Chapter 15

Waves
Waves
The patterns, which move without the actual physical transfer or flow of
matter as a whole, are called waves.
The waves we come across are mainly of three types:
(a) Mechanical waves,
(b) Electromagnetic waves and
(c) Matter waves.

Mechanical waves
Mechanical waves are governed by Newton’s laws, and require a material
medium for their propagation., such as water, air, rock, etc.
E.g, water waves, sound waves, seismic waves, etc.

Electromagnetic waves
The electromagnetic waves do not require any medium for their
propagation.
All electromagnetic waves travel through vacuum at the same
speed of light c, 3x 108 m𝑠 −1
E.g, visible light, ultraviolet light, radio waves, microwaves, x-rays etc.

Matter waves
Matter waves are associated with moving electrons, protons, neutrons and
other fundamental particles, and even atoms and molecules. These are the
constituents of matter and hence such wave are called matter waves.
Matter waves associated with electrons are employed in electron
microscopes.

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Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Mechanical waves can be transverse or longitudinal depending on the
relationship between the directions of vibrations of particles in the medium
and that of the propagation of wave.
Transverse waves
In transverse waves, the constituents of the medium oscillate perpendicular
to the direction of wave propagation.

• They travel in the form of crests and troughs.

• Transverse waves can be propagated only in solids and strings, and
not in fluids.
• E.g, Waves on a stretched string,

A single pulse is sent along a stretched string. As each

element of the string move perpendicular to the
direction in which the wave travels, the wave is a
transverse wave.

Longitudinal waves
In longitudinal waves the constituents of the medium oscillate along the
direction of wave propagation.

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 • They travel in the form of compressions and rarefactions.
• Longitudinal waves can propagate in all elastic media,i.e,solids,liquids
nd gases.
• E.g, sound waves, vibrations in a spring.

A sound wave is set up in an air filled pipe by

moving a piston back and forth. As the
oscillations of an element of air are parallel to
the direction in which the wave travels, the
wave is a longitudinal wave.

Given below are some examples of wave motion. State in each case if the
wave motion is transverse, longitudinal or a combination of both:
(a)Motion of a kink(particle) in a longitudinal spring produced
by displacing one end of the spring sideways.
(b)Waves produced in a cylinder containing a liquid by moving
its piston back and forth.
(c) Waves produced by a motorboat sailing in water.
(d) Ultrasonic waves in air produced by a vibrating quartz crystal.
(e) The waves in an ocean.
Answer:- (a) Transverse and longitudinal
(b) Longitudinal
(c) Transverse and longitudinal
(d) Longitudinal
(e) Transverse and longitudinal

Capillary waves and Gravity waves

The waves on the surface of water are of two kinds: capillary waves and
gravity waves.

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Capillary waves
Capillary waves are ripples of fairly short wavelength, not more than a few
centimetres. The restoring force that produces them is the surface tension of
water.

Gravity waves
Gravity waves have wavelengths typically ranging from several metres to
several hundred metres. The restoring force that produces these waves is
the pull of gravity, which tends to keep the water surface at its lowest level.

Travelling or Progressive Wave

A wave, transverse or longitudinal, is said to be travelling or progressive if it
travels from one point of the medium to another.
Displacement Relation in a Progressive Wave along a String
(transverse wave)
A progressive wave travelling along the positive direction of the x-axis can
be represented as
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ωt + ϕ)
A progressive wave travelling along the negative direction of the x-axis can
be represented as
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx +ωt + ϕ)

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Graphical variation of displacement wih time for a progressive wave
(Transverse wave)

Crest
A point of maximum positive displacement in a wave, is called crest.
Trough
A point of maximum negative displacement is called trough.
Amplitude
The amplitude a of a wave is the magnitude of the maximum displacement
of the elements from their equilibrium positions as the wave passes through
them.
Since ‘a’ is a magnitude, it is a positive quantity, even if the displacement is
negative.

Phase
The phase of the wave is the argument (kx – ωt + ϕ) of the oscillatory term
sine . It describes the state of motion as the wave sweeps through a string
element at a particular position x. It changes linearly with time t.
Phase Constant
The constant ϕ is called the initial phase angle. The value of ϕ is determined
by the initial displacement(at, t=0)and velocity of the element (at, x = 0).
Wavelength and Angular Wave Number
Wavelength
The wavelength λ of a wave is the minimum
distance between two consecutive troughs
or crests or two consecutive points in the
same phase of wave motion.

