STUDY OF TRANSFER OF CHARACTER FROM ONE GEN TO THE OTHER (OR FROM THE PARENT OF THE

OFFSPRING) = GENETICS

CHARACTER IS AN INHERITABLE FEATURE

TRAITS IS A FORMS OF A CHARACTER: - FOR EXAMPLE, HEIGHT IS A CHARACTER SHORT IS A TRAIT

AND LONG IS ALSO A TRAIT =

GENE IS CHARACTER

ALLELES IS TRAIT

AUTOSOMES ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PHYSICAL OF CHARACTERS

THE SEX CHROMOSOME DETERMINES THE SEX OF An INDIVIDUAL

THE FIRST 22 PAIRS ARE HOMOLOGOUS

THE 23RD PAIR IS HETEROLOGOUS

DOMINANT: - the one which expresses itself morphologically over the other allele

RECESSIVE: - the allele that does not express itself morphologically and is suppressed in the presence
of the dominant allele

The same allele is known as homozygous

Diff allele is known as heterozygous

Monohybrid when only one character is studied

Dihybrid when we study the transfer of 2 characters

Mendel is the father of genetics

He used pea in his experiments

He gave two laws in monohybrid: - dominance and segregation

He gave a law in dihybrid: - law of independent assortment

Monohybrid: -

Genotype is genetic makeup (1:2:1)

Phenotype is physicals appearance 1:3

Dihybrid

Phenotype – 9:3:3:1

Genotype – very complex

Autosomal – body character

Son gets it because of his mother and father gets it because of his daughter

google notes hai yeh sab |

 The term genetics was proposed by William Bateson.

➢ Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the study of inheritance and variation of
characters from parent to offspring.
➢ The kind of transmission of characters from parent to offspring’s called heredity or
inheritance. Likewise, no two individuals of a species are alike such differences are called
variations.
➢ Monohybrid Cross is the inheritance of one pair of contrasting characters. For example, a
cross between a pea plant with a dominant green seed and one with a recessive yellow seed.
➢ Dihybrid Cross is the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters. For example, the
inheritance of the yellow and round seed characters and the green wrinkled character is a
dihybrid cross.
➢ Gene: Mendel presumed that a character is determined by a pair of factors present in each
cell of an individual. These are known as genes in modern genetics.
➢ Allele or allelomorph They are various forms of a gene or Mendelian factor which occur on the
same locus on homologous chromosomes and control the same character. Alleles or
allelomorphs control different expressions or traits of the same character

➢ Heterozygous: An individual having two contrasting Mendelian factors or genes for a

character. HA heterozygote or heterozygous individual is also called hybrid. E.g., Tt.
➢ Homozygous: An individual having identical Mendelian factors or genes for a character (TT or
tt). Homozygous or homozygote individual is always pure for the trait.
➢ Dominant Factor: An allele or Mendelian factor which expresses itself in the hybrid
(heterozygote) as well as in the homozygous state. It is denoted by a capital letter (T for tallness)
➢ Recessive Factor: An allele or Mendelian factor which is unable to express itself in the hybrid
in the presence of an alternate (dominant) allele. It is denoted by a small letter (t for dwarfness).
The recessive factor expresses itself only in the homozygous state (e.g., tt ).
➢ Mutation is a new sudden inheritable discontinuous variatthathich appears in the organism
due to the permanent change of its genotype.
OR
➢ Sudden changes in one or more genes in the progeny, which normally may not have existed in
the parents, grandparents, or even great-grandparents are called mutations. For Example
albinism, and sickle cell Anaemia.
➢ Mutation may be of gene mutation – changes in the DNA & chromosomal mutation –
changes in the number of arrangement of the chromosome.
➢ Variaton : The differences among the members of the same species and offspring of the
same parents are referred to as variation.
OR
➢ Variation is the departure from a complete similarity between individuals of the same species.
➢ Genotype: It is the gene complement or genetic constitution of an individual about one or
more characters irrespective of whether the genes are expressed or not. For example, the
genotype of the hybrid tall pea plant is Tt, pure tall, TT, and dwarf tt.
➢ Phenotype : The observable, morphological or physiological expression of an individual with
reagard more characters is called phenotype. For the recessive gene, the phenotype is similar to
genotype. The or dominant genes, the phenotypic expression can be due to its homozygous
genotype or heterozygous genotype. For example, the Phenotypic tall pea plant can be
genotypically TT or Tt.

