Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Carriers

Principle type and design characteristics of modern liquefied

gas carriers

Gas carriers range in capacity from the small pressurised tankers of

between 500 and 6,000 m3 for shipment of propane, butane and
the chemical gases at ambient temperature up to the fully insulated
or refrigerated seagoing tankers of over 100,000 m3 capacity for
the transport of LNG and LPG. Between those two distinct types is a
third tanker type – semipressurised gas carrier.

These very flexible tankers are able to carry many cargoes in a fully
refrigerated condition at atmospheric pressure or at temperatures
corresponding to carriage pressure of between five and nine bar.
The movement of liquefied gases by waterways is now a mature
industry, served by a fleet of many tankers, a network of export and
import terminals and a wealth of knowledge and experience on the
part of various people involved.

Gas carriers have certain features common with other tankers used
for the carriage of bulk liquids such as oil and chemical tankers.

A feature almost unique to the gas carrier is that the cargo is kept
under positive pressure to prevent air entering the cargo system.
This means that only cargo liquid and cargo vapour are present in
the cargo tank and flammable atmospheres cannot develop.

Furthermore all gas carriers utilise closed cargo systems when

loading or discharging, with no venting of vapour being allowed to
the atmosphere.
In the LNG trade, provision is always made for the use of a vapour
return line between tanker and shore to pass vapour displaced by
the cargo transfer. In the LPG trade this is not always the case as,
under normal circumstances during loading, reliquefaction is used to
retain vapour on board. By these means cargo release to the
atmosphere is virtually eliminated and the risk of vapour ignition is
minimised.

Gas carriers are divided into two main groups.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Carriers, which are designed to carry

mainly butane, propane, butadiene, propylene, vinyl chloride
monomer (VCM) and are able to carry anhydrous ammonia.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Carriers, which are designed to carry

liquefied natural gas (which is mostly methane).

Fig:LNG ship underway

Gas carriers are classed in three types based on hazard potential:

i) type 1G, designed to carry the most hazardous cargoes

ii) type 2G and 2PG, designed to carry cargoes having a lesser

degree of hazard

iii) type 3G, designed to carry cargoes of the least hazardous

nature.

Gas carrier types

All gas cargoes are transported in liquid form (ie they are not
carried as a gas in its vapour form) and, because of their physical
and chemical properties, they are carried either at:

- pressures greater than atmospheric, or at

- temperatures below ambient, or a combination of both.

Therefore, gas carriers are generally grouped as follows:

i) Fully Pressurised

ii) semi-pressurised and refrigerated

iii) fully refrigerated

Note. These grouping names are more prevalently used when

discussing the classes and types of LPG carriers rather than LNG
carriers.

In principle, the design is ‘a box within a box that is separated by a

void space’, similar in effect to the principle of a flask. Gas Carriers
can be split into two distinct groups. One is the liquefied natural gas
(LNG) carrier. The other is the liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) carrier.

LNG is mainly methane and ethane. LNG ships carry their cargo at
-161°C, at a relative density of approximately 0.600 with a volume
contraction ratio of 1 in 600. LNG cargo is carried at ambient
pressure.
LPG is mainly propane and butane. LPG ships carry their cargo at
-42°C, at a relative density of approximately 0.500 with a volume
contraction ratio of 1 in 300. LPG cargo may be carried under
pressure.

The cargo tank construction of LNG and LPG ships can be of (a)
prismatic design (b) membrane design or (c) spherical design.
Materials used for these cargo tanks can be aluminium, balsa wood,
plywood, invar or nickel steel, stainless steel, with pearlite and
polyurethane foam.

Because of the demand for insulation at these extremely low cargo

temperatures, the first cost of these specialised ships are extremely
high. A very high standard of workmanship is required for the
building of these types of vessel.

Fig:LNG carrier moss tanks

Their capacity ranges from 75000 to 138000m3 of gas, their LBPs

up to 280 m and their Br. Mld from 25 to 46 m. When fully loaded,
their CB can be 0.660 up to 0.680 with service speed in the range of
16–20.75 kt. They are fine-form vessels .

Gas carriers must comply with the standards set by the Gas Codes
or national rules, and with all safety and pollution requirements
common to other tankers.
The safety features inherent in the tanker design requirements have
helped considerably in the safety of these tankers. Equipment
requirements for gas carriers include temperature and pressure
monitoring, gas detection and cargo tank liquid level indicators, all
of which are provided with alarms and ancillary instrumentation.
The variation of equipment as fitted can make the gas carrier one of
the most sophisticated tankers afloat today.

There is much variation in the design, construction and operation of

gas carriers due to the variety of cargoes carried and the number of
cargo containment systems utilized. Cargo containment systems
may be of the independent tanks (pressurized, semi-pressurized or
fully refrigerated) or of the membrane type.

LNG carriers in service are fitted with independent cargo tanks and
with membrane tanks. LNG carriers are generally specialised ships
transporting LNG at its atmospheric pressure boiling point of
approximately -162 degree C, depending on the cargo grade. These
ships are usually dedicated vessels, but some smaller examples
may also carry basic LPG cargoes. If an LNG ship is capable of
carrying basic LPG cargoes, a reliquefaction plant is installed to
handle the boil-off LPG cargo vapours.

LNG carriers were typically in the range 80-135,000 m3 up until

2006. In 2006 the first LNG ships of over 200 and 250,000 m3 were
being constructed for the new LNG trains being constructed in
Qatar.
Temperature control

LNG is liquefied by refrigeration to -162°C and this process is

carried out ashore, before the cargo is loaded onto the ship.

LNG carriers are fully insulated because it is not cost effective to

liquefy methane onboard (2006, though the first vessels with
reliquifaction plants may appear in the next few years). As the ship
has no reliquifaction plant any boil-off vapours are burned as fuel
gas in the the engine room.

Construction

The cargo containment systems will generally be either: LNG

Carriers - Membrane systems (Gaz Transport / Technigaz)
previously described. (A full secondary barrier with inerted spaces is
required for the membrane system) This system has a primary and
secondary barrier that is constructed of a thin material and an
insulation layer. - Type B (Moss Rosenberg) (The Type B spherical
tank requires only a partial secondary barrier) A full double-bottom
and side tank ballast system is fitted to all LNG ships.

Cargo Containment Systems in Liquefied Gas Carriers

A cargo containment system is the total arrangement for containing

cargo including, where fitted:
(1) A primary barrier (the cargo tank),
(2) Secondary barrier (if fitted),
(3) Associated thermal insulation,
(4) Any intervening spaces, and
(5) Adjacent structure, if necessary, for the support of these
elements
For cargoes carried at temperatures between –10 degree C and -55
degree C, the ship’s hull may act as the secondary barrier and in
such cases it may be a boundary of the hold space.

The basic cargo tank types utilized on board gas carriers are in
accordance with the list below:-

Independent Type ‘A’: Some other types such as:

Independent Type ‘B’: Internal insulation Type ‘1’

Independent Type ‘C’: Internal insulation Type ‘2’

Membrane: Integral

Fig:Various type LNG carrier

Independent Tanks

Independent tanks are completely self-supporting and do not form

part of the ship’s hull structure. Moreover, they do not contribute to
the hull strength of a ship. As defined in the IGC Code, and
depending mainly on the design pressure, there are three different
types of independent tanks for gas carriers: these are known as
Type ‘A’, “B’ and ‘C’.
Fig:LNG carrier membrane gaz transport

Type ‘A’ Tanks

Type ‘A’ tanks are constructed primarily of flat surfaces. The

maximum allowable tank design pressure in the vapour space of for
this type of system is 0.7 barg; this means cargoes must be carried
in a fully refrigerated condition at or near atmospheric pressure
(normally below 0.25 barg).

This type of tank as found on a fully refrigerated LPG carrier. This is

a self-supporting prismatic tank which requires conventional internal
stiffening. In this example the tanks is surrounded by a skin of foam
insulation. Where perlite insulation is used, it would be found filling
the whole of the hold space.

The material used for Type ‘A’ tanks is not crack propagation
resistant. Therefore, in order to ensure safety, in the unlikely event
of cargo tank leakage, a secondary containment system is required.
This secondary containment system is known as a secondary barrier
and is a feature of all ships with Type ‘A’ tanks capable of carrying
cargoes below -10 degree C.

For a fully refrigerated LPG carrier (which will not carry cargoes
below –55 degree C) the secondary barrier must be a complete
barrier capable of containing the whole tank volume at a defined
angle of heel and may form part of the ship’s full, as shown in the
figure.
In general, it is this design approach which is adopted. By this
means appropriate parts of the ship’s hull are constructed of special
steel capable of withstanding low temperatures. The alternative is to
build a separate secondary barrier around each cargo tank.

The IGC Code stipulates that a secondary barrier must be able to

contain tank leakage for a period of 15 days.

On such ships, the space between the cargo tank (sometimes

referred to as the primary barrier) and the secondary barrier is
known as the hold space. When flammable cargoes are being
carried, these spaces must be filled with inert gas to prevent a
flammable atmosphere being created in the event of primary barrier
leakage.

Type ‘B’ Tanks

Type ‘B’ tanks can be constructed of flat surfaces or they may be of

the spherical type. This type of containment system is the subject of
much more detailed stress analysis compared to Type ‘A’ systems.
These controls must include an investigation of fatigue life and a
crack propagation analysis. The most common arrangement of Type
‘B’ tank is a spherical tank. This tank is of the Kvaerner Moss
design.

Because of the enhanced design factors, a Type ‘B’ tank requires

only a partial secondary barrier in the form of a drip tray. The Type
‘B’ spherical tank is almost exclusively applied to LNG ships; seldom
featuring in the LPG trade. A type ‘B’ tank, however, need not be
spherical.

There are Type ‘B’ tanks of prismatic shape in LNG service. The
prismatic Type ‘B’ tank has the benefit of maximizing ship-deck.
Where the prismatic shape is used, the maximum design vapour
space pressure is, as for Type ‘A’ tanks, limited to 0.7 barg.
Fig:LNG carrier moss tanks

Type ‘C’ Tanks

Type ‘C’ tanks are normally spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels

having design pressures higher than 2 barg. The cylindrical vessels
may be vertically or horizontally mounted. This type of containment
system is always used for semi-pressurized and fully pressurized
gas carriers.

In the case of the semi-pressurized ships it can also be used for

fully refrigerated carriage, provided appropriate low temperature
steels are used in tank construction. Type ‘C’ tanks are designed
and built to conventional pressure vessel codes and, as a result, can
be subjected to accurate stress analysis. Furthermore, design
stresses are kept low. Accordingly, no secondary barrier is required
for Type ‘C’ tanks and the hold space can be filled with either inert
gas or dry air.

In the case of a typical fully pressurized ship (where the cargo is

carried at ambient temperature), the tanks may be designed for a
maximum working pressure of about 18 barg. For a semi-
pressurized ship the cargo tanks and associated equipment are
designed for a working pressure of approximately 5 to 7 barg and a
vacuum of 0.5 barg. Typically, the tank steels for the semi-
pressurized ships are capable of withstanding carriage temperatures
of -48 degree C for LPG or -104 degree C for ethylene. (Of course,
an ethylene carrier may also be used to transport LPG.)