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Propagation Constant or Angular Wave Number
Propagation constant or Angular Wave Number is defined as
𝟐𝝅
k=
𝝀
Its SI unit is radian per metre or rad 𝑚−1

Period, Angular Frequency and Frequency

Period
The period of oscillation T of a wave is defined as the time taken by any
element to complete one oscillation.
Angular Frequency
Angular Frequency of a wave is given by
𝟐𝝅
ω=
𝑻
Its SI unit is rad 𝑠 −1
𝟐𝝅
From this equation, 𝑻=
𝛚
Frequency
It is the number of oscillations per unit time made by an element as the
wave passes through it.
Frequency is the reciprocal of period.
𝟏
𝝂=
𝑻
𝛚
𝝂=
𝟐𝝅
It is usually measured in hertz.

Displacement Relation in a Progressive Wave (Longitudinal Wave)

s(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt + ϕ)
where s(x, t) is the displacement of an element of the medium in the
direction of propagation of the wave at position x and time t. a is the
displacement amplitude; other quantities have the same meaning as in case
of a transverse wave .
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Example
A wave travelling along a string is described by,
y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t), in which the numerical constants are in
SI units (0.005 m, 80.0 rad 𝑚−1 , and 3.0 rad 𝑠 −1 ). Calculate
(a) the amplitude,
(b) the wavelength,
(c) the period and frequency of the wave.
(d) Calculate the displacement y of the wave at a distance
x = 30.0 cm and time t = 20 s ?
Answer
y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t)
The general expression for a travelling wave is
y (x,t ) = a sin (kx – ωt + ϕ)
Comparing these equations
(a) Amplitude , a=0.005m

(b) k=80 rad 𝑚−1

2𝜋
but , k=
𝜆
2𝜋
= 80
𝜆
2𝜋
𝜆= =0.0785 m
80

𝝀 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 𝒄𝒎

(c) ω=3
2𝜋
but, ω = 𝑇
2𝜋
=3
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑇=
3
𝐓 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗 𝐬

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 Frequency, 𝜈 = 1/T
=1/2.09

𝝂 = 0.48 Hz

(d) y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t)

x = 30.0 cm =0.3m
t = 20 s
y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x 0.3 – 3.0 x20)
= (0.005 m) sin (–36 )
= (0.005 m) sin (–36 + 12 𝜋)
12 π is added ,so tht (–36 + 12 π) becomes positive
= (0.005 m) sin (1.699)
= (0.005 m) sin (970 )
= 5 mm

The Speed of a Travelling Wave

Consider a wave propagating in positive x direction with

initial phase ϕ =0
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ωt )
As the wave moves, each point of the waveform (say A) retains its
displacement y. This is possible only when the argument (kx – ωt ) is
constant.

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 (kx – ωt ) =constant
𝑑
(kx – ωt ) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
k −ω =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 ω
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑘
𝛚
v=
𝒌
ω = 2𝜋𝜈
2𝜋
k=
𝜆
2𝜋𝜈
v= 2𝜋
𝜆

v=𝝂𝝀
This is a general relation valid for all progressive waves.
The speed of a wave is related to its wavelength and frequency , but it is
determined by the properties of the medium.

Speed of a Transverse Wave on Stretched String

The speed of transverse waves on a string is determined by two factors,
(i) the linear mass density or mass per unit length, μ, and
(ii) the tension T
𝑻
v=√𝛍

The speed of a wave along a stretched ideal string does not depend on the
frequency of the wave.
Example
A steel wire 0.72 m long has a mass of 5.0 ×10−3 kg. If the wire is under a
tension of 60 N, what is the speed of transverse waves on the wire ?
𝑇
v=√μ

