1

Chapter 6
The condensed State of Matter
1. Condensed phases of matter are solid and liquid.
2. Gaseous elements (under room conditions) are found at the top right hand side of the
Periodic Table.

Q1 Where in which part(s) of the periodic table do you find the elements that are gaseous under
room conditions?

Examples of element that are found as gases are:

Hydrogen, H 2 Helium, He Radon, Rn
Nitrogen, N 2 Neon, Ne
Oxygen, O 2 Argon, Ar
Fluorine, F 2 Krypton, Kr
Chlorine, Cl 2 Xenon, Xe

 Study the following Potential energy diagram:

Arrow up Arrow down
endothermic exothermic

 The exothermic reactions are: condensation, freezing (solidification) and deposition.

 The endothermic reactions are: vaporization (evaporation), melting and sublimation
 Endothermic reaction: a reaction that consumes energy
 Exothermic reaction: a reaction that releases energy.
 2

3. One gram of steam, H 2 O (g) causes more severe burns than one gram of water, H 2 O(l) at
o
100 C. At the same temperature, both have the same average kinetic energy but steam has a
higher potential energy than water.
4. A volatile liquid is a liquid that evaporates at room temperature. A liquid with a low
boiling point is easy to vaporize.

Q2 Compounds A, B and C have the following boiling points: -15℃, 60℃ and 38℃ respectively.
List the above compounds from the least to the most volatile.

5. Vapor pressure of a liquid: is the pressure of the gas above the liquid with which it is at
equilibrium (Both liquid and gas exist indefinitely).

6. Vapor pressure of a liquid in a sealed container depends on temperature of the flask. As

the temperature increases the vapor pressure of a liquid increases.

7. At the boiling point, the temperature of a pure substance stays constant as the liquid is
being heated until all the liquid changes into gas. The heat given to the liquid causes more liquid
to change into gas.
8. Molar heat of vaporization is the minimum energy required to change one mole of a
substance from liquid to gas at the same temperature.
9. General equation for Molar heat of vaporization: X (l) + heat ⇌ X (g)
10. General equation for Molar heat of condensation: X (g) ⇌ X (l) + heat

11. In general, a substance that has a higher boiling point is expected to have a higher molar
heat of vaporization.
 3

(79) 1. a. A liquid is heated at its boiling point. Although energy is used to heat the liquid, its
temperature does not rise. Explain.
b. What is the maximum amount of heat that you lose as 4.5 g of water evaporate from
your skin?
[Molar heat of vaporization of water = 42 kJ/mol]
c. What is the minimum mass of water that should evaporate from your skin to lose 8.4 kJ?

NOTES:

1. Vapor pressure and temperature are proportional NOT directly proportional.

2. At the same temperature, the vapor pressure is the SAME.
3. For the same liquid, the only factor affecting the pressure of the liquid is the
temperature.

12. Minimum conditions for liquid molecules to vaporize:

1) Molecules are supposed to be on the surface.
2) Molecules are supposed to have an average kinetic energy greater than the energy
keeping the molecules in the liquid state.
13. Boiling point: is the temperature at which the liquid vaporizes anywhere in the solution.
14. At the boiling point:
a. Vapor pressure is equal to the surrounding pressure.
b. Bubbles of vapor can form anywhere within the liquid.
c. Molecules escape from the surface of the liquid to enter the gas phase as vapor (this also
happens at room temperature).
d. With increasing altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases and so does boiling point.

Q3 At the boiling point:

a) can molecules escape from the surface of a liquid to enter the gas phase as vapor?
b) what is the relationship between the vapor pressure and the atmospheric pressure?
c) can bubbles of vapor form anywhere within the liquid?

Q4 In general, a liquid boils when

a) its vapor pressure is 1 atmosphere.
b) its vapor pressure is 760 mm Hg.
c) its temperature is 100°C.
d) its vapor pressure equals the surrounding pressure.
e) bubbles form only on the sides of its container.