Type ‘C’ tanks as fitted in a typical fully pressurized gas carrier.

With such an arrangement there is comparatively poor utilization of
the hull volume; however, this can be improved by using
intersecting pressure vessels or bi-lobe type tanks which may be
designed with a taper at the forward end of the ship. This is a
common arrangement in semi-pressurized ships.

Membrane Tanks (membrane – 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick)

The concept of the membrane containment system is based on a

very thin primary barrier (membrane – 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick) which
is supported through the insulation. Such tanks are not self-
supporting like the independent tanks. An inner hull forms the load
bearing structure. Membrane containment systems must always be
provided with a secondary barrier to ensure the integrity of the total
system in the event of primary barrier leakage.

The membrane is designed in such a way that thermal expansion or

contraction is compensated without over-stressing the membrane
itself. There are two principal types of membrane system in
common use – both named after the companies who developed
them and both designed primarily for the carriage of LNG. These
two companies have now combined into one.

Fig:Membrane type lng carrier

Semi-Membrane Tanks

The semi-membrane concept is a variation of membrane tank

system. The primary barrier is much thicker than in the membrane
system, having flat sides and large roundish corners. The tank is
self-supporting when empty but not in the loaded condition. In this
condition the liquid (hydrostatic) and vapour pressures acting on the
primary barrier are transmitted through the insulation to the inner
hull as is the case with the membrane system. The corners and
edges are designed to accommodate expansion and contraction.

Although semi-membrane tanks were originally developed for the

carriage of LNG, no commercial-size LNG carrier has yet been built
to this design. The system has, however, been adopted for use in
LPG ships and several Japanese-built fully refrigerated LPG carriers
have been delivered to this design.

Integral Tanks

Integral tanks form a structural part of the ship’s hull and are
influenced by the same loads which stress the hull structure.
Integral tanks are not normally allowed for the carriage of liquefied
gas if the cargo temperature is below -10 degree C. Certain tanks
on a limited number of Japanese-built LPG carriers are of the
integral type for the dedicated carriage of full refrigerated butane.

Internal Insulation Tanks

Internally insulated cargo tanks are similar to integral tanks. They

utilize insulation materials to contain the cargo. The insulation is
fixed inside ship’s inner hull or to an independent load-bearing
surface. The non-self-supporting system obviates the need for an
independent tank and permits the carriage of fully refrigerated
cargoes at carriage temperatures as low as -55 degree C.
Internal insulation systems have been incorporated in a very limited
number of fully refrigerated LPG carriers but, to date, the concept
has not proved satisfactory in service.

Membrane (Gaz Transport or Tecnigaz)

A liquefied gas tank design where the cargo is contained by a thin

stainless steel or nickel alloy flexible membrane. There are two
membrane systems in use. In both cases the insulation is fitted
directly into the inner hull and the primary barrier consists of a thin
metal membrane less than one millimetre thick.

The Gaz Transport system uses two such membranes constructed of

‘Invar’ (36% nickel-iron low expansion alloy). One acts as the
primary barrier and the other the secondary barrier and they are
separated by plywood boxes of perlite insulation. Similar boxes are
fitted between the secondary barrier and the inner hull. Loading is
transmitted through the insulation to the ship structure. No
centreline division is possible in this type of tank. The other system,
developed by Technigaz, has a stainless steel membrane as the
primary barrier while the secondary barrier is included in the
insulation, which consists of load bearing balsa and mineral woods.

LNG vessel construction -Advantages of membrane

technology

The arrangement for containment of cargo including, where fitted, a

primary and secondary barrier, associated insulation and any
intervening spaces, and adjacent structure, if necessary for the
support of these elements. If the secondary barrier is part of the
hull structure it may be a boundary of the hold space.

There are two basic types of cargo containment systems which are
generally referred to as incorporating either membrane or Moss
Rosenberg technology. In both cases, the containment system is
designed to serve two purposes:

 To contain LNG cargo at cryogenic temperatures (-160 degree

C).

 To insulate the cargo from the hull structure.

The materials used for the hull structure are designed to withstand
varying degrees of temperature. At temperatures below their
specified limits, these steels will crystallise and become brittle. The
materials used for the containment system are required to reduce
the heat transfer from the hull structure to minimise boil-off gas
from the cargo, as well as to protect the hull structure from the
effects of cryogenic temperatures.
Membrane cargo containment

The cargo containment system consists of insulated cargo tanks

encased within the inner hull and situated in-line from forward to
aft. The spaces between the inner hull and outer hull are used for
ballast and will also protect the cargo tanks in the event of an
emergency situation, such as collision or grounding.

The cargo tanks are separated from other compartments, and from
each other, by transverse cofferdams which are dry compartments.

The following description is of a Gaz Transport GT96 double

membrane system design. Although the principal design features
will be similar in other systems, e.g. Technigaz, there will be
differences in membrane construction and insulation structure.
In the Gaz Transport GT96 design, the inner hull, that is, the outer
shell of each of the cargo tanks, is lined internally with the patent
tank containment and insulation system. This consists of the
following:

1. A thin flexible membrane, called the primary membrane, which

is in contact with the cargo. This is fabricated from Invar and
has a typical thickness of 0.7mm.

2. A layer of plywood boxes filled with Perlite, called the primary

insulation, typically of approximately 230 mm thickness.

3. A second flexible membrane similar to the first one, called the

secondary membrane. Also of Invar and having a typical
thickness of 0.7mm.

4. A second layer of boxes, also filled with Perlite, and in contact

with the inner hull, called the secondary insulation. This layer
is typically of approximately 300 mm thickness.

The tank lining thus consists of two identical layers of membrane

and insulation, so that in the event of a leak in the primary barrier,
the cargo will be contained by the secondary barrier. The secondary
barrier is only designed to contain any envisaged leakage of cargo
for a period of 15 days. ( IGC Chapter 1V 4.7.4). This system
ensures that all the hydrostatic loads of the cargo are transmitted
through the membranes and insulation to the inner hull plating of
the ship.
Fig: Membrane design

The function of the membranes is to prevent leakage, while the

insulation supports and transmits the loads and, in addition,
minimises heat exchange between the cargo and the inner hull. The
secondary membrane, sandwiched between the two layers of
insulation, not only provides a safety barrier between the two layers
of insulation, but also reduces convection currents within the
insulation.

The primary and secondary insulation spaces are maintained under

a pressure-controlled nitrogen atmosphere. The pressure of nitrogen
within the primary space must never exceed the cargo tank
pressure, in order to prevent the membrane from collapsing
inwards. The insulation design should ensure that:

1. The heat flow into the tank is limited to such an extent that
the evaporation, or boil-off rate, is about 0.15% per day based
on sea surface temperature of 32 degrees and air temperature
45 degrees Celsius.
 2. The inner hull steel does not attain a temperature below its
minimum design value, even in the case of failure of the
primary barrier.

3. Any deflections resulting from applied strains and stresses are

acceptable by the primary barrier.

In addition to the above, the insulation acts as a barrier to prevent

any contact between ballast water and the primary barrier, in the
event of leakage through the inner hull.

Deterioration or failure of the insulation system

The insulation system is designed to maintain the boil-off losses

from the cargo at an acceptable level, and to protect the inner hull
steel from the effect of excessively low temperature. If the
insulation efficiency should deteriorate for any reason, the effect
may be a lowering of the inner hull steel temperature, i.e. a cold
spot and an increase in boil-off from the affected tank. If necessary,
increased boil-off gas may be vented to the atmosphere via the vent
riser and gas heater. The inner hull steel temperature must,
however, be maintained within acceptable limits to prevent possible
brittle fracture.

Thermocouples are normally distributed over the surface of the

inner hull, but unless a cold spot occurs immediately adjacent to a
sensor, these can only serve as a general indication of steel
temperature. To date, the only reliable way of detecting cold spots
is by frequent visual inspections of the ballast spaces on the loaded
voyage.

In addition to failure of the membrane, local cold spots can occur

due to failure of the insulation. While the inner hull steel quality has
been chosen to withstand the minimum temperature likely to occur
in service, prolonged operation at steel temperatures below 0°C will
cause ice build-up on the plating, which in turn will cause a further
lowering of steel temperature due to the insulating effect of the ice.
To avoid this, heating coils may be fitted in the cofferdam spaces, of
sufficient capacity to maintain the inner hull steel temperature at
0°C under the worst conditions.

If a cold spot is detected, either by the inner hull temperature

measurement system, or by visual inspection, the extent and
location of the ice formation should be recorded. Small local cold
spots are not critical and, provided a close watch and record are
kept as a check against further deterioration and spreading of the
ice formation, no further action is required. If the cold spot is
extensive, or tending to spread rapidly, salt water spraying should
be carried out.

In the unlikely event that this remedy is insufficient and it is

considered unsafe to delay discharge of cargo until arrival at the
discharge port, the final recourse will be to jettison the cargo via a
spool piece fitted at the cargo liquid manifold, using a single main
cargo pump. This action should only be taken after full consultation
with the Managing Office and relevant authorities.

Inner hull inspections ( Membrane Containment)

It is a requirement that all spaces around the cargo tanks are

inspected at least once in every six month period. To meet this
requirement the inner hull around a nominated cargo tank is
inspected from the ballast tank, cofferdam, and whaleback areas
(including the whaleback areas external to the ballast tank), each
alternate passage. This frequency ensures every space is inspected
within the required period.

These inspections should commence approximately 48 hours after a

cargo is loaded. The following points are to be covered and
recorded.

1. The position and temperature of cold spots or absence of cold

spots.

2. Condition of anodes.
 3. Condition of paintwork - a reference sheet is provided for this.

4. Extent of corrosion on both the inner and outer hulls,

particularly under the suction strums, in the way of striking
plates and behind heating coils in the ballast and cofferdams.

5. Position and amount of sediment.

6. Any damage, fractures etc. Particular attention to be paid to

the external portion of the inner hull for evidence of fractures,
and to the turn of the bilge areas of the inner hull within the
midships section of the vessel.

7. Hydraulic or heating coil leaks and the condition of scupper

pipes. The duct keel is to be inspected every six months and
must be well ventilated by fan before entry. All spaces should
be inspected on the first cargo after a drydock period. The void
space around each of the liquid domes should be included in
the inspection of the spaces around the nominated cargo tank.

NOTE: It is a Classification requirement for the granting of a valid

Certificate of Fitness for ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk that
routine cold spot inspections are carried and recorded.
Fig: MEMBRANE DESIGN – GAS TRANSPORT TECHNIGAZ (GTT) –
GT96
Fig:LNG carrier moss tanks

Moss Tanks

Spherical tanks are generally produced in aluminium or 9% nickel

steel. The sphere is welded to a steel skirt that is connected to the
hull of the ship and is then free to expand and contract as
necessary.

Insulation is fitted to the outside shell of the sphere but no

secondary barrier is regarded as necessary across the upper part of
the sphere. However, below the sphere, an aluminium drip tray,
together with splash plates, provides secondary protection for the

Hull.
Fig:LNG carrier moss tanks cross section

LNG vessel construction -Advantages of Moss Rosenberg

technology

The LNG cargo containment system consists of insulated

independent spherical tanks constructed from aluminium alloy and
designed to carry LNG at cryogenic temperatures and at a pressure
close to atmospheric pressure.