LAWS AND PUNNET SQAURES

➢ G. J. Mendel ( 1822-1884 ), the father of genetics, was an Austrian monk.

➢ He was the 1st scientist who made a systematic study of Patterns of inheritance of
characters from parents to progeny.
➢ He carried out breeding experiments on garden pea plants (Pisum sativum) and formulated
basic laws of heredity.
➢ Mendel crossed a pure tall garden Pea plant and a pure dwarf Pea plant, the resulting
offspring were called F1 generation.
➢ Why Mendel Selected pea plant for his experiments?
(i) Garden pea has distinct, easily detectable contrasting traits
(ii) The plant reproduces well & grows to maturity in a simple season.
(iii) The Pea plant is self-pollinating in nature because pea flower is bisexual.
(iv) Self pollination could be prevented by removing the male reproductive parts of the flower.
(v) Cross-pollination could be done artificially.
➢ Law of Paired Factor : A character is represented in an individual ( diploid ) by atleast two
factors. The two factors lies on the two homologous chromosomes at the same locus. They may
represent the same ( homozygous, e.g., TT in case of pure tall pea plant, tt in case of dwarf pea
plant ) or alternate expression ( heterozygous e.g., Tt in case of hybrid tall pea plant ) of the same
character.
➢Law of Dominance : In a hybrid where both the contrasting alleles or unit factors are present,
only one unit factor / allele called dominant is able to express itself while the other factor / allele
called recessive remains suppressed In a cross between pure breeding red flower ( RR ) Pea
plant and white flower ( rr ) Pea plant, the F1 generation is red flowered though it has received
both the factors ( R and r ). It is because of the dominant nature of factor for red flower colour
and recessive nature of the factor for white flower colour. On self breeding, the recessive trait
reappear in the F2 generation showing that it is suppressed in F1 generation and not lost.
➢Law of Segregation : Law of segregation states that the two contrasting factors do not mix in
the F1 generation but segregate or separate from each other at the time of gamete formation.
➢Mendel continued his experiments further and allowed self pollination in F1 hybrids. The
resultant offsprings were called F2 generation. In F2 generation tall and dwarf plants are formed
in 3 : 1 ratio. So that each gamete receive only one factor, either dominant or recessive. Hence
gametes are pure. Thus law of segregation is also referred to as law of purity of gametes.

➢ Law of independent assortment states that the factors of different pairs of contrasting
characters behave independent to each other at the time of gamete formation, and at the time of
fertilization they bring about all the possible combinations of characters.
➢ Mendel crossed a pure yellow, round seeded garden pea plant with a pure green, wrinkled
seeded garden pea plant. All F1 individuals show yellow, round characters. In F1 dihybrids yellow
character is dominant over green character and round character is dominant over wrinkled
character.

➢ Mendel allowed self-pollination of F1 dihybrids and observed F2 generation. In F2 generation,

he find yellow round; yellow wrinkled; green round; green wrinkled pea plants in 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio.
In the above cross, in F2 generation, two more new varieties of pea plants are formed besides
the parents. They are yellow, wrinkled and green, round plants.
Know the Terms
➢ Character : It is well defined morphological or physiological feature of an organism. eg. Stem
height.
➢ Gene symbol : Each character is provided with a symbol. eg. T for tallness and t for dwarfness.
➢ Gene locus : A particular region of the chromosome representing a single gene is called gene
locus.
➢ Hybrid : The heterozygous organism produced after crossing two genetically different
individuals is called a hybrid .
➢ Pure line : It is a strain of true breeding individuals which have homozygous traits due to
continued self breeding over the generations.
➢ Genome : It is a complete set of chromosomes where every gene and chromosome is
represented singly as in a gamete.
➢ Gene pool: The aggregate of all the genes and their alleles present in a interbreeding
population is known as a gene pool.
➢ Backcross: It is a cross between hybrid and one of its parents in order to increase the number
of traits of that parent.
➢ Test cross : It is cross between an individual with a dominant trait and a recessive organism in
order to know whether the dominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous.