are fitted with detection systems which detect fires in the
accommodation, engine room, motor room, compressor room and other areas.
The IGC code requires all gas carriers to have detection systems near the tank
domes and manifold area which will activate the automatic shut down of cargo
operations in the event of a fire.

Cargo related Fires on Gas carriers may be broadly categorized as follows:

♦ Pool fire: This takes place with pool of liquid at the leak source and
the pool getting ignited.

♦ Jet fire: When the leak catches fire.

♦ Flash fire: This happens when there is a leak and does not ignite
immediately but after the vapours travel some distance downwind and
getting ignited and is dangerous.

♦ VCE: Vapour cloud explosion happens some time after leakage of

liquid and vapour cloud has formed is very dangerous.

♦ BLEVE: Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion is the most

dangerous. BLEVE, is an explosion resulting from the catastrophic
failure of a vessel containing a liquid significantly above its boiling point
at normal atmospheric pressure. The container may fail for any of the
following reasons: mechanical damage, corrosion, excessive internal
pressure, flame impingement or metallurgical failure. The most
common cause of a BLEVE is probably when fire increases the internal
tank pressure of the vessel’s contents and the flame impingement
reduces its mechanical strength; particularly at that part of the vessel
not cooled by the internal liquid. As a result, the tank suddenly splits
and the pieces of the vessel’s shell can be thrown a considerable
distance with concave sections, such as end caps, being propelled like
rockets if they contain liquid. Upon rupture, the sudden decompression
produces a blast and the pressure immediately drops. At this time the
liquid temperature is well above its atmospheric boiling point and,
accordingly, it spontaneously boils off, creating large quantities of
vapour which are thrown upwards along with liquid droplets. Where
the gas/air mixture is within its flammable limits, it will ignite from the
rending metal or the surrounding fire to create a fire ball reaching
gigantic proportions and the sudden release of gas provides further
fuel for the rising fireball. The rapidly expanding vapour produces a
further blast and intense heat radiation.

Under the Gas Code, pressure relief valves are sized to cope with the
surrounding fire and, it must be said that the chance of a fire occurring in the
enclosed space beneath the pressurized ship’s tank is much smaller than on an
equivalent tank situated on shore. This minimizes the possibility of a surrounding
fire occurring on a ship and almost excludes the possibility of a BLEVE on a LNG
carrier.

In case of LNG leaks:

⎡Stop cargo operation & shut the valves on cargo line.
Ö No mechanized floating craft to come in the vicinity of the vessel & no
vehicles are permitted to be near scene as a potential fire hazard. All
superfluous persons to clear the area as fast as possible.
Ö Do not use cell phones & VHF sets which are not intrinsically safe.
Ö Do not use torch lights which are not approved for use on gas carriers.
⎡ Do not panic.
Leak on a ship:
⎡Inform necessary authorities .
⎡Let the Ship’s crew handle the situation and do not interfere.
⎡ Ship board personnel are trained personnel and they know the drill.
⎡ They will give the necessary alarms if the situation demands it.
⎡ From shore the sprinklers on jetty to be turned on.
Leak on Jetty:
⎡Use spray nozzles near the leak to enable personnel to rectify the leak.
⎡If required, assist in disconnecting the hoses to enable to the vessel to be
cleared from the jetty.
In case of fire on board ship: Action by ship:
As a general guide, when liquefied natural gas fire occurs, the correct procedure
to adopt as follows:-
Raise alarm on ship’s whistle
¾ Cease all cargo operations & then close all valves.
¾ Contact terminal
¾ Assess the fire’s source and extent, and if personnel are
at risk
¾ Implement the emergency plan
¾ Stop the spread of fire by isolating the source of fire
¾ Cool surface under radiation or flame impingement with
water
¾ Extinguish the fire with appropriate equipment or, if this is
not possible or desirable, control the spread of fire.
¾ Standby for disconnecting hoses/hard-arm
¾ Prepare engines and crew to cast off.
Action by terminal:
¾ Inform necessary authorities Close all valves.
 ¾ Turn the sprinklers on
¾ Give any assistance to ship as required by them
¾ Stand-by to disconnect hoses/ hard-arm
¾ Stand-by to assist in fire fighting
¾ Inform all ships
¾ Implement terminal/port emergency plan.