The tanks are encased within void spaces and situated in-line from
forward to aft within the hull. The spaces between the inner hull and
outer hull are used for ballast and also provide protection to the
cargo tanks in the event of an emergency situation, such as a
collision or grounding.
Fig:Moss Rosenberg LNG technology

There is no secondary barrier as the tanks, primarily due to their

spherical construction, have a high degree of safety against fracture
or failure. The tanks are heavily insulated with approximately 220
mm of polystyrene foam to reduce boil-off to a minimum.

Each tank is covered by a spherical steel tank cover, the main

purpose being for tank and insulation weather protection. The cover
also permits control of the hold space atmosphere. The lower edge
of each cover is welded to the weather deck, forming a watertight
seal. A flexible rubber seal is used at the point where the tank dome
protrudes out from the cover.

The tanks are each supported by a metal skirt from the equatorial
ring, which transmits the weight of the tank and the cargo to the
lower hull. The skirt is stiffened in the upper part by horizontal rings
and the lower part by vertical corrugated stiffeners.

Fig:LNG Moss tanks

Leak detection
The basis of the design philosophy is the ‘leak before failure’
concept. This presumes that the primary barrier will fail
progressively, not suddenly and catastrophically.

In the case of a crack occurring in the tank material, a small

leakage of LNG within the insulation will be detected at an early
stage by the gas detection system fitted at the equatorial ring area
and at the drip pan. The drip pan, installed directly below each
cargo tank, is fitted with temperature sensors to detect the
presence of LNG.

Any leakage of LNG liquid will drain by gravity from between the
tank plating and the insulation to the southern hemisphere and will
collect in the drain tube at the bursting disc, then to the drip pan.
The drain tube at the bottom of the insulation space is sealed in
normal service by a bursting disc which is designed to fail at
cryogenic temperatures.

Preparation for loading LNG cargo -Operation procedures and

precautions for gas carriers

Loading LNG cargo after dry docking : LNG is a cryogenic

substance and its main component is methane. It gasifies violently
when directly introduced into a cargo tank at ambient temperature,
rapidly increases the internal pressure of the cargo tank and makes
the atmosphere into a flammable condition.

In addition, the cargo tank is rapidly cooled, resulting tremendous

thermal stress on cargo tank skins and cargo piping systems. To
avoid such damages, the preparatory work for cargo loading after
dry docking must be done in the following sequence.

During dry dock all the compartments of an LNG carrier are kept
gas free. After leaving the dry dock the vessel has to be prepared to
load cargo, for that the following points to be considered with
priority.

Drying of Cargo Tank

During dry docking or inspection, cargo tanks which have been

opened and contained humid air, must be dried to avoid the
formation of ice when they are cooled down and the formation of
corrosive agents if the humidity combines with sulfur and nitrogen
oxides which might be present in excess in the inert gas.

The drying operation need not be performed independently by using

dry air, instead during inerting operation by supplying dry inert gas,
drying operation can be achieved. During such operation special
attention is required to the delivery temperature of inert gas to
prevent condensation of humid air inside the tank.

Dry air, with a dew of -70ºC to -40ºC, can be produced by the

onboard IGG system.

i) It is essential that cargo tanks are thoroughly inspected for

cleanliness, free of liquid, any loose objects and all fittings are
properly secured. Once this inspection has been completed, the
cargo tank should be securely closed and drying operation can be
started

ii) During drying operation, measure the atmosphere at different

levels at regular intervals. When the dew point of the cargo tank
drops below than the planned temperature, finish the drying
operation.
Fig:LNG carrier moss tanks

Drying of Hold Spaces

The drying operation of a hold space is carried out in order to

prevent tank insulation damage due to condensation of moisture
inside it prior to initial cool down operation and periodically during a
voyage. Fresh air is dehumidified by the IGG and sent to a hold
space as dry air with a dew point of -70ºC to -40ºC through its
bottom section, humid air inside the hold space is released through
the vent pipe provided in the upper portion of the tank. The hold
space should be maintained at a higher pressure than the
atmospheric pressure.

Operation procedures and precautions:

i) Before delivering dry air into a hold space, completely dry up the
bottom section of the hold space, particularly the bilge well.

ii) When drying a hold space after completing the inerting operation
of a cargo tank, purge relevant equipments and inerting/aerating
lines with dry air to prevent the ingress of inert gas into the hold
space. This is because the hold space holding dry air sent into it is
kept almost sealed till the next dry docking and, in addition, about
15% CO2 gas is present in the inert gas, which may corrode
aluminum cargo tanks and destroy insulation materials.
iii) During drying operation, measure the atmosphere at different
levels at regular intervals. When the dew point of the hold space
drops below than the planned temperature, finish the drying
operation.

Inerting of Cargo Tanks

Before introducing the cargo into the tanks, the moisture content
and oxygen content in the tanks shall be reduced simultaneously.

Cargo tanks filled with air shall be dried and inerted with inert gas
supplied from the inert gas generator on board. Inert gas shall be
led into the bottom of the cargo tank through the liquid filling line
and displaced air shall be vented to the atmosphere through the
vapour line and the vent mast. Drying and inerting shall be finished
when the dew point and also the oxygen content in the cargo tank
are less than the planned level.

The dew point and oxygen content shall be periodically measure by

a portable instrument at the sampling lines in way of cargo tank
dome.

Inerting of Annular Space for Moss type vessels

The space between the surface of a cargo tank and insulation is

called annular space, insulation space or wedge space. Annular
Space is inerted with nitrogen gas and continuously supplied from
N2 generator through the N2 bleed line in service in order to ensure
adequate path in the insulation space for the gas detection system.

A safety valve is installed in the N2 bleeding line of each hold in

order to avoid over pressure of the insulation space.

Inerting Inter Barrier Spaces (IBS) and Insulation Spaces

(IS) for Membrane type vessels
The space between the primary and the secondary barrier is called
inter-barrier space (IBS). The space between the secondary barrier
and the inner hull is called insulation space (IS). The pressure in
these spaces shall be regulated at a pressure slightly above
atmospheric pressure in order to prevent any air ingress.

In normal operation, IBS and IS shall be purged with nitrogen in

relation with atmospheric pressure variations and cooling or
warming of the spaces during loading or unloading, and IBS should
be continuously purged with nitrogen if gas is detected by micro-
leakage of the membrane.
The Nitrogen provides a dry and inert medium for the following
purposes:

i) To prevent formation of flammable mixture in the event of any

LNG leak.

ii) To permit easy detection of an LNG leak through a barrier

iii) To prevent corrosion

In addition each space shall be protected against over pressure by

two (2) pilot operated safety valves.

During cargo loaded, as normal procedure, maintain the IBS

pressure at or below cargo tank pressure and maintain the IS
pressure at or above the IBS pressure.

Gassing-up

After lay-up or dry dock, the cargo tanks are filled with inert gas or
nitrogen. If the purging has been done with inert gas, the cargo
tanks have to be gassed up and cooled down when the vessel
arrives at the loading terminal. This is because, inert gas contains
about 14% carbon-dioxide, which will freeze at around -60ºC and
produces a white powder which can block valves, filters and nozzles.
During gassing up, the inert gas in the cargo tanks is replaced with
warm LNG vapor. This is done to remove carbon dioxide and to
complete drying of the tanks.

Supply of LNG for gassing up

LNG liquid is supplied from the terminal to the liquid manifold where
it passes to the stripping/spray header via the appropriate ESDS
liquid valve. It is then fed to the main vaporizer and the LNG vapour
produced is passed at a temperature warmer than the dew point
temperature existing within the cargo tanks through the vapor
header and into each tank via the vapor suction fitted in the upper
part of the tank. This method of gassing up is called “Piston Flow
Method”. In this the lighter specific gravity LNG vapor is injected
from top and the heavier IG is displaced from bottom.

Requirement to purge with Nitrogen

At the start of the operation, the piping system and main vaporizer
contain inert gas. Consequently to avoid the formation of water
condensate or solid CO2, the supply line to the vaporizer from the
manifold has to be first purged with Nitrogen either by using the
ships or shore supplying.

Gassing-up tanks procedure for loading LNG cargo on board

Prior to commencing any gassing up operation it is important to

ensure that all gas detecting equipment (fixed and portable) is
operating correctly and has been calibrated as per the
manufacturers’ requirements.During gassing up, the inert gas in the
cargo tanks is replaced with warm LNG vapor. This is done to
remove carbon dioxide and to complete drying of the tanks.
Gassing up operational cycle

After lay-up or dry dock, the cargo tanks are filled with inert gas or
nitrogen. If the purging has been done with inert gas, the cargo
tanks have to be gassed up and cooled down when the vessel
arrives at the loading terminal. This is because, inert gas contains
about 14% carbon-dioxide, which will freeze at around -60ºC and
produces a white powder which can block valves, filters and nozzles.

During gassing up, the inert gas in the cargo tanks is replaced with
warm LNG vapor. This is done to remove carbon dioxide and to
complete drying of the tanks. The LNG vapour is lighter than the
inert gas, which allows the inert gases in the cargo tank to be
exhausted up the tank filling line to the liquid header. The inert gas
then vents to the atmosphere via the vent mast.

(1) Supply of LNG for gassing up

LNG liquid is supplied from the terminal to the liquid manifold where
it passes to the stripping/spray header via the appropriate ESDS
liquid valve. It is then fed to the main vaporizer and the LNG vapour
produced is passed at a temperature warmer than the dew point
temperature existing within the cargo tanks through the vapor
header and into each tank via the vapor suction fitted in the upper
part of the tank. This method of gassing up is called “Piston Flow
Method”. In this the lighter specific gravity LNG vapor is injected
from top and the heavier IG is displaced from bottom.
Fig:Gassing up with venting from vent mast

(2) Requirement to purge with Nitrogen.

At the start of the operation, the piping system and main vaporizer
contain inert gas. Consequently to avoid the formation of water
condensate or solid CO2, the supply line to the vaporizer from the
manifold has to be first purged with Nitrogen either by using the
ships or shore supplying.

(3) Completion criteria

When 5% methane (% figure will be specified by the particular port

authority) is detected at the vent mast riser, the exhaust gas is
directed ashore.

The operation is considered complete when the methane content, as

measured at the top of the cargo filling pipe, exceeds 98% by
volume.

Due to local regulations on venting methane gas to the atmosphere,

some port authorities may require the entire operation to be carried
out with the exhaust gases being returned to shore facilities.

When about 5% Methane (actual figure will be determined by the

terminal or port authority) is detected at the vent mast the exhaust
gas is directed ashore via the HD compressors or to the boilers via
the gas burning line. It may be possible to conduct this part of the
operation without using compressors subject to back pressure
requirements. Where possible it is preferred not to use the
compressors in order to avoid turbulence in the tanks. Some
terminals may require the operation to be completed with all
exhaust gas returned ashore.

The operation can in certain circumstances be considered complete

when the Methane content, as measured at the top of the cargo
filling pipe, exceeds 80% by volume; however, more typically a
figure close to 100% Methane is preferred. The target value for N2
and Co2 is equal or less than 1%, the terminal requirements should
be discussed when deciding upon the exact figures. The exact
sequence of operation and burning is to be discussed and agreed
with the terminal in advance of commencing operations. All agreed
procedures should be fully documented and signed by both parties.

There are exceptional cases where it may be necessary to

undertake the purging of cargo tanks at sea using LNG from another
tank. In this case the liquid will be supplied from a stripping/spray
pump to the stripping/spray header, the operation will then proceed
in a manner similar to the above.

Methane is a greenhouse gas and detrimental to the environment

therefore seek authorization from shore before venting Methane to
the atmosphere.
Fig:Gassing up with vapour return

Completion criteria

When 5% methane (% figure will be specified by the particular port

authority) is detected at the vent mast riser, the exhaust gas is
directed ashore.
The operation is considered complete when the methane content, as
measured at the top of the cargo filling pipe, exceeds 98% by
volume.
Due to local regulations on venting methane gas to the atmosphere,
some port authorities may require the entire operation to be carried
out with the exhaust gases being returned to shore facilities.

Initial Cool Down

Cool down is an operation to pre-cool cargo tanks and lines required
before taking on cryogenic LNG. Cargo tank cool down is carried out
by spraying LNG through the spray nozzles of each cargo tank,
using LNG received from the shore terminal. The cool down
operation from an ambient temperature (from a condition after
gassing up) to a planned temperature, is called ‘initial cool down’
and is to be differentiated from an ordinary cool down operation
carried out on ballast voyage.

Before LNG can be introduced into the cargo system of an LNG

vessel, the system, and in particular the cargo tanks, have to be
cooled down to a temperature close to that of the LNG which is to
be loaded. The reasons for this are as follows:

Vapor generation

If LNG is introduced directly into warm tanks, the LNG will almost
immediately turn into vapour. LNG has a liquid to gas expansion
ratio 1: 600. Therefore, to enable the liquid to be loaded into the
tank at a reasonable loading rate, necessity of large compressors
would be required to remove the vapour generated in the process.

By reducing the cargo tank temperature, the amount of heat that is

available to transfer into and heat the LNG is minimized.
Consequently the amount of vapour generated can be maintained
within reasonable limits.

Cargo tank Material

Most cargo tanks are constructed of stainless steel which is a

material, that retains its flexibility and strength characteristics over
the temperature range being considered (-180ºC - 50ºC). However
problems could occur if the material is subjected to very local and
rapid cooling such as when a small droplet of LNG comes into
contact with a warm tank wall. Because of the transfer of the heat
from the wall into the liquid, the temperature at the particular point
will decrease rapidly causing large thermal stresses to arise
between the point and the surrounding material. This could lead to
stress cracking.

Pipe tower construction

The tower which supports the pipe-work within the tank is

constructed of stainless steel bars. If subjected to rapid cooling
thermal stress within the material can be excessive, leading to the
material cracking.

All three reasons are of equal importance as each, if not carefully

controlled, can have a significant impact on the tank structure and
overall safety of the vessel.

Why initial cooling of cargo tanks required prior loading LNG

cargo ?

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) compresses to a small fraction of its

original volume (approximately 1/600) under liquefaction. With the
amount of flammable material that LNG contains, it has the
potential to be an extremely dangerous chemical, if handled
improperly.Preparation for loading LNG cargo ,initial Cool down of
cargo tanks need extreme caution

Cargo systems are designed to withstand a certain service

temperature; if this is below ambient temperature the system has
to be cooled down to the temperature of the cargo before cargo
transfer. For LNG and ethylene the stress and thermal shock caused
by an over-rapid cooldown of the system could cause brittle
fracture. Cooldown operations should be carried out carefully in
accordance with instructions.
Initial cool down of cargo tanks

Cool down is an operation to pre-cool cargo tanks and lines required

before taking on cryogenic LNG. Cargo tank cool down is carried out
by spraying LNG through the spray nozzles of each cargo tank,
using LNG received from the shore terminal. The cool down
operation from an ambient temperature (from a condition after
gassing up) to a planned temperature, is called ‘initial cool down’
and is to be differentiated from an ordinary cool down operation
carried out on ballast voyage.

Before LNG can be introduced into the cargo system of an LNG

vessel, the system, and in particular the cargo tanks, have to be
cooled down to a temperature close to that of the LNG which is to
be loaded. The reasons for this are as follows:

Vapor generation

If LNG is introduced directly into warm tanks, the LNG will almost
immediately turn into vapour. LNG has a liquid to gas expansion
ratio 1: 600. Therefore, to enable the liquid to be loaded into the
tank at a reasonable loading rate, necessity of large compressors
would be required to remove the vapour generated in the process.

By reducing the cargo tank temperature, the amount of heat that is

available to transfer into and heat the LNG is minimized.
Consequently the amount of vapour generated can be maintained
within reasonable limits.
 Fig:LNG carrier underway

Cargo tank Material

Most cargo tanks are constructed of stainless steel which is a

material, that retains its flexibility and strength characteristics over
the temperature range being considered (-180ºC - 50ºC). However
problems could occur if the material is subjected to very local and
rapid cooling such as when a small droplet of LNG comes into
contact with a warm tank wall. Because of the transfer of the heat
from the wall into the liquid, the temperature at the particular point
will decrease rapidly causing large thermal stresses to arise
between the point and the surrounding material. This could lead to
stress cracking.

Pipe tower construction

The tower which supports the pipe-work within the tank is

constructed of stainless steel bars. If subjected to rapid cooling
thermal stress within the material can be excessive, leading to the
material cracking.

All three reasons are of equal importance as each, if not carefully

controlled, can have a significant impact on the tank structure and
overall safety of the vessel.
Lng tank cooling down with liquid from shore

After the cargo system has been gassed up the headers and tanks
must be cooled down before loading can commence. The cool down
operation follows immediately after the completion of gassing up
using the LNG supplied from the terminal.

The rate of cool down is limited for the following reasons, note that
although many of the reasons remain similar between Membrane
and Moss vessels the Moss vessels have additional requirements
that must be complied with.

To avoid excessive pump tower stresses. Vapour generated during

the cool down of the tank must remain within the capabilities of the
HD compressors, to maintain a tank pressure safely below that
release pressure of the safety valves.

On Membrane vessels to remain within the capacity of the Nitrogen

system, to maintain the primary and secondary insulation spaces at
the required pressure. To stay within the vertical thermal gradients
and equatorial cool down rate as specified by the tank
manufacturers. This is particularly important on Moss vessels.

LNG is supplied from the terminal to the manifold cool down line
and from there directly to the spray header. The various spray
valves are operated in order to produce a temperature profile in line
with, but not exceeding, the manufacturers’ instructions. Some
tanks may require a minimum equatorial temperature before bulk
loading may commence; this temperature is to be strictly adhered
to.

During the cool down Nitrogen flow to the primary and secondary
barriers (particularly on Membrane vessels) will significantly
increase. It is essential that the rate of cool down is controlled in
order to maintain the pressure in the primary and secondary
barriers at the pressure determined by the manufacturer.

Vapour is returned to the terminal via the HD compressors or, if

requested in writing by the terminal, may be consumed in the
vessels boilers.

Fig:Lng tank cooled down with liquid from shore

Before arrival at a terminal prior loading

The following checks and procedures are to be regarded as the
minimum before cargo operations can commence.

1. Preparation and approval by the Master of a Cargo plan

including valve line up.
2. Calculation of Drafts, Stress and Stability for the vessel
throughout the cargo operation and the forthcoming voyage.
3. Cargo lines walked and checked, in correct status, particular
attention to be paid to valves and blinds that are not
frequently moved. After dry dock or maintenance particular
attention is to be paid to blanks, flanges etc that may not have
been tightened correctly.
4. Remote and if applicable local valve operation and remote
indicators to be verified as in synch with each other.
5. Cargo pumps, spray/stripping pumps and where appropriate
compressor motors to be megger tested and the results are
logged. Operation of ballast valves and pumps to be verified.
6. Ballast water has been exchanged in line with international,
Port State/Terminal and company requirements.
7. Fire fighting equipment including hoses, dry powder units/guns
and other appropriate safety equipment in place and fully
operational.
8. HD compressors ready for operation.
9. Sufficient Nitrogen is available for the cargo operation and
forthcoming voyage. Nitrogen equipment is operational and
correctly lined up.
10. High High Alarms tested and verified as operational.
11. Overflow alarms and activation of the ESD system tested
and recorded as operational.

Onboard procedures for loading LNG cargo - gas carrier

guide

LNG is liquefied natural gas, which is the very cold liquid form of
natural gas.LNG carriers are generally specialised ships transporting
LNG at its atmospheric pressure boiling point of approximately -162
degree C, depending on the cargo grade.LNG carriers were typically
in the range 80-135,000 m3 up until 2006.

Before loading operations begin, the pre-operational ship/shore

procedures must be thoroughly discussed and followed. Appropriate
information exchange is required and the relevant parts of the
ship/shore safety check list should be completed.

Line Cool Down

The terminal should be instructed to begin pumping at a slow rate

for approximately 15 minutes, in order to gradually cool down the
terminal piping and the ship’s headers. Slowly increase the terminal
pumping rate until the liquid main and spray headers have cooled
down (approximately 15/20 minutes). Cargo tank pressures should
be monitored closely and if required the HD compressor should be
adjusted in order to maintain a constant vapour pressure.

Fig:Typical LNG vessel at loading terminal

Note !
In order to avoid the possibility of pipe sections hogging,
(contracting at the bottom more than at the top and thus causing
flanges and long pipe sections to be stressed) the liquid header and
crossovers must be cooled down and filled as quickly as possible.

Prior to commencing the loading operation the cargo pipelines have

to be cooled. The primary reasons for cooling the cargo lines are:

i) To minimize the possibility of leaks being created at joints with

valves or other sections of pipeline as they contract when cargo is
passed.

ii) To reduce the possibility of sudden shock loadings on bellows as

pipes contract rapidly.

iii) To avoid the formation of vapor locks in the pipelines when cargo
is introduced. If LNG is introduced into a warm pipeline the initial
cargo will vaporize, create a large pressure that can ‘block’ the
loading of the liquid. It is then possible that this vapour will then
condense very rapidly as the temperature reduces below the
condensation point, allowing the liquid to surge along the pipeline
possibly resulting in damage to the pipelines, valves or connections.

Air purge of loading arms

After the connection of loading arms, air should be purged from the
loading arms and the tips of manifold pipes. N2 gas is lead into the
loading arms from injection lines connected to the arms, and then
pressurize up to about 4 to 6 kg/cm2G.
After pressurization, the ship’s liquid manifold vent valve and vapor
manifold vent/drain valve are opened to release air and N2 gas into
the atmosphere. While this operation is repeated two or three
times, a leak test (with soap solution) is conducted at the same
time. Air purge comes to an end when the oxygen content of the
purged gas has dropped below 2%.

Loading Arms Cool Down

The cool down of the loading arms is performed from shore side by
use of a small capacity pump. At a discharge port, the arms are
cooled down by sending in LNG by ship’s spray pump.

Loading Operation

LNG is loaded via the loading manifolds to the liquid header and
then to each tank filling line. The boil-off and displaced vapour leave
each tank via the vapour suction to the vapour header. The vapour
is initially free-flowed to shore via vapour crossover manifold and,
as tank pressure rises, one compressor is brought into operation to
increase the gas flow to shore and limit the vapour main and cargo
tank pressure.