Q5 When the surrounding pressure is 740 mmHg, water boils at 97◦C while ethanol boils ate
76◦C. Which compound has the higher vapor pressure?
 4

Q6 When will the boiling point of water be highest?

a) At sea level.
b) On the hottest day.
c) On the coldest day.
d) At the top of Mount Everest.
e) When it is boiled in a metallic kettle.

Q7 If you have 2 containers, one with alcohol and the other with water. Alcohol boils at 78.5oC
while water boils at 100oC. If the atmospheric pressure is 750 mmHg, what is the vapor pressure
of each liquid? Explain

15. Normal boiling point: is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is exactly 1 atm or
760 mmHg.
16. Molar heat of fusion: is the energy required to change one mole of a substance from
solid to liquid at the same temperature and constant pressure.
X (s) + heat ⇌ X (l)
Melting (fusion)
Solid �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� Liquid

17. Molar heat of fusion is less than the molar heat of vaporization. Molar heat of
vaporization of water is 7 times molar heat of fusion of water.
18. In general, a pure substance that has a high melting point is expected to have a high molar
heat of fusion.
 5

Q8 How much heat would 180g of water release when they change from water at 0ºCto ice
at 0°C?

Q9 Because of its excellent heat conductivity, liquid sodium has been proposed as a cooling
liquid for use in nuclear power plants.
a) How much heat would be absorbed per kilogram of sodium to melt the solid when
the cooling system is put in operation?
b) How much heat would be absorbed per kilogram of sodium if the temperature rose
too high and the sodium vaporized?
Use the data in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.

19. Comparison between the energy of the molecules on the three states of matter.
Highest PE in gases and lowest PE in solids. The PE of liquid is less than in gases and more
than in solids.

20. Average KE is the same in all the states of matter at the same temperature.

Q10 What factor affects average KE?

Q11 At the same temperature which molecules are on the average likely to have the highest
kinetic energy?
a) Gaseous molecules.
b) Solid molecules.
c) Liquid molecules.
d) Heaviest molecules.
e) Molecules of all states will have the same average KE.

21. During melting, the energy absorbed is stored as PE. This stored energy is used to change
state form solid to liquid and not to raise the temperature. Therefore, the temperature stays
constant.
 6

22. Heating curve:

• As temperature increases: KE increases, PE stays the same
• At constant temperature: KE stays the same, PE increases.
(80) 2. Use the graph below to answer the following.

Explain how the PE and KE of particles in a liquid change as we move the system from:
a. A to B
b. B to C
c. C to D

23. The average kinetic energy is directly proportional to absolute temperature. At constant
temperature, average kinetic energy remains the same.
24. If a molecule on the surface of a liquid is given a sufficient push from below, it may be
able to escape and join the gaseous state.
25. The molecule that leaves the surface jumps out with a lot of kinetic energy, energy that is
stored as potential energy.
26. The average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules decreases. The liquid cools down.
27. When a liquid evaporates its vapor pressure starts to rise. Eventually, molecules come
back and join the liquid at the same rate they are escaping it. The net amount of liquid molecules
and gaseous molecules becomes constant. No more cooling takes place because the rate at which
molecules leave and cool the liquid is equal to the rate at which the molecules come back and
heat the liquid. Equilibrium is reached. It is this “maximum” or “equilibrium” pressure that is
called the vapor pressure of the liquid at the given temperature.
28. When we sweat on very humid days our bodies do not cool down.
29. The vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature.
30. When the vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure, the liquid boils.
31. Sometime a liquid is heated to a temperature above its boiling point and it does not boil.
The liquid is said to be superheated. This is dangerous because any small agitation will cause the
liquid to evaporate explosively spraying all with very hot liquid.
32. To prevent superheating in the laboratory, we add a few boiling chips to a liquid before
boiling it.
33. Solution: is a homogeneous mixture that contains more than one compound.
 7

34. Types of solution:

Type of solution examples

solid in liquid • salt in water
• sugar in water
• sugar in alcohol
liquid in liquid • ethanol (alcohol) in water
gas in liquid • Cola (carbon dioxide in its liquid)
• Any gas in water (ex NH 3 (g) or HCl (g) in water)
gas in gas • Air (mixture of gases mainly nitrogen and oxygen)
• Any mixture of 2 or more gases together
solid in solid: Alloy • steel (iron and carbon)
• stainless steel (iron, carbon, chromium and nickel)
• bronze (copper and tin)
• brass (copper and zinc)
• Jewelry (silver or gold)