Fire on another ship or ashore: Action by ship:

¾ Cease all cargo operations and then close all valves
¾ Disconnect hoses/hard-arm
¾ Bring engines and crew to stand-by, ready to cast off.

Action by terminal:
¾ Raise the alarm.
¾ Contact the ship.
¾ Cease all cargo operations and then close all the valves.
¾ Fight fire and prevent fire from spreading.
¾ If required, stand-by to disconnect hoses/hard-arm
¾ Inform all ships.
¾ Implement terminal/port emergency plan.

Mediums

Foam

High expansion foam when used on pool fires where the burning liquid pool is
contained is quiet effective, provided the foam is continuously applied to maintain
a depth of 1 ~ 2 meters. This requirement of maintaining a significant depth
reduces the use of foam on board gas carriers.

Water

Water being available in abundance is a prime fire fighting agent on gas tankers .
It is used as a cooling agent or a radiation screen in spray form. It could also be
used to diffuse a vapour cloud in spray form. The IGC Code requires ships
carrying flammable or toxic or both, a water spray system for cooling, for fire
protection and for crew protection should be installed

Water should never be used on a pool fire as it would provide a heat source to
the liquid resulting in rapid vaporization.
 WATER SPRAY SYSTEM

Dry chemical powder

All gas carriers are required by the IGC code to be fitted with fixed dry powder
systems, capable of delivering powder to any part of the cargo area by means of
fixed monitors or hoses fitted with hand held nozzles.

Dry chemical powders have no cooling effect but attack the flame by absorbing
free radicals in the combustion process. The powders generally used are sodium
bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate and urea potassium bicarbonate.

They are effective in fighting small fires, manifold fires, deck fires and jet fires
from holed pipe lines near vent risers.

DCP should never be used in combination with sprayed water.

Inert Gas
IG generated on board or nitrogen is used for inerting inter barrier spaces , hold
spaces and other spaces not commonly entered but still pose fire problems due
to the presence of sources of ignition.

As these gases cannot be delivered at high rates, bottled carbon dioxide or halon
gas are used , which can be delivered at high rates of discharge.

Carbon dioxide or nitrogen injected into safety relief valves has proved effective
in extinguishing vapour fires at vent risers.
6.3 SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND ITS USE

Resuscitator :
It consists of equipment to assist or restore the breathing of personnel overcome
by gas or lack of oxygen. Gas carriers are provided with special apparatus for
use in resuscitation. All personnel should be aware of the location and be
familiar with the operation of that particular equipment.
There are several types of resuscitators that are commonly used on ships. There
are hand-operated resuscitators, which deliver air to a facemask when a bellows
or bag is compressed by the operator. Automatic resuscitators provide artificial
respiration on a positive pressure principle and supply oxygen or air/oxygen
mixture. 100% oxygen should not normally be used for more than 3 or 4 minutes
at a time.

Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) :

This consists of a portable supply of compressed air contained in a cylinder or
cylinders attached to a carrying frame and harness worn by the user. Air is
provided to the user through a facemask which can be adjusted to give an airtight
fit. A pressure gauge indicates the pressure in the cylinder and an audible alarm
sounds when the supply is running low. Only positive pressure types are
recommended for use in enclosed spaces as these, as their name implies,
maintain a positive pressure within the face mask at all times.

When using the equipment, the following should be noted :

• The pressure gauge must be checked before use
• The operation of the audible low-pressure alarm should be tested
before use
• The face mask must be checked and adjusted to ensure that it is
airtight. In this regard, the presence of facial hair may adversely
affect the mask’s seal
• The pressure gauge should be monitored frequently during use to
check on remaining air supply
Ample time should be allowed for getting out of the hazardous atmosphere. In
any event, the user must leave immediately if the low pressure alarm sounds. It
should be remembered that the duration of the air supply depends on the weight
and fitness of the user and the extent of his exertion

Air-Line Breathing Apparatus (ALBA)

In these sets the compressed air cylinder and reducing valve are placed outside
the area of use and connected to the mask and demand valve worn by the user
by means of a long hose.