As the loading rate increases, it is important to monitor the tank

pressures and to start one HD compressor. If the compressors are
unable to cope with the volume of boil-off and displaced gas, it will
be necessary to reduce the loading rate.
Fig:LNG bulk loading diagram

Bulk loading

When all lines and valves are fully cooled the vessel can commence
ramping up the loading rate in the sequence agreed with the
terminal. Deballasting should be commenced in accordance with the
cargo plan. The cargo should be evenly distributed during the
loading.

Ensure the HD compressors are adjusted in line with loading rate to

ensure that the tank vapour pressure remains at a level safely
below the lifting pressure of the relief valves. Ensure Nitrogen
system is performing correctly.

Moss vessels will require the temperature gradient (with particular

reference to the equator) to remain within certain limits, the tank
temperatures are therefore to be closely monitored. Hourly
temperatures are to be recorded in order that if required the vessel
can verify that temperature has stayed within the manufacturers
tolerances.
If not already started membrane ships should start appropriate
cofferdam heating. Communications with the terminal should be
tested on a frequent basis. Remote gauging devices and valve
position indicators should be verified against local readouts at
regular intervals during the operation. Moorings should be diligently
attended and vessel movement with respect to loading arms closely
monitored, if required additional persons are to be called to assist
with the moorings. If at any time the OOW is in doubt a senior
officer or the Master should be called.

Topping off

As the vessel approaches completion of cargo operations the tanks

should be staggered in line with the cargo plan, typically this would
leave a gap of 10 to 15 minutes between completion of each tank.
The terminal is to be notified well in advance and in line with the
agreed procedure that the vessel is topping of and will need to
reduce loading rate. Notification should be made at least 30 minutes
before reducing rate.

Note: Membrane tanks normally fill to 98% where as Moss vessels

normally fill to 99.5%. On all vessels the independent alarms
activate at preset filling levels, the upper alarm activates the ESD if
previous alarms are ignored.

Deballasting

The deballasting operation is carried out simultaneously with the

cargo loading operation. Before any de-ballasting commences, all
ballast surfaces should be visually checked and confirmed as free
from oil or other pollutants. This check must be carried out through
inspection hatches / tank lids. This is particularly important for
ballast tanks which are situated adjacent to fuel oil tanks. If fitted,
gas detection / sampling systems may not indicate the presence of
hydrocarbons particularly in small quantities.
Deballasting is initially carried out by gravity discharge until the
level in the ballast tanks approach the vessels water line when the
ballast pumps are used.

The ballast should be adjusted to keep a small stern trim to aid with
the stripping of the ballast tanks. The flow rate of the ballast should
be adjusted to keep the ship within 1 meter of the arrival draft or as
specified by the terminal. Deballasting should normally be
completed before the start of the topping off of the cargo tanks.

Filling Rate of Cargo Tanks

The IGC Code (International Code for the Construction and

Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk) came into
force on July 1, 1986, in accordance with the International
Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea, 1983 (the 1974 SOLAS
Convention, as amended in 1983), and, following this, the
Regulations Relating to the Carriage and Storage of Dangerous
Goods by Ship was revised in Japan. The IGC Code contains a
chapter for “Filling Limits for Cargo Tanks”.

LNG carriers registered in Japan are NK-class ships and constructed

on the basis of NK’s “Rules and Guidance for the Survey and
Construction of Steel Ships – Part N”. These rules reflect the IGC
Code, as it is, and, as a result, our LNG carriers, though built before
the enforcement of the ’83 SOLAS Convention, meet requirements
for new ships in the IGC Code.

Behaviour of LNG in the cargo tanks

When loaded in the cargo tanks, the pressure of the vapour phase is
maintained substantially constant, slightly above atmospheric
pressure.

The external heat passing through the tank insulation generates

convection currents within the bulk cargo, causing heated LNG to
rise to the surface where it vaporizes. The heat necessary for
vaporization comes from the LNG, and as long as the vapour is
continuously removed by maintaining the pressure as substantially
constant, the LNG remains at its boiling temperature.

If the vapour pressure is reduced by removing more vapour that is

generated, the LNG temperature will decrease. In order to make up
the equilibrium pressure corresponding to its temperature, the
vaporization of LNG is accelerated, resulting in an increase heat
transfer from LNG to vapour.

If the vapour pressure is increased by removing less vapour than is

generated, the LNG temperature will increase. In order to reduce
the pressure to a level corresponding to the equilibrium with its
temperature, the vaporization of LNG is slowed down and the heat
transfer from LNG to vapour is reduced.

LNG is a mixture of several components with different physical

properties, particularly the vaporization rates; the more volatile
fraction of the cargo vaporizes at a greater rate that the less volatile
fraction. The vapour generated by the boiling of the cargo contains
a higher concentration of the more volatile fraction than the LNG.

The properties of the LNG, i.e. the boiling point, density and heating
value, have a tendency to increase during the voyage.

How to maintain tank pressure for a gas carrier carrying

liquefied gases

A liquefied gas is the liquid form of a substance which, at ambient

temperature and at atmospheric pressure, would be a gas.
Most liquefied gases are hydrocarbons and the key property that
makes hydrocarbons the world’s primary energy source –
combustibility – also makes them inherently hazardous. Because
these gases are handled in large quantities, it is imperative that all
practical steps are taken to minimize leakage and to limit all sources
of ignition.

The Principal Products -

Whilst the hydrocarbon gases methane, ethane, propane and

butane may be regarded principally as fuels, the LPGs are also
important as feedstock in the production of the chemical gases.

Fig:In a cargo control room monitoring gas cargo pressure

Liquefied gases are normally carried as boiling liquids at either:

(1) Ambient temperature (fully pressurized ships), or

(2) Atmospheric pressure (fully refrigerated ships), or

(3) Intermediate temperatures and pressures (semi-pressurized

ship, often referred to as semi-refrigerated).

Particularly hazardous cargoes such as ethylene oxide and

propylene oxide may be carried below their boiling points to reduce
boil-off and increase safety. In such cases the tank pressure is
maintained above atmospheric with nitrogen padding.
Any heat input to the cargo will vaporize some of the liquid and
gradually increase the tank pressure. Pressure vessels are designed
to accommodate this increase, but on fully or semi-refrigerated
ships the boil-off is condensed by the reliquefaction system and
returned to the cargo tanks as a boiling liquid. On LNG vessels
cargo tank pressure is almost always controlled by burning the boil-
off in the main propulsion system or in rare cases (e.g. emergency)
by venting it to atmosphere. If the pressure above a boiling liquid is
increased, vaporization from the surface is reduced, and vice versa.

High and Low Pressure Effects

Pressures above or below the design range can damage a system,

and operating personnel should be fully aware of any pressure
limitation for each part of the cargo system; pressures should
always be kept between the specified maximum and minimum.

Pressure Surge

High surge pressures (shock pressures or “liquid hammers”) can be

created if valves are opened or shut too quickly, and the pressure
may be sufficient to cause hose or pipeline failure.

Pressurized Systems

In pressurized systems, with the cargo at ambient temperature,

there is normally no external frosting to indicate the presence of
liquid or vapour anywhere in the system. Checks should be made
for the presence of high pressure vapour of liquid by gauges and
test cocks before opening valves etc.

Reciprocating Compressors

If vapour trapped in a reciprocating compressor condenses, it can

dilute the lubricating oil in the crankcase which could cause bearing
failure, overheating or possibly an explosion. The crankcase heating
equipment, if fitted, should be used to reduce the possibility of
cargo condensing and should be operated before the compressor is
started. Liquid condensed in the compressor may also cause
mechanical damage.

Cargo Tank Pressures

Cargo tank pressure should normally be maintained above

atmospheric pressure to prevent the ingress of air and the possible
formation of flammable mixtures. Positive pressures should be
maintained if the tank contains any cargo vapour or inert gas.
However, many pressure vessels are designed to withstand vacuum
and it is possible to reduce tank pressure below atmospheric
without drawing in air, for example during inerting and gas freeing.

Cargo operations such as cooldown, warm-up, loading and

discharge may affect pressures in hood or inter-barrier spaces.
Pressures can also be affected by climatic changes and the variation
in temperature between day and night.

Pressure in cargo tanks and hold or inter-barrier spaces should be

closely monitored, especially during cargo operations, and the
equipment provided should be used to make the necessary
adjustments. Particular care is necessary with membrane or semi-
membrane systems which are vulnerable to damage from vacuum
or incorrect differential pressures because of the thin barrier
material.

Pressures in cargo tanks may be maintained above atmospheric by:

(1) Equalizing pressures between tanks which contain the same
cargo, or (2) Circulating cargo liquid or vapour, or both, between
tanks containing the same cargo, or (3) Circulating cargo within a
tank by use of the cargo pumps, or (4) Allowing the cargo to warm
up.

Liquid Gas Samples

Liquid gas samples should not be placed in containers which cannot
withstand the pressure created by the sample at the highest
ambient temperature expected. Sufficient ullage should be left in
the container to ensure that it does not become liquid full at the
highest temperature anticipated. Liquid gas samples should be
stored within the cargo area.

Sloshing

Within a range of tank filling levels, the pitching and rolling of the
ship and the liquid free surface can create high impact pressure on
the tank surface. This effect is called “sloshing” and can cause
structural damage. Filling levels within this range must therefore be
avoided.

However, some cargoes may be carried safely within the range

specified for a particular system if the sloshing forces are
permissible; guidance should be sought from the Ship-owner, the
designer and Classification Society.

Pressure Relief Valves

Pressure relief valves depend on accurate setting of opening and

closing pressures for effective operation.

Cargo Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers should be pressure tested prior to use. This is

especially important after a long period of idleness and before a ship
is delivered on time charter. In addition to testing the tubes for
tightness, the seawater low temperature cut-out must be tested to
ensure that the cargo inlet valve to the heater closes, thereby
avoiding damage to the tubes from freezing should the outlet
temperature of the seawater fall below 5 degree C

How to maintain tank pressure for a gas carrier carrying liquefied gases

A liquefied gas is the liquid form of a substance which, at ambient temperature and at atmospheric
pressure, would be a gas.
Most liquefied gases are hydrocarbons and the key property that makes hydrocarbons the world’s
primary energy source – combustibility – also makes them inherently hazardous. Because these gases
are handled in large quantities, it is imperative that all practical steps are taken to minimize leakage and
to limit all sources of ignition.

The Principal Products -

Whilst the hydrocarbon gases methane, ethane, propane and butane may be regarded principally as
fuels, the LPGs are also important as feedstock in the production of the chemical gases.

Fig:In a cargo control room monitoring gas cargo pressure

Liquefied gases are normally carried as boiling liquids at either:

(1) Ambient temperature (fully pressurized ships), or

(2) Atmospheric pressure (fully refrigerated ships), or

(3) Intermediate temperatures and pressures (semi-pressurized ship, often referred to as semi-
refrigerated).
Particularly hazardous cargoes such as ethylene oxide and propylene oxide may be carried below their
boiling points to reduce boil-off and increase safety. In such cases the tank pressure is maintained above
atmospheric with nitrogen padding.