35. Differences between solution and a pure substance with respect to phase change:

Solution Pure substance

Is heterogeneous with respect to phase changes Is homogenous with respect to phase changes
• solution will change composition on boiling, • boiling point is fixed
only the solvent will vaporize • composition and boiling point will not
• solution will become more concentrated and change during vaporization
the boiling point will keep on increasing • freezing point is constant
• solution will change composition on freezing, • composition and freezing point will not
only the solvent will crystallize change during freezing
• solution will become more concentrated and
the freezing point will keep on decreasing
 8

36. If we collect the vapor from a boiling aqueous solution, condense it and boil it again it
will boil at 100⁰C.
37. If we collect the crystals from a freezing aqueous solution, melt it and freeze it again it
will freeze at 0⁰C.

(81) 3. a. How can you obtain pure water from sea water by freezing? How can you verify that a
given liquid is pure water?
b. List four properties of a solution you would expect to vary as the concentration of the
solute varies.
(82) 4. Which of the following statements about seawater is false?
a. Seawater boils at a higher temperature than pure water.
b. Seawater freezes at a lower temperature than pure water.
c. The boiling point rises as the liquid boils away.
d. The melting point falls as the liquid freezes.
e. The density is the same as that of pure water.

38. Diagrammatic representations of elements compounds in the 3 states of matter.

(83) 5. Consider the following diagrams.

Which of the following diagrams represents:

a. nitrogen gas?
b. an alloy?
c. H 2 O?
d. a gas as Ne?
e. a gaseous mixture of Ne and Xe?

Diagram Explanation
Nitrogen gas?
An alloy?
H 2 O?
A gas as Ne?
A gaseous mixture of Ne and Xe?

39. Demonstration: filtration

40. Selective solubility
 9

41. Alcohol is flammable, therefore it cannot be heated directly. To heat alcohol, we should
use a steam bath or an electric heater.
42. If you need to collect sugar from sugar alcohol solution heat the solution using an electric
heater to crystallization point. Leave the solution to cool and crystals to form. Filter off the
crystals.
(84) 6. a. How would you obtain dry sand and dry salt from a mixture of sand and salt? Describe
clearly all the steps you follow.
b. Sugar dissolves in water and alcohol, and salt dissolves in water but not in alcohol. How
do you separate a mixture of salt and sugar?
(85) 7. Place the alcohol in a beaker on a water bath and heat the water electrically.

43. Demonstration: Sublimation: Examples of solids that can sublime at room temperature:
1) Solid iodine, I2 (s)
2) Dry ice or solid carbon dioxide CO 2 (s)
3) Any ammonium compound as ammonium chloride, NH 4 Cl and ammonium bromide,
NH 4 Br
(86) 8. What does it mean to say that a substance sublimes?

9. Which mixture is easy to separate by sublimation?

a) Salt + sand
b) Salt + sugar
c) Salt plus ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen and oxygen liquids
e) Ammonium chloride dissolved in water.
f) Sodium chloride (table salt) and iodine
g) Dry ice and table salt

44. Demonstration: Simple Distillation

Q12 Which mixture is easy to separate by distillation?

a) Salt + sand
b) Salt + sugar
c) Salt plus ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen and oxygen gases
e) Calcium chloride dissolved in water.

45. Demonstration: Fractional distillation. Discuss briefly: fractional distillation of

liquefied air and fractional distillation of crude oil.
 10

(87) 10.a. Name all the apparatus needed to perform a distillation.

b. Name the liquid collected at the end of distillation.
c. When do we use a fractional distillation and what is a fractionating column?

Q13 Which mixture is easy to separate by fractional distillation?

a) Salt + sand
b) Salt + sugar
c) Salt plus ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen and oxygen liquids
e) Calcium chloride dissolved in water.
f) Alcohol + water (where alcohol is obtained as a distillate from the mixture)

46. Demonstration: Separating funnel

(88) 11. When do we use a separating funnel?