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 𝑀
μ=
𝑙
5.0 ×10−3
=
0.72

= 6.9 ×10−3 kg 𝑚−1

T = 60 N
60
v=√
6.9 ×10−3

v= 93 m 𝑠 −1

Speed of a Longitudinal Wave Speed of Sound

The longitudinal waves in a medium travel in the form of compressions and
rarefactions or changes in density, ρ.
• The speed of propagation of a longitudinal wave in a fluid
𝑩
v=√ 𝛒

B= the bulk modulus of medium

ρ = the density of the medium
• The speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid bar
𝒀
v=√𝛒

Y =Young’s modulus
ρ=density of the medium,
• The speed of a longitudinal wave in an ideal gas
Case1 -Newtons Formula
Newton assumed that, the pressure variations in a medium
during propagation of sound are isothermal.
𝑩
v=√ 𝛒

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 For isothermal process
PV = constant
VΔP + PΔV = 0
VΔP =−PΔV
VΔP
− =P
ΔV
B =P
𝑷
v=√ρ

This relation was first given by Newton and is known as

Newton’s formula.
Case 2- Laplace correction to Newton’s formula.
Laplace that the pressure variations in the propagation of sound
waves are so fast that there is little time for the heat flow to
maintain constant temperature. These variations, therefore, are
adiabatic and not isothermal.
𝑩
v=√ 𝛒
For adiabatic processes
P𝑉 𝛾 = constant
Δ P𝑉 𝛾 =0
P𝛾𝑉 𝛾−1 ΔV + 𝑉 𝛾 Δ P =0
𝛾P 𝑉 𝛾−1 ΔV = −𝑉 𝛾 Δ P
𝑉 𝛾 ΔP
𝛾 P =−
𝑉 𝛾−1 ΔV
ΔP
𝛾 P =−
𝑉 −1 ΔV
VΔP
𝛾 P =− =B
ΔV

B=𝛾P
𝜸𝐏
v=√ 𝛒
This modification of Newton’s formula is referred to as the
Laplace correction.
𝐶𝑃 7
γ= , For air γ = .
𝐶𝑉 5
The speed of sound in air at STP = 331.3 m 𝒔−𝟏

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The Principle of Superposition of Waves
When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement is the
algebraic sum of the displacements due to each wave.
let 𝑦1 (x, t) and 𝑦2 (x, t) be the displacements individual waves, then
resultant displacement y (x, t) is,
y (x, t) = 𝒚𝟏 (x, t) + 𝒚𝟐 (x, t)
Consider two wave travelling in positive x direction having same amplitude,
same angular frequency and wavenumber and therefor same wavelength
and speed. The waves differ only in their initial phase ϕ
𝑦1 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
𝑦2 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt + ϕ )
Now, applying the superposition principle, the resultant displacement is
y (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt) + a sin (kx – ωt + ϕ)
A+B A−B
sinA + sinB = 2 sin ( )cos( )
2 2

Applying this relation the resultant displacement is,

𝛟 𝛟
y (x, t) = [2a cos ] sin (kx – ωt + ) ----------(1)
𝟐 𝟐

The resultant wave is also a sinusoidal wave, travelling in the positive

direction of x-axis.
𝛟
Initial phase of resultant wave =
𝟐
Amplitude of resultant wave is
𝛟
A = 2a cos 𝟐 ------------(2)
If 𝛟 = 0, i.e. ,the two waves are in phase,

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 Resultant displacement, y(x,t) = 2a sin (kx – ωt)
Amplitude , A = 2a
which is the largest possible value of Amplitude A.

If ϕ = π, i.e. the two waves are in phase,

y (x, t) = 0
A=0
Reflection of Wave
The reflection at a rigid boundary

• The reflected wave will have a phase reversal i.e, a phase difference
of π radian or 1800 .
• There will be no displacement at the boundary as the string is fixed
there.
Incident wave, 𝒚𝒊 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
Reflected wave, 𝑦𝑟 (x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt + π)
sin(180+θ)=-sin θ

𝒚𝒓 (x, t) = – a sin (kx + ωt)

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The Reflection at an Open Boundary

• The reflected wave will have same sign (no phase reversal) and
amplitude as the incident wave.
• There will be maximum displacement at the boundary( twice the
amplitude of either of the pulses)
Incident wave, 𝒚𝒊 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
Reflected wave, 𝒚𝒓 (x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt).