Any heat input to the cargo will vaporize some of the liquid and gradually increase the tank pressure.
Pressure vessels are designed to accommodate this increase, but on fully or semi-refrigerated ships the
boil-off is condensed by the reliquefaction system and returned to the cargo tanks as a boiling liquid. On
LNG vessels cargo tank pressure is almost always controlled by burning the boil-off in the main
propulsion system or in rare cases (e.g. emergency) by venting it to atmosphere. If the pressure above a
boiling liquid is increased, vaporization from the surface is reduced, and vice versa.

High and Low Pressure Effects

Pressures above or below the design range can damage a system, and operating personnel should be
fully aware of any pressure limitation for each part of the cargo system; pressures should always be kept
between the specified maximum and minimum.

Pressure Surge

High surge pressures (shock pressures or “liquid hammers”) can be created if valves are opened or shut
too quickly, and the pressure may be sufficient to cause hose or pipeline failure.

Pressurized Systems

In pressurized systems, with the cargo at ambient temperature, there is normally no external frosting to
indicate the presence of liquid or vapour anywhere in the system. Checks should be made for the
presence of high pressure vapour of liquid by gauges and test cocks before opening valves etc.

Reciprocating Compressors

If vapour trapped in a reciprocating compressor condenses, it can dilute the lubricating oil in the
crankcase which could cause bearing failure, overheating or possibly an explosion. The crankcase
heating equipment, if fitted, should be used to reduce the possibility of cargo condensing and should be
operated before the compressor is started. Liquid condensed in the compressor may also cause
mechanical damage.

Cargo Tank Pressures

Cargo tank pressure should normally be maintained above atmospheric pressure to prevent the ingress
of air and the possible formation of flammable mixtures. Positive pressures should be maintained if the
tank contains any cargo vapour or inert gas. However, many pressure vessels are designed to withstand
vacuum and it is possible to reduce tank pressure below atmospheric without drawing in air, for
example during inerting and gas freeing.

Cargo operations such as cooldown, warm-up, loading and discharge may affect pressures in hood or
inter-barrier spaces. Pressures can also be affected by climatic changes and the variation in temperature
between day and night.

Pressure in cargo tanks and hold or inter-barrier spaces should be closely monitored, especially during
cargo operations, and the equipment provided should be used to make the necessary adjustments.
Particular care is necessary with membrane or semi-membrane systems which are vulnerable to damage
from vacuum or incorrect differential pressures because of the thin barrier material.

Pressures in cargo tanks may be maintained above atmospheric by: (1) Equalizing pressures between
tanks which contain the same cargo, or (2) Circulating cargo liquid or vapour, or both, between tanks
containing the same cargo, or (3) Circulating cargo within a tank by use of the cargo pumps, or (4)
Allowing the cargo to warm up.

Liquid Gas Samples

Liquid gas samples should not be placed in containers which cannot withstand the pressure created by
the sample at the highest ambient temperature expected. Sufficient ullage should be left in the
container to ensure that it does not become liquid full at the highest temperature anticipated. Liquid gas
samples should be stored within the cargo area.

Sloshing

Within a range of tank filling levels, the pitching and rolling of the ship and the liquid free surface can
create high impact pressure on the tank surface. This effect is called “sloshing” and can cause structural
damage. Filling levels within this range must therefore be avoided.

However, some cargoes may be carried safely within the range specified for a particular system if the
sloshing forces are permissible; guidance should be sought from the Ship-owner, the designer and
Classification Society.

Pressure Relief Valves

Pressure relief valves depend on accurate setting of opening and closing pressures for effective
operation.
Cargo Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers should be pressure tested prior to use. This is especially important after a long period
of idleness and before a ship is delivered on time charter. In addition to testing the tubes for tightness,
the seawater low temperature cut-out must be tested to ensure that the cargo inlet valve to the heater
closes, thereby avoiding damage to the tubes from freezing should the outlet temperature of the
seawater fall below 5 degree C

Onboard procedures for discharging LNG cargo - gas carrier

safety guide

Liquid is pumped ashore by use of two submerged pumps installed

at the bottom of each tank. In the process, the cargo tank pressure
shows a decreasing tendency as the LNG level drops in the tank,
resulting from the discharge of LNG. Conversely, shore tank
pressure shows an increasing tendency with the receipt of LNG.

By use of the pressure difference between shore and vessel cargo

tanks, LNG gas in the shore tank is sent to the vessel cargo tank.
However, when LNG is discharged at a higher rate, the vessel cargo
tank shows a declining tendency and, therefore, LNG gas is forced
into the vessel cargo tank with a shore blower, to maintain the
vessel tank pressure. As another way, part of the LNG to be
discharged is vaporized with a vaporizer of the vessel and the BOG
is delivered to cargo tanks.
Fig:LNG discharging with gas return

Procedure for LNG discharging with vapour return

Confirm liquid manual/automatic manifold valves are open.

Manually close the liquid manifold cool down valves.

Prior to cargo pump start, confirm that all liquid branch valves are
closed and all filling valves are opened. Also notify the engine room
to verify that sufficient generator capacity is available. Start the
cargo pumps as per established guidelines. It is important that the
shore is made aware of when pumps will be coming on line and the
consequent changes in their tank pressures then can expect.

The usual procedure is to start two pumps on re-circulation on one

tank, then commence discharge from the tank. This usually takes 5
minutes. A similar procedure is then applied to the other tanks with
a 5 min period between each tank. Once all pumps are running on
60 % load then slowly increased in turn to maximum specified load.
As tank pressure falls, request receiving terminal to start to send
vapour back to the ship and maintain tank pressure at agreed level.
Monitor the following items during discharge.

1. Cargo tank level

2. Cargo tank pressure
3. Cargo pump motor load and discharge pressure
4. Draft, trim and heel
5. Ship condition

If stripping is planned for several tanks, it is recommended to keep

the tank levels slightly different in each tank in accordance to the
established “ramp down” procedures.

Request the receiving terminal to stop the return gas blower to keep
adequate tank pressure. After discharging, at least one filling valve
is kept open to avoid pressurization of the liquid line. Liquid draining
and vapour purging of the arms is performed after completion of
cargo discharging. After completing of draining and purging, the
following operations are carried out.

 Final gauging after discharging

 Arm disconnection and de-icing (if necessary)
 Water curtain is stopped.

NB refer to ship specific cargo manual regarding maximum and

minimum allowable liquid levels for sea passage.

Discharging without vapour return

In rare instances such as gassing up a new terminal it may be

necessary to discharge without the use of a shore return. In this
instance the LNG is bled from the main liquid line to the vaporizer.
The rate of vaporization is adjusted to maintain a constant tank
pressure.
Fig:LNG discharging without gas return

Cargo heel

Subject to the trading patterns of the vessel and any particular

requirements of the charterer, a cargo heel may be required. The
heel quantity is allowed for in the discharge plan and the pumps are
to be stopped at the required ullages. Each ship will have its own
specific instructions within the Operating manual, detailing the
required quantities and the procedures to be followed in taking
tanks down to this level. The heel figures should be carefully
calculated, to ensure that there is maximum outturn of cargo at the
discharge port, consistent with being able to arrive at the loadport
with tanks cooled down by the onboard retained heel.

(Note: When the liquid level reaches 1 metre or less, avoid stopping
the pump if at all possible until the cargo has been fully discharged.
If the shore facility is unable to accept the liquid for intermittent
periods it is better to keep the pump going and recirculate back into
the tanks until discharge can be resumed and completed.)

All LNG remaining in the downward leg of the loading arms and
manifold connection is to be drained to the tanks through the liquid
line assisted by nitrogen pressure from ashore. The LNG and vapour
manifolds are then purged with nitrogen until an acceptable
hydrocarbon content is reached.

The retention of heel is subject to much discussion, and will vary

with the type of vessel. On membrane vessels on shorter ballast
voyages it is acceptable to carry a small amount of heel in each of
the cargo tanks, and generally this will maintain the tank bottom
temperature sufficiently cold that the vessel is able to berth and
commence loading without additional tank cooldown being
necessary. Care should be taken that the spray pump can be
started at any time during the voyage if required.

On longer voyages it is usual for the heel to be retained in one tank,

with others “heeled” out. Additional spraying may be necessary
when cargo tank temperature is higher than the ATR (arrival
temperature requirement) which is generally accepted as being <
-130 degC. Terminal requirements should also followed as
appropriate. The intention being for the vessel to arrive without the
requirement for extended cooldown and delays at the load port.

NOTE, on long ballast voyages with large quantities of heel retained

in one tank, it is essential that the quantity of heel carried does not
exceed the quantity corresponding to a 10% of the tank height .

On Moss vessels, it is usual for the heel to be retained in one tank,

with others “heeled” out. After departure the LNG in the “heeled”
out tanks will be further reduced by transferring cargo to the
dedicated holding tank. The tanks are then sprayed on passage to
cooldown to a level where loading take place without delay at the
loadport.

Occasionally on shorter voyages, Moss vessels will retain the heel

distributed across all tanks. At the last discharge before the vessel
is scheduled to warm up, say for drydock, all tanks are generally
heeled out as far as possible, to avoid leaving excessive quantities
of LNG which needs to be warmed up and vented to atmosphere on
passage to the docking port

Draining / purging

The procedures for draining / purging of the manifold lines and

ships liquid lines are the same whether the ship has been loading or
discharging. This is done by using a Nitrogen “punch” method. After
completion of loading or discharging, this operation is carried out
prior to disconnecting the liquid and vapour arms.

On completion the manifold ESD valves are closed and the spray
line is lined up from the manifold to all tanks via the spray return
valves. The cool down valve on each manifold is kept closed. Then
the terminal raises the pressure within the arms to a certain level
(normally around 4 kgs/cm2). Then the spray cool down valve are
opened up and LNG liquid and vapour in the liquid arm is fed to the
cargo tanks through the spray line by Nitrogen (N2) pressure.

Vapour in the vapour arm is fed to the cargo tanks through the
vapour header by N2 gas supplied from the terminal. Draining is
normally carried out by pressuring the arms one by one.

The procedure is repeated until the arm is completely free of liquid

and the hydrocarbon level is below 1% by volume. Remember that
the allowed hydrocarbon concentration might vary from terminal to
terminal.

Draining of the ships liquid lines is done by opening up the spray

bypass valve at the manifold. As the pressure increases in the liquid
line the liquid will be led through the spray line and back to the
cargo tank.

Vapour from shore valve

After any discharge operation, when the shore vapour arm has been
disconnected and the vapour manifold closed, the vapour from
shore valve is to be re-opened and then left open at least 20%. This
will allow any increase in pressure, during the subsequent line warm
up, to be transferred via the vapour header to the individual cargo
tanks. Any excessive increase in pressure within the cargo tanks will
initially be regulated by the automatic vent valve to the forward
vent riser. If the pressure is not controlled sufficiently by the
automatic vent valve, then individual tank relief valves will operate
to vent pressure via the individual mast risers. “

Cargo conditioning, reliquefaction and boil-off control

requirement for a liquefied gas carrier

The term “cargo conditioning” refers to the care and attention

given to the cargo on passage to ensure that:

(1) There are no undue losses in cargo quantity;

(2) Cargo tank pressures are kept within design limits; and

(3) Cargo temperature is maintained or adjusted as required.