The user does not have to carry the cylinder which offers him more freedom and
the times can be extended depending on the size of bottles in use or special
cylinder changeover arrangements. The hose however can snag or get damaged
due to an obstruction whilst in use. A lifeline is a must when using the ALBA set

Fresh Air Respirators

In this system fresh air is supplied to the helmet or face mask by means of
bellows or a rotary blower through a hose, the maximum length of which is
restricted to 40 meters.
The user has more freedom. The duration depends on the stamina of the person
or personnel operating the bellows or rotary blower. The hose however can snag
or get damaged due to an obstruction whilst in use. A lifeline is a must when
using this system.

Canister Filter Respirators

This is a face mask fitted with a replaceable canister filter. The user draws in air
by breathing normally, and the filter filters out the toxic elements. They are simple
to operate. and use .

Specific filters required for specific gases. Suitable only for low concentration of
toxic gases. Once used it is not possible to assess the remaining capacity of the
filter. They cannot be used in atmospheres with reduced oxygen content.

Emergency Escape Breathing Devices :

This equipment is commonly referred to as EEBDs or ELSA and comes in 5,10
or 15 minutes packs. The unit may have a proper mask or may be just a plastic
hood which is pulled down over the head. The ELSA should be placed on the
bottom platform of the pumproom in a readily accessible location. A person
encountering gas in the pumproom should use the ELSA and escape to the top.
Protective clothing :
Full protective clothing should be worn when entering areas where contact with
cargo is likely.

Types of protective clothing vary from giving protection against liquid splashes,
low temperatures, solvents to positive pressure gas – tight suits which include a
helmet and boots.

For firefighting the most effective fire protective clothing presently available is
made of light weight fire resistant fabric incorporating an aluminium covering and
is sometimes referred to as a fire proximity suit. This type of suit is not suitable
for direct entry into fire areas. Heavier weight suits termed as fire suits, permit
personnel actually to enter the fire area wearing breathing apparatus. These suits
are stowed near lockers that contain breathing apparatus.

Decontamination Showers and Eye washes.

The IGC code requires suitably marked decontamination showers and eyewash
to be available on deck at convenient locations. These showers and eyewash
should be operable in all ambient conditions.
First Aid
First aid equipment as per the IGC code refers to the resuscitator, a readily
accessible stretcher which is suitable for hoisting an injured person from spaces
below deck and antidotes, if available for the products carried on board.

Gas Detection Systems (FIXED)

LNG carriers are normally fitted with two kinds of gas detection systems which
work continuously :
- For detecting cargo vapours in the inerted inter barrier spaces
- For detecting gas on the cargo deck, accommodation, engine room
specially where the BOG is piped to the engine room for use as fuel.

The detection of cargo vapour in the inter barrier space is carried out by an
instrument which uses light diffusion/deflection or infrared light. The detection of
gas in the other spaces is generally done by catalytic combustion type detector.
Various sensors are placed at strategic locations which give remote readings and
Gas alarms in the CCR, Cargo deck and bridge,

Portable oxygen meter :

It is an instrument for determining the percentage of oxygen in a sample of the
atmosphere drawn from a tank, pipe or compartment. Before use the analyser
should be calibrated using nitrogen or carbon dioxide to purge the sample cell for
a zero check and with air at 21% oxygen for span. There are many different
types of oxygen analysers available in the market. Concerned personnel should
be familiar with the operation of oxygen analysers on board their vessels.
Personal oxygen monitors which are capable of continuously measuring the
oxygen content of the atmosphere are available. They give an audible and visual
alarm when the atmosphere becomes deficient in oxygen so as to give the
wearer adequate warning of unsafe conditions.

Measurement of hydrocarbon concentration

The explosimeter which is also referred to as the catalytic filament combustible
gas indicator measures the hydrocarbon gas in air at concentrations below LEL.
The scale is graduated in %age LEL. This instrument must never be used for
measuring hydrocarbon gas in inert atmospheres. Calibration is done by
comparing with a standard test gas of known LEL.

Two types of instruments are available commercially for measuring hydrocarbon

gas concentrations in excess of LEL or in oxygen deficient atmospheres – the
Non-catalytic heated filament gas indicator and the refractive index meter. The
scale is graduated in %age volume hydrocarbon gas.