Q14 Which mixture is easy to separate by using a separating funnel?

a) Salt + sand
b) Water and alcohol
c) Salt plus ammonium chloride
d) Nitrogen and oxygen liquids
e) Water and oil

47. Adsorption: means sticking to the surface.

Q15 Which mixture is easiest to separate into components by adsorption?

a) Brewed tea
b) Sea water
c) Sand and salt
d) Blue copper sulfate solution
e) Yellow potassium chromate solution.
f) a solution of brown sugar

48. Adsorption: sticking of the particles of one material on the surface of another. Examples
of adsorbing substances:
• Silica gel: adsorbs water vapor
• Charcoal: adsorbs gases with strong odor and removes colored impurities from a solution
 11

Q16 Which of the following is a good adsorbing agent?

a) Sponge
b) Charcoal
c) Sand
d) Silica
e) Filter paper.

49. Demonstration: Chromatography

• It is the technique used to separate different compounds, especially those that can be easily
destroyed by heat or chemicals.
• It can be used to separate colored components as:
1) Green liquid obtained by squashing green leaves.
2) Black ink
• The property that carries the liquid up the paper is capillary action.

Study of a chromatography paper after it dries:

Chromatography could be used to check the purity of a dye as well as a separation technique.
Dyes 1 and 2 are soluble pure substances . The spot moved up the paper with the solvent and
did not split.
Dyes 3-6 are mixtures of soluble components. The spot moved up with the solvent and split
into more than one spot. The greater the solubility of a component the greater is its R f value
the larger is the separation from the base line.
Dyes 2 and 5, 3 and 5, 3 and 6 have a common component same R f value. R f value is a
physical constant.
If a dye sticks to the x on the base line this dye is considered to be insoluble in the solvent.
 12

Q17 Which mixture is easiest to separate into components by chromatography?

a) Water and alcohol

b) Sea water
c) Green liquid obtained by squashing green leaves
d) Blue copper sulfate solution
e) Yellow potassium chromate solution.
f) Different dyes present in red ink

50. Demonstration: Crystallization

Crystallization is suitable to obtain certain solids from their solution. Give an example.

Note: Students should study sec 3 from text book

Q18 Complete the following statements:

a) A ___________ is the solid left on the filter paper.

b) The ___________ is the liquid that passes through the filter paper.
c) The process of ___________ a liquid and then ___________ the vapor is known as
___________
d) ___________ is the process used to separate dry ice from table salt.
e) ___________ ___________ is the process used to separate sugar from salt.

Q19
a) From the list below choose the process shown in each diagram.

Chromatography distillation crystallization filtration

b) Choose which process A, B or C, you could use to separate pure water from sea water.

c) Choose which process A, B or C, you could use in food analysis to show that a bottle of
fruit squash may contain several water soluble dyes.
 13

Q20 Rock salt contains insoluble solids, and the soluble salt, sodium chloride. The following
processes are needed to separate sodium chloride from rock salt.

Evaporation Crystallization Addition of water Filtration Stirring

Put each process in the correct order for separating sodium chloride from rock salt.

Q21 You are given some mixtures below. Name the method you would think the most
appropriate to obtain water from each mixture.
a) Salt + Water
b) Alcohol + Water
c) Sand + Water
d) Water vapor + Air

51. An aqueous solution is one in which the solvent is water.

52. Salt and water is an example of aqueous solutions where the solute is a solid.
53. Alcohol and water is an example of aqueous solutions where the solute is a liquid.
54. Ammonia and water is an example of aqueous solutions where the solute is a gas

Q22
a) What are aqueous solutions?
b) Can you have aqueous solutions where the solute is a solid, a liquid or a gas? Yes
c) Give an example of each case.