These aims are achieved either by reliquefaction or, on most LNG

ships, by using boil-off as propulsion fuel. Cargo conditioning may
not be necessary on ships with pressure vessel tanks.

If reliquefaction plant is fitted the responsible personnel should have

a thorough understanding of its operational principles. When
running, the plant should be monitored so that anything which
might adversely affect its safety or efficiency is quickly recognized
and corrective action taken. Plant is normally fitted with shutdown
devices to sense high liquid level, temperature or pressure.

Fig : Gas carrier on sea passage

Reliquefaction and Boil-off Control

General guidance on safe procedures for reliquefaction and boil-off

control is given below. The detailed instructions for any ship depend
upon the system fitted, and manufacturers’ operating instructions
should be closely followed.

There are several different types of reliquefaction system.

The most common involves compressing the cargo vapour and

condensing it in a seawater-cooled condenser. Alternatively the
condenser may be cooled by a refrigerant from a secondary
refrigerating unit (cascade-type refrigeration).

Another type of reliquefaction is achieved by circulation of the

refrigerant through coils inside the tank or through a separate heat
exchanger outside the tank (indirect cooling). Cargo-incompatible
refrigerants should not be used, nor refrigerants which are known to
have a high ozone depleting potential.

The vapour of certain cargoes (e.g. ethylene oxide, propylene

oxide) cannot be compressed. Such cargoes can only be refrigerated
by indirect cooling and cargo compressors usually have to be
isolated or blanked off.

LPG is normally reliquefied by direct compression and condensation

in one or two stages, with condensation against water, in what is
called a direct reliquefaction system. Colder cargoes such as
ethylene, although still requiring direct compression, require a
cascade system with the cargo condensing against a secondary
refrigerant, which is condensed using water as the coolant.

A reliquefaction plant is not normally fitted to LNG carriers. Instead

the boil-off is used as fuel for main propulsion machinery. During
ballast passages the tanks are kept cold using cargo deliberately
retained on board: this cargo is known as a “heel”. Boil-off from the
heel is also used for propulsion during the ballast voyage. The
retention of a heel requires consideration of sloshing loads: care has
to be taken to ensure that the retained liquid is properly distributed.

A heel is often also retained on board fully refrigerated or semi-

refrigerated LPG carriers to enable the tanks to be kept cold on the
ballast voyage. As LPG boil-off is heavier than air, regulations do
not permit it to be used as propulsion fuel and it is therefore
reliquefied and returned to the tanks. Return should be by the spray
line, if fitted, for best cooling efficiency.

The specific operating instructions for the system fitted should be

observed in addition to the following precautions:

(1) The purpose of the reliquefaction system is to prevent loss of

cargo and ensure that the cargo liquid is either kept at the loading
temperature or is at the temperature required for discharge on
arrival. In the latter case it may be necessary either to cool or to
warm up the bulk liquid on passage.

If the system is used only to keep cargo tank pressure just below
the relief valve set point, the cargo will warm up to a new
temperature and it may be too hot for discharge at the terminal. If
it is necessary to cool down the liquid on passage, the loading
temperature and system capacity should be assessed to ensure that
the necessary operations can be completed during the voyage.

(2) If two or more cargoes are carried simultaneously, they should

be segregated throughout all cargo operations. Particular care is
required with incompatible cargoes.

(3) Gas detection equipment in spaces containing reliquefaction

plant, instrumentation and controls should always be activated.
Upper and lower sample points (if fitted) should be selected
according to the relative vapour density of the cargo.

(4) Ventilation equipment for the reliquefaction plant space should

be started well in advance of activating the plant.

(5) Filters on the suction side of compressors should be checked

and carefully cleaned if necessary. If they are blocked the efficiency
of the plant may be reduced drastically.

(6) The lubricants used for all machines should be compatible with
the cargo and suitable for the temperatures and pressures
experienced both in operation and when stopped. Oil levels should
be checked and crankcase heaters started if necessary before the
plant is activated.

(7) All plant, instrumentation, control and shutdown equipment

should be tested on a regular basis.

(8) The precautions on ice or hydrate formation, reactivity and

cargo contamination should be observed.

(9) All pipelines and valves should be double-checked to ensure that

they are correctly set before starting the plant.

(10) To prevent overheating, the cooling water supply to

condensers should be established and the refrigerant system (where
fitted) started before cargo compressors are run.

(11) Cargo compressors should never be operated with discharge

valves shut.
(12) Sub-atmospheric pressures should normally be avoided in any
part of system to prevent the ingress of air. Flammable vapour / air
mixtures should never be passed through cargo compressors.

(13) Refrigerant or cargo vapour compressors should be started and

suction valves opened very slowly to prevent damage from liquid
carry-over.

(14) If the capacity of cargo or refrigerant compressors is controlled

manually, plant should be started on the minimum setting and the
capacity increased gradually as necessary.

(15) Operation of the reliquefaction plant will be affected by any

incondensable gases in the vapour drawn from the cargo tanks.
These incondensables may originate from the cargo itself (e.g.
ethane, methane) or may be inert gas remaining from previous
purging. Incondensables will cause abnormally high condenser
pressure and will reduce condensation of the cargo vapour. To re-
establish full condensation the incondensables have to be vented
regularly.

Problems with incondensables mainly arise during the early stages

of reliquefaction. Reliquefaction plant liquid levels should be
checked regularly during operation to prevent overfilling of receivers
or condensers, which may be caused by sticking control valves or
expansion valves. It is desirable to keep comprehensive records so
that any unexpected changes can be quickly noticed and remedial
action taken.

(16) Care should be taken to prevent liquid cargo from entering

compressors, particularly if liquid separation equipment is not fitted.
In heavy weather this could be a significant problem which may
require shutdown of compressors. Under certain conditions liquid
entrainment may also occur during spray cooling of the tanks.
Liquid entrainment in the vapour may cause severe mechanical
damage to compressors.

(17) If condensate is returned to more than one tank

simultaneously, or if vapour is taken from several tanks and is
returned to a single tank, the liquid levels should be checked
regularly and remedial action taken to avoid possible overfilling.

Use of Cargo as fuel

Boil-off from LNG cargo may be burnt as fuel in the main propulsion
system. Two factors influence the sanctioning of this practice:

(1) LNG vapour, being mainly methane, is lighter than air at

ambient temperatures. It is therefore safe to be used because if it
were to leak into the machinery space it would escape through
exhaust vents and not accumulate within the machinery space.
Consequently LNG is the only cargo vapour allowed to be used as
fuel.

(2) It is possible to burn LNG vapour in boilers, diesel engines or

gas turbines. In each case cargo vapour is introduced into a space
from which it is normally excluded, and the design of the cargo
vapour-to-fuel system is therefore subject to strict requirements. It
is vital to ensure that the integrity of the system is not impaired in
any way.

LNG boil-off may be either vented or burnt (or both) to keep tank
pressures at the required level. The decision whether to vent or
burn the boil-off depends on many factors, some economic, some
the result of regulations. Regulations may, for instance, either
prohibit venting or the use of cargo as fuel in certain places. Such
regulations should always be observed.

Note: Attention should also be paid to Chapter 16 of the IGC Code,

Regulation II-2/15.1 of the SOLAS Convention, IMO
recommendations concerning the use of low flashpoint cargoes as
fuel e.g. IMO Resolution A565(14), and to classification
requirements.

On the high sea, cargo vapour may provide the main fuel, though
oil pilot burners are also required. In the case of steam plants,
cargo vapour may also be burnt when propulsion machinery is not
in operation provided that means for steam-dumping are installed.

The following precautions should be observed:

(1) Personnel should fully understand the system, its limitations,

maintenance requirements and the danger of cargo leakage. The
system should be kept clean and efficient and machinery
performance logged so that changes can be identified.

(2) Ventilation fans for the machinery space and the fuel supply line
trunking should be operated before and during gas burning
operations. Attention should be paid to the ventilation of any areas
near untrunked gas piping.

(3) Gas detection equipment for the system should be working

throughout burning operations.

(4) Supply lines should be purged with inert gas immediately before
and after burning operations.

(5) All operating instructions for the system should be observed.

Safety equipment (such as interlocks) should not be overridden.

(6) If the gas flame goes out, the reason should be established
before it is relit. If both oil and gas flames are lost all combustion
spaces should be ventilated of flammable vapour before the flame is
relit, otherwise an explosion could occur. Attention should be paid to
flame failure sensors; low sensitivity will result in failure to shut
down and high sensitivity will cause unnecessary shutdowns.

(7) Cargo tank pressures should be monitored during all burning

operations: if boil-off is removed too fast, the pressure could be
reduced below atmospheric and air drawn into the tank, creating a
flammable mixture. Cargo tank pressures should be maintained
above atmospheric at all times.

(8) Care should be taken to prevent liquid cargo from entering

compressors, especially if liquid separators are not fitted. Rapid
changes in supply pressures should be avoided, otherwise the flame
will not be stable.

(9) The gas supply lines should be checked regularly for leaks. If a
leak does occur, the fuel supply should be isolated immediately and
not reconnected until the leak has been repaired.

(10) No modification whatsoever should be made to the system

without the permission of a responsible authority.

(11) All joints in the supply line should be pressure tested after
maintenance before the system is re-commissioned.

(12) Water should be drained from carbon steel fuel lines to prevent
corrosion.

(13) Flame screens may be fitted in the supply line or within each
burner: they have very small holes which are easily blocked, and
should be cleaned regularly.

(14) The gas heaters should be regularly checked to ensure that no

leakage occurs between the gas and steam systems. Steam
condensate has to be returned to the feed water system via a
ventilated drain tank: the water level in these tanks should be
maintained and vents checked periodically for blockage which could
cause gas to enter the feed system.

(15) Gas booster compressors should be carefully maintained and

attention paid to the condition of shaft seals.

(16) All incidents, however trivial they may seem, should be

recorded and brought to the attention of the responsible officer.

Boil-off & vaporized gas (BVG) management system for

carrying LNG cargo
Marine Steam Turbine Engine

The BVG management system is a total gas flow control from cargo
tanks to main boilers. The total gas flow consists of the following
two kind of gas.

i) Natural boil-off gas (Natural BOG) from cargo tanks.

ii) Forcing boil-off gas (Forcing BOG) generated by forcing

vaporizer.

The natural BOG is sent to the main boilers by low duty compressor
(L/D compressor) through the low duty heater and the flow rate is
controlled by L/D compressor speed & inlet guide vane (IGV). If
natural BOG does not meet boiler demand, the forcing vaporizer will
generate forcing BOG and add it to natural BOG for full speed range
of ship.

