Reviewer in Science B

Cell biology - is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around the concept that the cell is
the fundamental unit of life. Robert Hooke is the scientist who coined the term cell for the compartments
observed in a cork.

Taxonomy is the study of relationships between living things and the formal classification of organisms into
groups based on those hypothesized relationships.

Biology - the study of living things and their vital processes. The field deals with all the physicochemical
aspects of life.

Microbiology - the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible to the naked eye.

Botany - a branch of biology that deals with the study of plants, including their structure, properties, and
biochemical processes.

Zoology - the study of all animals of all shapes and sizes, from tiny insects to large mammals.

Evolution may be defined as any net directional change or any cumulative change in the characteristics of
organisms or populations over many generations—in other words, descent with modification.

Natural selection is a mechanism of evolution. Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are
more likely to survive and pass on the genes that aided their success. This process causes species to
change and diverge over time.

Plant cells have a cell wall, as well as a cell membrane. In plants, the cell wall surrounds the cell
membrane. This gives the plant cell its unique rectangular shape. Animal cells simply have a cell
membrane, but no cell wall.

List of the major differences between a plant cell and an animal cell.
Plant cell Animal cell
1. Have a cellulose cell wall outside the cell
1. Have no cell wall.
membrane.
2. Have a cell membrane. 2. Have no chloroplasts.
3. Have cytoplasm. 3. Have only small vacuoles.
4. Have a nucleus. 4. Often irregular in shape.
5. Often have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. 5. Do not contain plastids.
 6. Have complex and prominent Golgi
6. Have prominent one or more vacuoles.
apparatus.
7. Often regular in shape. 7. Cytoplasm fills almost the entire cell.

Plant Cell Structure

Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various components known as cell
organelles that perform different functions to sustain themselves.  These organelles include:

Cell Wall
It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose. It is located
outside the cell membrane. It also comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or suberin.
The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural support to the cell. The plant cell
wall is also involved in protecting the cell against mechanical stress and providing form and structure to the
cell. It also filters the molecules passing in and out of it.
The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three layers, namely, primary,
secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell wall is formed by cellulose laid down by enzymes.

Cell membrane
It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is composed of a thin layer of
protein and fat.
The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of specific substances within the
cell.
For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while nutrients and essential minerals are
transported across.

Nucleus
The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a
nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary information required for cell division, metabolism and growth.

Plastids
They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are necessary to store starch and to
carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is also used in the synthesis of many molecules, which form the
building blocks of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated below:

Chloroplasts
It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The chloroplast is shaped like a disc and
the stroma is the fluid within the chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a
green coloured pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of photosynthesis. The chlorophyll
absorbs light energy from the sun and uses it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose.
Chromoplasts
They are heterogeneous, coloured plastid which is responsible for pigment synthesis and for storage in
photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. Chromoplasts have red, orange and yellow coloured pigments which
provide colour to all ripe fruits and flowers.

Central Vacuole
It occupies around 30% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. Tonoplast is a membrane that surrounds
the central vacuole. The vital function of the central vacuole apart from storage is to sustain turgor pressure
against the cell wall. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts, enzymes and other
substances.

Golgi Apparatus
They are found in all eukaryotic cells, which are involved in distributing synthesised macromolecules to
various parts of the cell.

Ribosomes
They are the smallest membrane-bound organelles which comprise RNA and protein. They are the sites for
protein synthesis, hence, also referred to as the protein factories of the cell.

Mitochondria
They are the double-membraned organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. They provide
energy by breaking down carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence they are also referred to as the
“Powerhouse of the cell.”

Lysosome
Lysosomes are called suicidal bags as they hold digestive enzymes in an enclosed membrane. They
perform the function of cellular waste disposal by digesting worn-out organelles, food particles, and foreign
bodies in the cell. In plants, the role of lysosomes is undertaken by the vacuoles.
Plant cells are the building blocks of plants. Photosynthesis is the major function performed by plant cells.
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the plant cell. It is the process of preparing food by the plants,
by utilising sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. Energy is produced in the form of ATP in the process.

Animal Cell Definition

“An animal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall and has a true, membrane-bound nucleus
along with other cellular organelles.”

Animal cell diagram detailing the various organelles

Though this animal cell diagram is not representative of any one particular type of cell, it provides insight
into the primary organelles and the intricate internal structure of most animal cells. Furthermore, it is easy
to distinguish between a plant and animal cell diagram just by inspecting the presence or absence of a cell
wall.

Animal Cell Structure

Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells.  Another defining characteristic is its irregular shape.
This is due to the absence of a cell wall. But animal cells share other cellular organelles with plant cells as
both have evolved from eukaryotic cells.
A typical animal cell comprises the following cell organelles:

Cell Membrane
A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding the cell. Its primary role is to
protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic
entities into the cell. For this reason, cell membranes are known as semi-permeable or selectively
permeable membranes.

Nucleus
It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as nucleolus, nucleosomes and
chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic materials.

Nuclear Membrane
It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred to as the nuclear envelope.

Centrosome
It is a small organelle found near the nucleus, which has a thick centre with radiating tubules. The
centrosomes are where microtubules are produced.

Lysosome
They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising digestive enzymes which help in
digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process.

Cytoplasm
A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane. The
substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm.

Golgi Apparatus
A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus and involved in manufacturing,
storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the cell.

Mitochondrion
They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They are the powerhouse of a cell
as they play an important role in releasing energy.

Ribosome
They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and they are the sites of protein
synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of membranous sacs originating from the
nucleus.

Vacuole
A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and storing water, food,
wastes, etc.

The major levels of organization in the body, from the simplest to the most complex are: atoms, molecules,
organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the human organism.
The circulatory system is made up of blood vessels that carry blood away from and towards the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry blood back to the heart. The circulatory system
carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells, and removes waste products, like carbon dioxide.
The brain is what controls all the body's functions. The spinal cord runs from the brain down through the
back. It contains threadlike nerves that branch out to every organ and body part. This network of nerves
relays messages back and forth from the brain to different parts of the body.
There are an equal number of bones in the bodies of men and women (206), including the number of ribs.
The skeletons of men and women have some minor variations. For example, the pelvis of a woman is more
rounded. Male and female bodies have different bone mass, density, structure, and length.
All living things come from a single cell.
Comparative anatomy- the comparison of the structure (anatomy) of one animal or plant with the structure
of a different animal or plant.