Toxic gas meter :

Probably the most convenient and suitable equipment to use for measuring very
low concentrations of toxic gases on board tankers is chemical indicator tubes
(Draeger tubes). These consist of sealed glass tubes containing a proprietary
filling which is designed to react with a specific gas and to give a visible
indication of the concentration of that gas. To use the device the seals at each
end of the glass tube are broken, the tube is inserted in a bellows type fixed
displacement hand pump and a prescribed volume of gas mixture is drawn
through the tube at a rate fixed by the rate of expansion of the bellows. A colour
change occurs along the tube and the length of dis-colouration, which is a
measure of the gas concentration is read off a scale integral with the tube.
6.4 EMERGENCY MEASURES

All gas carriers and terminals should have procedures ready for immediate
implementation in the event of an emergency. The procedures must anticipate
and cover all types of emergencies which may be encountered in the particular
activities of the gas carrier or the terminal. Emergency procedures for fire, cargo
overflow/pollution, hose or pipelines bursts, men overcome by gas, breakouts of
vessels, weather and blackouts must be drawn up and rehearsed frequently in
suitable drills.

The General Emergency Alarm consists of 7 or more short blasts followed by one
long blast on the ship’s whistle or siren and additionally on an electrically
operated bell or klaxon or other equivalent warning system. On hearing this
alarm all crew should muster at the emergency muster station and take action as
per the muster list.

At a terminal the sounding of the ship’s general emergency alarm should be

supplemented by a series of long blasts on the ship’s whistle, each blast being
not less than 10 seconds in duration, or by some other locally required signal.

A vessel may have additional signals for known, identified emergencies.

Planning and preparation are essential for dealing successfully with

emergencies. Information regarding type of cargo and its disposition, location of
hazardous substances, general arrangement plan of the ship, safety plan,
stability information and cargo line diagram should be readily available for easy
reference.

The emergency plan will include :

- The specific action to be taken by those at the location of the emergency to
report,
contain and overcome the incident
- Procedures to be followed in mobilising resources of the terminal as required by
the
incident
- Alerting responsibility and procedures
- Emergency organisation giving specific duties of each person
- Communication systems
- Control centers
- An inventory including location details of emergency equipment.

Crew members should know the location of all safety equipment, such as,
breathing apparatus, protective clothing, approved electric lights, instruments for
measuring oxygen and other gases, first aid kits, , fire fighting equipment with
instructions for its use. Towing wires/towing hawsers should be prepared, hung
over the side at the bow and stern ready for use.
An emergency organisation should be set up which will come into operation in
the event of an emergency. The purpose of the organisation will be in each
situation to:
• Raise the alarm
• Locate and assess the incident and possible dangers
• Organise manpower and equipment

The Emergency Organisation has the following main components :

- Command centre : This is the group in control of the response to the
emergency with the Master or the senior officer on board in charge. The
command centre should have means of internal and external
communication.
- Emergency party : This group should be under the command of a senior
officer and should assess the emergency and report to the command
centre on the situation, advising what action should be taken and what
assistance should be provided, either from on board or, if the ship is in
port, from ashore
- Back up Emergency party : The back up emergency party under the
command of an officer should stand by to assist the emergency party as
instructed by the command centre and to provide emergency assistance
as instructed by the command centre and to provide back up services, e.g.
equipment, stores, medical services including cardio-pulmonary
resuscitation, etc.
- Engineering group : This group should be under the command of the
chief engineer or other engineering officer on board and should provide
emergency assistance as instructed by the command centre. The prime
responsibility for dealing with any emergency in the main machinery
spaces will probably rest with this group. It may be called on to provide
additional manpower elsewhere.

The plan should ensure that all arrangements apply equally in port and at sea.

The person who discovers the emergency must raise the alarm and pass on the
information about the situation to the officer on duty who, in turn, must alert the
emergency organisation. While this is being done, those on the scene should
attempt immediate measure to control the emergency until the emergency
organisation takes effect.

All equipment, which may be needed in an emergency, must be maintained in

good order and always ready for use.