DFDE Engine (TANGGUH SHIPS)

i) Natural boil-off gas (Natural BOG) Burning:

During all periods that the vessel is in service and is “gassed-up”,

the boil-off from the tanks will be burnt as fuel in the ship’s main
generating plant or disposed of in the gas combustion unit (GCU).
This gas burning operation is started on the deck but controlled by
the ship’s engineers from the ECR. Under normal operating
conditions when the vessel is at sea, one L/D compressor, and one
fuel gas pump for the spray coolers, will be running to supply fuel
gas to the main generator engine to ensure that a stable gas supply
to the diesel generators is achieved.
 Fig:LNG carrier underway

If for any reason that boil-off cannot be used by the main

generators, or if the volume is too great for the requirements of the
generating plant, any excess gas will be burnt in the gas
combustion unit.

ii) Forcing boil-off gas (Forcing BOG) Burning:

If the fuel consumption of the main generators cannot be met by

the gas supplied by natural boil-off from the tanks, additional gas
can be obtained by utilizing the forcing vaporizer. This is fed by the
fuel gas pumps which are located in No.3 & 4 tanks, to supply the
LNG liquid to the vaporizer, via the Forcing BOG mist separator to
the inlet of the fuel Warm-Up/Boil-Off heaters. The forcing vaporizer
is automatic in operation and will be started through the IAS if the
natural boil-off rate from the cargo tanks is insufficient to maintain
the system pressure and meet the generator demand.
LNG operating instructions - various important terms

Absolute Vapour Density – The mass of a unit volume of gas under stated conditions of temperature
and pressure.

Adiabatic – Without transfer of heat.

Administration – The government of the country in which the ship is registered (Flag Administration).

Approved Equipment – Equipment of a design that has been tested and approved by an appropriate
authority such as an Administration or Classification Society.

BOG – Boil off gas, vapour produced above a cargo liquid surface due to evaporation caused by heat
ingress.

Asphyxia – When a person is deprived of an adequate supply of oxygen a loss of consciousness will
follow.

Asphyxiant – A gas or vapour which has no toxic properties but when present in sufficient concentration
excludes oxygen and will cause asphyxia.

Auto-ignition Temperature – The lowest temperature to which a solid liquid or gas requires to be raised
to cause self-sustained combustion without initiation by spark or flame. Bar Gauge – Pressure in bar.

Boil Off – Vapour produced above a cargo liquid surface due to evaporation caused by heat ingress.

Boiling Point – The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals that of the atmosphere
above its surface. This temperature varies with pressure.

Bonding (Electrical) – The connecting together of electrically conducting metal parts to ensure electrical
continuity.

Brittle Fracture – Fracture of a material caused by a lack of ductility in the crystal structure resulting
from low temperature.

Cargo Area – That part of the ship, which contains the cargo containment system, cargo pumps and
compressor rooms.

Cargo Containment System Independent Tanks – Independent tanks are self-supporting. They do not
form part of the ship’s hull and are not essential to the hull’s strength.

Type A – Are tanks, which are designed primarily using “Recognized Standards” of classical ship
structural analysis procedures.
Type B – Are tanks which are designed using model tests, refined analytical tools and analysis methods
to determine stress levels, fatigue life and crack propagation characteristics.

Type C – Referred to as pressure vessels are tanks meeting pressure vessel criteria.

Cargo Operations – Any operation on board a gas carrier involving the handling of cargo liquid or vapour
including cargo transfer, reliquefaction, venting etc.

Cavitation – Uneven flow caused by vapour pockets within a liquid.

Certified Gas Free – Means that a tank, compartment or container has been tested using an approved
instrument and proved to be sufficiently free at the time of the test of toxic or explosive or inert gas for
a specified purpose, such as hotwork by an authorized person. E.g. shore chemist and that a certificate
to this effect has been issued.

Chemical Absorption Detector – (e.g. Draeger Tubes) – Used for the detection and determining the
concentration of gases or vapours based on the principle of a reaction between the gas and a chemical
agent, the gas discolours the agent.

Closed Gauging System – A system whereby the contents of a tank can be measured by means of a
device which penetrates the tank but is part of a closed system e.g. float system, electronic probe,
magnetic probe.

Combustible Gas Indicator – An instrument for detecting a combustible gas/air mixture.

Critical Temperature – The temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied by pressure alone.

Explosion Proof Enclosure – One, which will withstand, without injury, any explosion of the prescribed
flammable gas that may occur within it under practical conditions of operation within the rating of the
apparatus and will prevent the transmission of flame such as will ignite the prescribed flammable gas,
which may be present in the surrounding atmosphere.

Filling Limit (or Ratio) – The volume of a tank expressed as a percentage of the total volume, which can
be safely filled, having due regard to the possible expansion (and change in density) of the liquid.

Flame Arrestor – A device used in gas vent lines to arrest the passage of flame into enclosed spaces.

Flammable – Capable of being ignited and burning in air. The term “flammable gas” is used to mean a
vapour air mixture within the flammable range.

Flammable Range – The flammable (explosive) range, lies between the minimum and maximum
concentrations of vapour in air, which form flammable (explosive) mixtures. This is usually abbreviated
to LFL (Lower Flammable Limit) and UFL (Upper Flammable Limit). These are synonymous with “Lower
Explosive Limit” (LEL) and Upper Explosive Limit” (UEL).

Flash Point – The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapour to form a flammable
mixture with air near the surface of the liquid or within the apparatus used. This is determined by
laboratory testing in a prescribed apparatus.

Gas-Dangerous Space or Zone – A space or zone within the cargo area which is designated as likely to
contain flammable vapours and which is not equipped with approved arrangements to ensure that its
atmosphere is maintained in a safe condition at all times.

Gas Free – Gas free means that a tank, compartment or container has been tested using appropriate gas
detection equipment and found to be sufficiently free, at the time of the test, of toxic or explosive or
inert gases for a specific purpose.

Gas-Freeing – The introduction of fresh air into a tank, compartment or container to remove toxic,
flammable or inert gas to such a level as is required for a specified purpose (e.g. tank entry, hot work).

Gas-Safe Space or Zone – A space or zone not designated as a gas-dangerous space or zone.

Gauze Screen (sometimes called Flame Screen) – A portable or fixed device incorporating one or more
corrosion resistant wire meshes used for preventing sparks from entering an open deck hole, or for a
SHORT PERIOD OF TIME preventing the passage of flame, yet permitting the passage of gas.

Hot Space – The space enclosed by the ship’s structure in which a cargo containment system is situated
(see Cargo Containment System).

Hot Work – Hot work is any work involving welding or burning, and other work including drilling,
grinding, electrical work and the use of non-intrinsically safe electrical equipment, which might produce
an incendiary spark.

Hot Work Permit – A document issued by an authorized person permitting specific work for specified
time to be done in a defined area employing tools and equipment which could cause ignition of
flammable gases.

Hydrates – The compounds formed at certain pressures and temperatures by the interaction between
water and hydrocarbons.

IMO – International Maritime Organization: this is the United Nations specialized agency dealing with
maritime affairs.

IMO Codes – The IMO Codes for the Design, Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Liquefied
Gases in Bulk.

IGC Code – The International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships carrying Liquefied Gases
in Bulk.

Inert Gas – A gas or vapour, which will not support combustion and will not react with the cargo.

Inerting – This is the introduction of inert gas into a space to reduce and maintain the oxygen content to
a level at which combustion cannot be supported.

Inhibited Cargo – Any cargo which contains a inhibitor.

Inhibitor – A substance used to prevent or retard cargo deterioration or a potentially hazardous

chemical reaction.

Insulating Flange – An insulating device placed between metallic flanges, bolts and washers, to prevent
electrical continuity between pipelines, sections of pipelines, hose strings and loading arms or
equipment/apparatus.

Intrinsically Safe – Intrinsically safe equipment, instruments, or wiring are such equipment, instruments
or wiring that are capable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal or abnormal
conditions to cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmosphere mixture in its most easily ignited
concentration.

Liquefied Gas – A liquid, which has an absolute vapour pressure exceeding 2.8kp/cm2 at 37.8° C, and
certain other substances specified in the IMO Codes.

LNG – Liquefied natural gas, principal constitute of LNG is Methane.

LPG – Liquefied Petroleum Gases – these are mainly propane and butane, shipped either separately or in
mixtures. They may be refinery by product gases or may be produced in conjunction with crude oil or
natural gas.

MARVS – The maximum Allowable Relief Valve Setting of a cargo tank.

Peroxide – A compound, formed by the chemical combination of cargo liquid or vapour with
atmospheric oxygen, or oxygen from another source. These compounds may, in some cases, be highly
reactive or unstable and constitute a potential hazard.

Polymerization – The phenomenon whereby the molecules or a particular compound can be made to
link together into a larger unit containing anything from two to thousands of molecules, the new unit
being called a polymer. A compound may thereby change from a free flowing liquid to a viscous one or
even a solid. A great deal of heat may be evolved when this occurs. Polymerization may occur
spontaneously with no outside influence, or it may occur if the compound is heated, or if a catalyst or
impurity is added. Polymerization may, under some circumstances be dangerous.

Pressure – Force per unit area.

Purging – The introduction of nitrogen or suitable inert gas or suitable cargo vapour to displace an
unacceptable tank atmosphere.

Relative Liquid Density – The mass of a liquid at a given temperature compared with the mass of an
equal volume of fresh water at the same temperature or at a different given temperature. Term Specific
Gravity being discontinued in general.

Relative Vapour Density – The weight of the vapour compared with the weight of an equal volume of
air, both at standard conditions of temperature and pressure. Thus vapour density of 2.9 means that the
vapour is 2.9 times heavier then an equal volume of air under the same physical conditions.

Reliquefaction – Converting cargo boil-off vapour back into a liquid by refrigeration.

Responsible Officer – The Master or any officer to whom the Master may relegate responsibility for any
operation or duty.

Responsible Terminal Representative – The shore supervisor in change of all operators and operations
at the terminal associated with the handling of products, or his responsible delegate.

Restricted Gauging System – A system employing a device, which penetrates the tank and which, when
in use, permits a small quantity of cargo vapour or liquid to be exposed to the atmosphere. When not in
use the device is completely closed.

RPT – Rapid Phase Transition - When LNG contacts water under specific conditions, it transforms
explosively from the liquid to vapour state.

Secondary Barrier – The liquid resisting outer element of a cargo containment system designed to afford
temporary containment of any envisaged leakage of liquid cargo through the primary barrier and to
prevent the lowering of the temperature of the ship’s structure to an unsafe level.

Self-Reaction – The tendency of a chemical to react with itself, usually resulting in polymerization or
decomposition.

Sloshing – Wave formations which may arise at the liquid surface in a cargo tank from the effects of ship
motions.

Span Gas – A vapour sample of known composition and concentration and concentration used to
calibrate (or “span”) a ship’s gas detection equipment.

Static Electricity – The electrification of dissimilar materials through physical contact and separation.

Threshold Limit Value (TLV) – The TLVs refer to the maximum concentration of gases, vapours, mists or
sprays to which it is believed that nearly all persons on board may be repeatedly exposed, day after day,
without adverse effect assuming an 8 hours per day, 40 hours per week exposure. Because of the wide
variation in individual susceptibility, exposure of an occasional individual at, or even below, the TLV may
not prevent discomfort or aggravation of a pre-existing condition.

Vapour Pressures – The pressure exerted by the vapour above the liquid at a given temperature.

Venting – The release of cargo vapour or inert gas from cargo tanks and associated systems.

Void Space – The enclosed space in the cargo area external to a cargo containment system, not being a
hold space, ballast space, fuel oil tank, cargo pump or compressor room, or any space in normal use by
personnel.

CTS – Custody Transfer System, this is the cargo measurement and level gauging instrumentation