55. Concentration: relative amounts of solute and solvent.

56. Molar concentration (Molarity): is the number of moles of solute per liter (dm3) of
solution. (the relative amounts of solute and solution)

0.5 M of solution means 0.5 moles of solute in 1 dm3 solution

1.0 M of solution means 1.0 moles of solute in 1 dm3 solution
5.0 M of solution means 5.0 moles of solute in 1 dm3 solution

Q23
a) What does the term 'the molar concentration of a solution' refers to?
b) Is this the same thing as molarity?.
c) What does it mean to say that the molar concentration of a sugar solution is 0.25 M?

57. Concentration of a given solution does not change if solution is split into fractions. Ex21
p.25

Q23 A 2 L bottle of 0.35 M solution is split into ten containers of 100ml capacity. What is the
concentration of the solution in each of the new containers?

Q24 Two liters of 1.0 M NaCl solution is prepared in a flask. 500 ml of solution is poured out of
the flask into a beaker. What is the concentration of the salt solution in the beaker?
 14

Q25 What do we mean by a 1.5 M solution?

Q26 Which has a higher concentration, 20 ml of 1.5 M solution or 200 ml of the same solution?

58. Relationships between n, V, C and m, M, V, C:7

𝐧𝐧 𝐧𝐧
n = CV 𝐂𝐂 = 𝐕𝐕
𝐕𝐕 = 𝐂𝐂

𝐦𝐦
m=n×M m = CVM 𝐌𝐌 = 𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂

(89) 12. a. Pour 100 cm3 of 4.0 M salt solution into a clean volumetric 500 cm3 flask.
Add enough water to fill the flask up to the etched mark. What is the concentration of
the salt solution in the new flask?
b. Given 2.0 dm3 of 1.5 M solution. How many moles of solute are in the solution?
(90) 13. a. What mass of ammonium chloride, NH 4 Cl, are present in 0.20 dm3 of a 0.50 M NH 4 Cl
solution?
b. What volume of a 0.250 M K 2 CrO 4 , solution contains 38.8 g of K 2 CrO 4 ?
c. 2.00 dm3 of a 1.00 M solution contain 73 g of an acid X.
What is the molecular mass of X?
(92) 15. [G]
a. If 1.0 mol of a solute is dissolved in enough water to make 2.0 dm3 of solution, what is
C, the molar concentration of this solution?
b. How many moles of a salt should be dissolved in 0.50 dm3 of water to make a 0.25 M
solution of that salt?
c. What is the volume of a 0.10 M solution that contains 0.20 mol of a salt?
 15

59. Preparing solutions with given concentrations:

a) Calculations:
1. Calculate number of moles (from concentration and volume given)
2. Calculate required mass of the given solute
b) Laboratory procedure:
1. Add the measured mass of solid to selected volumetric flask.
2. Add little water to dissolve
3. Add enough water till the meniscus is tangent with the line or the etched mark at
the neck of the flask.
4. Close the volumetric flask and shake to homogenize.
(91) 14. Explain how you would prepare a 1.00 L of 1.00 M NaCl solution.

Q27 Write directions for preparing 1.0 dm3 of 1.0 M Lead nitrate, Pb(NO 3 ) 2, solution
a) Calculations:
a) Laboratory procedure:

60. Dilution of solution: If a solution is diluted by adding water ⇒

• Number of moles in concentrated solution = number of moles of dilute solution. CV = C’V’
• Upon dilution, volume of water needed for dilution = V dilute solution – V concentrated
solution

Q28
1) Pour the 100 cm3 of 4.0 M salt solution into a clean volumetric 500 cm3 flask. Add
enough water to fill the flask up to the etched mark. What is the concentration of the salt
solution in the new flask?
2) 200 cm3of 0.40 M NaCl solution was poured into a 500 cm3 beaker. Water was added till
the etched mark.
a) What is the new concentration?
b) What is the volume of water needed for dilution?
3) You are given 100 cm3 of 0.50 M HCl, how much water must you add to reduce the
concentration to 0.10M.
4) To what volume must 50.0 cm3 of 3.50 M H 2 SO 4 be diluted in order to make a 2.00 M
H 2 SO 4 ?

61. To find [solutes] after mixing two or more solutions:

Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of each solution
Step 2: Calculate the total volume
Step 3: Find new concentration.