Standing Waves and Normal Modes

Standing Waves
The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite directions
produces standing waves.

Wave travelling in the positive direction of x-axis

𝑦1 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
Wave travelling in the negative direction of x-axis
𝑦2 (x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt)
By the principle of superposition
y (x, t) = 𝑦1 (x, t) + 𝑦2 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt) + a sin (kx + ωt)

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 y (x, t) = (2a sin kx) cos ωt
This equation represents a standing wave, a wave in which the waveform
does not move.
Amplitude of wave , A= 2a sin kx.

Nodes and Antinodes

The positions of zero amplitude in a staning wave are called nodes and the
positions of maximum amplitude are called antinodes.

Condition for Nodes

At nodes,the amplitude of standing wave is zero
2a sin kx =0
sin kx =0
kx = nπ, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2π
But k =
λ
2π
x = nπ
λ
𝛌
x=𝒏𝟐 , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
𝟏𝛌 𝟐𝛌 𝟑𝛌
i.e., nodes are formed at locations x=𝟎, , , ,… ……
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

The nodes are separated by λ/2 and are located half way between pairs of
antinodes.

Condition for Antinodes

At antinodes, the amplitude of standing wave is maximum.
2a sin kx =maximum
sin kx =±1
1
kx = (n + ) π, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2
2π
but ,k =
λ

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 2π 1
x = (n + ) π
λ 2
𝟏 𝛌
x = (n +𝟐 ) , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
𝟐
𝛌 𝟑𝛌 𝟓𝛌
i.e., antinodes are formed at locations x= , , ,………
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒

The antinodes are separated by λ/2 and are located half way between pairs
of nodes.

(1) Standing waves in a Stretched String fixed at both the ends

For a stretched string of length L, fixed at both ends, the two ends
x= 0 and x= L of the string have to be nodes.
The condition for node at L
𝛌
L = 𝒏 𝟐 , for n = 1, 2, 3, ...

Fundamental mode or the first harmonic

The oscillation mode with n=1 , the lowest frequency is called the
fundamental mode or the first harmonic.

𝝀𝟏
L=
2

𝝀𝟏 = 2L

But v=𝜈λ ,
v
𝜈 =
𝝀

Frequency, 𝜈1 = 𝝀v
𝟏

𝐯
𝝂𝟏 = ----------(1)
𝟐𝐋
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The second harmonic
The second harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2.

𝝀𝟐
L=2 =𝝀𝟐
2

𝝀𝟐 = L
Frequency, 𝜈2 = 𝝀v
𝟐

𝜈2 = Lv
𝐯
𝝂𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟐𝐋 -------------(2)
𝝂 𝟐 = 𝟐𝝂𝟏
The Third Harmonic
The third harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 3.

𝝀𝟑
L=3
2
2𝐿
𝝀𝟑 =
3
v
Frequency, 𝜈3 = 𝝀
𝟑
v
𝜈3 = 2𝐿
3
𝐯
𝝂𝟑 = 𝟑 𝟐𝐋 --------------(3)
𝝂𝟑 = 𝟑𝒗𝟏
and so on.
𝝂𝟏 : 𝝂𝟐 : 𝝂𝟑 = 𝟏: 𝟐: 𝟑
Thus all harmonics are possible in a stretched string fixed at both the ends.

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(2) The modes of vibration in a closed pipe (system closed at
one end and the other end open).
Eg: Resonance Column(Air columns such as glass tubes partially filled with
water) .
If the length of the air column is L, then closed end x=0 is a node and the
open end, x = L, is an antinode.
The condition for antinode at L
𝟏 𝛌
L=(n + ) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
𝟐 𝟐

Fundamental mode or the first harmonic

The oscillation mode with n=0 , fundamental mode or the first harmonic.

𝝀𝟏
L=
4

𝝀𝟏 = 4L
Frequency, 𝜈1 = 𝝀v
𝟏
𝐯
𝝂𝟏 = 𝟒𝐋 ------------(1)

The Third Harmonic

The Third harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 1.