Q29 What is the concentration of NaCl in a solution prepared by mixing 20 cm3 of 0.40 M NaCl
and 30 cm3 of 0.10 M NaCl solutions?

62. Mixing equal volumes of different solutions halves the concentration of all species in the
solution.
 16

Q30 What is the concentration of NaCl and KF in a solution prepared by mixing 20 cm3 of 0.40
M NaCl and 20 cm3 of 0.10 M KF solutions?

63. Saturated solution: is a solution that has dissolved in it the maximum amount of solute it
can hold at a given temperature and is in contact with the undissolved solute. In simple
words, a saturated solution is a solution in which no more solute can dissolve.
64. Solubility: it is the concentration of a saturated solution at a certain temperature.
Soluble solubility > 0.1 M
Slightly soluble solubility < 0.1 M
Very slightly soluble solubility < 10-3 M
Insoluble or negligible solubility solubility is low
65. Conductor: a material that completes an electric circuit
66. Electric current: is the movement of electric charge.
67. Electrolyte: a substance that dissolves in water producing electrically conducting solutions,
example: aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
68. DEMONSTRATION for conductors and non-conductors.
69. Non-electrolyte: a substance that dissolves in water producing electrically non-
conducting solutions, example aqueous solution of sugar and distilled water. Water itself
is a bad conductor of electricity. When small quantities of a certain substance are
dissolved in water, water becomes a good conductor of electricity.
70. Examples of electrolytes:
1- All acids are electrolytes e.g acetic acid CH 3 COOH, sulphuric acid H 2 SO 4 ...
2- All ionic compounds are electrolytes e.g NaCl, CaCl 2 , MgBr 2 ....
71. Brief introduction to section 6.6.3
72. Ions: are charged particles( charged atoms or groups of atoms)
73. Cations: positively charged ions (usually metal ions eg Na+, Ca2+..)
74. Anions: negatively charged ions ( non-metal ions, eg Cl-, CO 3 2-)
75. Ionic compounds: are compounds in which oppositely charged ions are held together
strongly by an electrostatic force of attraction. They are formed from the reaction between a
metal and a non-metal. Examples of ionic compounds are sodium chloride (table salt), NaCl,
calcium chloride, CaCl 2 , and silver nitrate, AgNO 3 .
76. Sodium chloride NaCl is made from the combination of sodium ions Na+ and chloride
-
ions Cl in a ratio of 1:1. When one mole of sodium chloride dissolves in water it provides the
solution with two moles of ions (1mole of sodium ions and 1 mole of chloride ions) as per the
equation: NaCl(s) →Na+(aq)+Cl-(aq)
(94) 17. [G] Write the balanced equation of dissociation of the following ionic compounds in
water.
a. BaI 2
b. K 3 N
c. Ca(NO 3 ) 2
 17

77. Calcium chloride is made from the combination of calcium ions Ca2+ and chloride ions
Cl- in a ratio of 1:2. When one mole of calcium chloride dissolves in water it provides the
solution with three moles of ions( 1mole of calcium ions and 2 moles of chloride ions) as per the
equation: CaCl 2 (s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq).

78. Silver nitrate AgNO 3 is made from the combination of silver ions Ag+ and nitrate ions NO 3 -
in a ratio of 1:1. When one mole of silver nitrate dissolves in water it provides the solution
with two moles of ions( 1mole of silver ions and 1 mole of nitrate ions) as per the equation:
AgNO 3 (s) → Ag+(aq) + NO 3 -(aq)

79. Sodium chloride and all other ionic compounds are electrolytes because they provide the
solution with freely moving ions which can carry electric charge.
80. An electric current flows when we have a complete circuit. Current flows outside the battery
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. If an ionic solution is connected to a
battery, all positive ions move in the direction of the current, away from the positive
electrode and towards the negative electrode. All negative ions move in a direction opposite
to the current, away from the negative electrode and towards the positive electrode.