𝝀𝟑
L=3
4
4𝑳
𝝀𝟑 =
3

Frequency, 𝜈3 = 𝝀v
𝟑
v
𝜈3 = 4𝑳
3
𝐯
𝝂𝟑 = 𝟑 𝟒𝐋 --------------(2)
𝝂𝟑 = 𝟑𝝂 𝟏
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The Fifth Harmonic
The Fifth harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2.
𝝀𝟒
L=5
4
4𝑳
𝝀𝟒 =
5

Frequency, 𝜈5 = 𝝀v
𝟓
v
𝜈5 = 4𝑳
5
𝐯
𝝂𝟓 = 𝟓 𝟒𝐋
𝝂𝟓 = 𝟓𝝂𝟏
And so on.
𝝂𝟏 : 𝝂𝟑 : 𝝂𝟓 = 𝟏: 𝟑: 𝟓
Thus only odd harmonics are possible in a closed pipe.

(3) The modes of vibration in a an open pipe (system open

at both ends). Eg: Flute
For an open pipe of length L, antinodes are formed at both ends.
λ
L = 𝑛 , for n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2
Fundamental Mode or The First Harmonic
The oscillation mode with n=1 , the lowest frequency is called the
fundamental mode or the first harmonic.

𝝀𝟏
L=
2

𝝀𝟏 = 2L
Frequency, 𝜈1 = 𝝀v
𝟏
𝐯
𝝂𝟏 = 𝟐𝐋 ------------(1)
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The Second Harmonic
The second harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2.

𝝀𝟐
L=2
2

𝝀𝟐 = L
Frequency, 𝜈2 = 𝝀v
𝟐

𝜈2 = Lv
𝐯
𝝂𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟐𝐋 ------------(2)
𝝂𝟐 = 𝟐𝝂𝟏
The Third Harmonic
The third harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 3.

𝝀𝟑
L=3
2
2𝐿
𝝀𝟑 =
3

Frequency, 𝜈3 = 𝝀v
𝟑
v
𝜈3 = 2𝐿
3
𝐯
𝝂𝟑 = 𝟑 𝟐𝐋 ------------(3)
𝝂𝟑 = 𝟑𝝂𝟏
and so on.
𝝂𝟏 : 𝝂𝟐 : 𝝂𝟑 = 𝟏: 𝟐: 𝟑
Thus all harmonics are possible in an open pipe.
So open pipes are preferred over closed pipes in musical instruments.
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Beats
The periodic variations(wavering) of sound intensity when two waves of
nearly same frequencies and amplitudes travelling in the same direction, are
superimposed on each other is called beats.
These wavering of sound is also called waxing and waning.
If 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 are the frequencies of superposing waves, the beat frequency
𝝂𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒕 = 𝝂𝟏 − 𝝂𝟐

Doppler Effect
The apparent change in the observed frequency of a wave when the source
and the observer moves relative to the medium is called Doppler Effect.

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Consider the source and observer are moving with velocity vs and vo in the
same direction velocity of sound, 𝜈𝑠 .
Let 𝜈𝑠 be the frequency of sound.
The apparent frequency of sound heard by the observer is,
𝐯+𝐯
𝝂𝒐 = 𝝂𝒔 (𝐯+ 𝐯𝐨 )
𝐬

Source Moving ; Observer Stationary, 𝐯𝐨 = 𝟎

• Source is moving away from the observer, 𝐯𝐬 = +𝒗𝒆
𝐯
𝜈𝒐= 𝜈𝒔 (𝐯+ 𝐯 )
𝐬
Apparent frequency decreases.

• Source is moving towards the observer, 𝐯𝐬 = −𝒗𝒆

𝐯
𝜈𝒐= 𝜈𝒔 (𝐯− 𝐯 )
𝐬
Apparent frequency increases.

Observer moving ; Source Stationary , 𝐯𝐬 = 𝟎

• Observer moving away from the source, 𝐯𝐨 = −𝐯𝐞
𝜈𝒐= 𝜈𝒔 (𝐯−𝐯
𝐯
𝐨
)
Apparent frequency increase

• Observer moving towards the source, 𝐯𝐨 = +𝐯𝐞

𝜈𝒐= 𝜈𝒔 (𝐯+𝐯
𝐯
𝐨
)
Apparent frequency increase.
Seema Elizabeth
MARM GHSS Santhipuram

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