81. Not all ionic compounds are soluble in water and ionize completely in it. Examples
include: calcium carbonate, silver chloride, silver bromide, silver iodide and barium sulphate.
82. Memorize name and formulae of cations and anions listed p. 47 part2 textbook.
(97) 18. Name the following:

Chemical Formula Chemical Name

a) AgI
b) KOH
c) PbSO 4
d) BaCr 2 O 7
e) Li 2 CO 3

83. Writing the formulae of ionic compounds

(98) 19. Write the formulae of the following:

Chemical Name Chemical formula

a) Ammonium nitrate
b) Lead (II) chromate
c) Hydrogen fluoride
d) Barium sulfate
e) Calcium carbonate

(101) 21. [G] Deduce the empirical formula of the compound made of the following ions:
a. Al3+ and S2-
b. NH 4 + and SO 4 2-
c. Fe3+ and CO 3 2-
 18

84. Properties of an ionic solid: ionic solids have high mpt and bpt, do not conduct electricity
when solid, conduct electricity when molten or aqueous. Ionic solids form clear crystals.
(100) 20. [G] Describe the structure of the solid ionic compound NaBr.

85. Write dissociation reactions of ionic compounds in water. The equations must be balanced
for atoms and for charge

Q31 Balance the three equations below.

1) MgCl 2 (s) → Mg2+(aq) + Cl−(aq).
2) Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 (s) → Na+(aq) + Cr 2 O 7 2−(aq).
3) Cr 2 O 7 2−(aq) + H 2 O → CrO 4 2−(aq) + H+(aq).

86. Precipitate: is solid formed when mixing two aqueous solutions.

87. Precipitation reaction: is a reaction where a precipitate (solid) is formed.

Precipitation in chemistry means:

a) Rain falling on a plain.
b) The reaction where a gas is formed.
c) The condensation that results when the vapors of a liquid are cooled.
d) The formation of steam.
e) The formation of solid from a solution.

88. Demonstration: Different precipitation reactions:

e.g i) silver nitrate and sodium chloride
ii) silver nitrate and sodium bromide
iii) silver nitrate and sodium iodide
iv) lead(II) nitrate and sodium sulphate
v) calcium chloride and sodium carbonate

89. Write a complete formula equation, a complete ionic equation, a net-ionic equation to
represent a precipitation reaction.
(93) 16. a. When solutions of sodium carbonate, Na 2 CO 3 , and calcium chloride, CaCl 2 , are mixed,
a white precipitate of calcium carbonate, CaCO 3 (s) is obtained. Write the balanced
equations for this reaction in three different ways.
b. When solutions of silver nitrate, AgNO 3 , and potassium chloride, KCl, are mixed; a
white precipitate of silver chloride, AgCl(s), is obtained. Write the balanced equations
for this reaction in three different ways.

90. Predominant ions: is that take part in the reaction

91. Spectator ions: ions that do not take part in a reaction.

Q32 In the reaction: Ag+(aq) + NO 3 − (aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) → AgCl(s) + NO 3 − (aq) +

Na+(aq)
 19

The predominant reacting species is/are

92. Molecular solids are made up of molecules. Examples of molecular solids are wax, sugar,
hydrogen chloride, ammonia ...
93. Discuss properties of molecular solids:
• low mpt and bpt
• In general they remain molecular when dissolved in water and are non-electrolyte
• In general they are non-electrolytes: sugar (s)→ sugar (aq)
• Some molecular compounds like acids e.g hydrogen chloride are electrolytes:
HCl(g)→H+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
96. Other types of solids: metallic solids and network solids
97. Metallic solids: e.g Cu, Ag, Na
98. Network solids / giant molecular/ giant covalent solids are atomic solids made up of
atoms joined together by strong covalent bonds. Network solids are characterized by their
high melting point and boiling point. e.g Sand (SiO 2 ) , graphite (C) and diamond(C)

Q33 Examples of metallic and network solids respectively are

a) copper and wax.

b) salt and sugar.
c) gold and charcoal.
d) sodium and diamond.
e) mercury and string.
f) gold and sand

99. Determine [ions] present given number of moles of salt and volume of solution.

(95)22. [G] Magnesium chloride, MgCl 2 dissolves in water to form a conducting solution
containing Mg2+, and that of chloride ions, Cl-. if 0.15 moles of MgCl 2 is dissolved in water and
diluted into 1.5 dm3. What is the number of moles of magnesium ions and that of chloride ions
in the solution?

Q34 37.0 g of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 are dissolved in water to make a 200 cm3 solution.
what is the concentration of each ion in this solution?

Q35 A solution is prepared by diluting a 25 ml of 0.300 M solution of NiCl 2 to a final volume of

500 ml. What is the concentration of: a) NiCl 2 b) Ni2+ ions c) Cl- ions

100. Determine the concentration of each ion present in a solution prepared by mixing
two other solutions without precipitate formation

23. [G] 0.400 dm3 of solution which contains 0.100 mol of Na 2 SO 4 (aq), was mixed with
(96)

1.00 dm3 of solution which contains 0.100 mol of zinc chloride, ZnCl 2 . Calculate the
concentrations of all ions in the resulting solution. Assume that volumes of these solutions are
additive.
 20

24. A solution is made by mixing 50.0 mL of 0.20 M NaBr solution with 150 mL of 0.10 M
Na 2 SO 4 solution. Calculate the concentrations of all the ions present in the final solution.

Q36 Determine the concentration of each ion in a solution prepared by mixing 20 cm3 0.10 M
NaCl solution with 30cm3 0.30 M CaCl 2 solution.

Q37 Calculate the concentration of all ions after mixing 0.100 moles FeCl 3 and 0.100 moles of
NH 4 Cl and dissolving them into a 1.00 dm3 solution.

101. Determine the concentration of each ion present in a solution prepared by mixing two
other solutions resulting in the formation of a precipitate. Calculate the mass of precipitate
formed.
(99) 25. When solutions of calcium chloride, CaCl 2 , and potassium carbonate, K 2 CO 3 , are mixed,
the following reaction occurs:
2K+(aq) + CO 3 2-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → CaCO 3 (s) + 2K+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
a. Rewrite the equation showing predominant reacting species only.
b. 0.50 L of 0.400 M CaCl 2 is mixed with 1.00 L of 0.200 M K 2 CO 3 . CaCO 3 has
negligible solubility. Calculate the concentrations of all ions present when
precipitation stops.
c. 1.00 L of 0.400 M CaCl 2 is mixed with 1.00 L of 0.200 M K 2 CO 3 . CaCO 3 has a
negligible solubility. Calculate the concentrations of all the ions present after
precipitation stops.

Q38 Extra questions:

1-Determine the concentration of each ion and mass of AgCl produced in a solution prepared by
mixing 20 cm3 0.10 M AgNO 3 solution with 30cm3 0.20 M NaCl solution. Silver chloride is
sparingly soluble.

2- Determine the concentration of each ion and mass of AgCl produced in a solution prepared by
mixing 20 cm3 0.10 M AgNO 3 solution with 30cm3 0.20 M CaCl 2 solution. Silver chloride is
sparingly soluble.

3- Determine the concentration of each ion and mass of AgCl produced in a solution prepared by
mixing 20 cm30.10 M Pb(NO 3 ) 2 solution with 30cm30.10 M NaCl solution. Lead(II) chloride is
sparingly soluble.
 21

(102)26. [T] Matter is classified into elements, compounds and mixtures.

a. Explain the difference between an element and a compound?

b. A student wants to separate water from a mixture of sand and sugar.

Name the processes used to separate water from the mixture in the correct order.

c. Fractional distillation is used to separate two miscible liquids having close boiling points.

d. A student uses the apparatus below to separate a mixture of two alcohols of boiling points
138°C and 157°C, respectively.

i. Name apparatus X.

ii. R and W are two openings in apparatus X. Which of the two openings is the cold
water inlet?

iii. Why it is not recommended to use the above apparatus to separate the two alcohols?

iv. Another student suggests that if he replaces the water bath with a Bunsen burner the
above apparatus would be suitable to separate the two alcohols.
Do you agree with him? Explain your reasoning.

v. What apparatus can be fitted into the fractionating column to ensure purity of the
alcohol extracted?

vi. Which alcohol is collected first in beaker A?