CHAPTER 10 MECHANICAL AND SOUND WAVES 1

prepared by Yew Sze Ling@Fiona, KML

Chapter 10 Mechanical and Sound Wave

Remarks
Curriculum Specification
Before After Revision
10.1 Properties of Waves
a) Define wavelength and wave number. (C1, C2)
b) Solve problems related to equation of progressive wave,
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥 ) (C3, C4)
c) Discuss and use particle vibrational velocity and wave
propagation velocity. (C1, C2)
d) Discuss the graphs of:
i. displacement – time, y – t
ii. displacement – distance, y – x
(C1, C2)
10.2 Superposition of Waves
a) State the principle of superposition of waves for the
constructive and destructive interference. (C1, C2)
b) Use standing wave equation, 𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡
(C3, C4)
c) Discuss progressive wave and standing wave. (C1, C2)
10.3 Sound Intensity
a) Define and use sound intensity. (C1, C2)
b) Discuss the dependence of intensity on amplitude and
distance from a point source by using graphical illusion.
(C1, C2)
10.4 Application of Standing Waves
a) Solve problem related to the fundamental and overtone
frequencies for:
i. stretched string.
ii. air-columns (open and closed end).
𝑇
b) Use wave speed in a stretched string, 𝑣 = √ (C3, C4)
𝜇
c) Investigate standing wave formed in a stretched string.
(Experiment 6: Standing waves) (C1, C2, C3, C4)
d) Determine the mass per unit length of the string
(Experiment 6: Standing waves) (C1, C2, C3, C4)
10.5 Doppler Effect
a) State Doppler Effect for sound waves. (C1, C2)
𝑣 ± 𝑣0
b) Apply Doppler Effect equation, 𝑓𝑎 = ( ) 𝑓 for
𝑣 ∓ 𝑣𝑠
relative motion between source and observer. Limit to
stationary observer and moving source, and vice versa.
(C3, C4)
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10.1 Properties of Waves

Waves can occur whenever a system is disturbed from equilibrium and when the disturbance can
travel, propagate, from one region of the system to another. As wave propagates, it carries. This
chapter is about mechanical waves − waves that travel within some material or substance called a
medium.

Important terms in wave:

Term Definition Unit

The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position to the crest

Amplitude, A m
or trough of the wave motion.

Hz or
Frequency, f The number of cycles (wavelength) produced in one second.
s-1

The time taken for a particle (point) in the wave to complete one
Period, T s
cycle.

The wavelength λ is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave.

The wavelength is also the horizontal distance between two successive
Wavelength, λ m
crests, two successive troughs, or any two successive equivalent
points on the wave.

Wave number, 2𝜋
The number of cycles (wavelength) produced per unit distance: 𝑘 = rad m-1
k 𝜆

Angular 2𝜋
The number of cycles produced per unit time: 𝜔 = 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑓 rad s-1
frequency, ω

A wave which travels continuously in a medium in the same direction without any change in its
amplitude is called a progressive wave or a traveling wave.

Wave displacement, x
Definition: Distance of the particle
from the source of disturbance.

Particle displacement, y
Definition: Displacement of the
particle from its equilibrium
position.
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The general wave equation for a sinusoidal progressive wave:

Move to the right (in positive-x direction)
𝑦 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )
Direction of propagation
Move to the left (in negative-x direction)
𝑦 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 )

As a wave propagate with a velocity, each particle along the wave is displaced, one after the other,
from its undisturbed position. For example, figure below shows a wave traveling on a rope or cord.
The wave travels to the right along the rope with a constant velocity known as wave propagation
velocity, v. Meanwhile, particles of the rope oscillate back and forth on the table top with a velocity
known as particle vibrational velocity, vy.

Wave propagation velocity, v Particle vibrational velocity, vy

 The distance travelled by a wave profile per  It is the speed of particle vibrates with
unit time. simple harmonic motion around its
equilibrium position.
𝜆
𝑣=
𝑇 𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
 The velocity is constant.  The velocity is changes as the wave passes.

Displacement – time graph, y – t Displacement – distance graph, y – x

The graph shows the displacement of any one The graph shows the displacement of all the
particle in the wave at any particular distance, x particles in the wave at any particular time, t.
from the origin. (OR y-x graph shows how displacement (y)
(OR y–t graph shows how displacement (y) varies with distance (x) for all particles in a wave
varies with time (t) for one particle in a wave.) at one instant.)

T λ

From y–t graph, we can obtain: From y–x graph, we can obtain:
1. Amplitude, A 1. Amplitude, A
2. Period, T 2. Wavelength, λ
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10.2 Superposition of Waves

 When two or more waves are present simultaneously at the same place, the resultant disturbance
is the sum of the disturbances from the individual waves.

Constructive Interference Destructive Interference

The vertical displacements of the two pulses are The vertical displacement of one of the pulse has
in the same direction, and the amplitude of the a negative displacement, the two pulses tend to
combined waveform is greater than that of either cancel each other when they overlap, and the
pulse. amplitude of the combined waveform is smaller
than that of either pulse.

 A standing (stationary) wave is another interference effect that can occur when two waves
overlap. It is called a “standing wave” because it does not appear to be traveling.
 It is formed when two waves which are travelling in opposite directions, and which have the
same wavelength, frequency and amplitude are superimposed.

Progressive Progressive
wave 1 wave 2

AN AN AN AN

Standing
wave N N N

AN AN AN AN

 The nodes (N) are places that do not vibrate at all, and the antinodes (AN) are places where
maximum vibration occurs. Distance between 2 consecutive nodes or antinodes = λ/2. Distance
between consecutive nodes and antinodes = λ/4.
 Standing waves can arise with transverse waves, such as those on a guitar string, and also with
longitudinal sound waves, such as those in a flute.
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 The general wave equation for a standing wave :

𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡
where
 A is the maximum amplitude of standing wave formed.
 A = 2a, where a is the amplitude of progressive wave.

A cos kx
 Determine the amplitude for any point along the standing wave.
 It is called the amplitude formula.
 Its value depends on the distance, x

sin ωt
 Determine the time for antinodes and nodes will occur in the standing wave.

Difference between progressive wave and stationary wave:

10.3 Sound Intensity

 Sound wave is a longitudinal wave which requires a medium for its propagation.
 Sound waves are produced by vibrating objects.
 Vibrating objects disturb the air molecules, producing alternating high-pressure regions
(compressions) & low-pressure regions (rarefactions) which form sound wave.
 Sound intensity is perceived by the ear as loudness.
 Sound waves carry energy that can be used to do work. The amount of energy transported per
second by a sound wave is called the power of the wave.
 When a sound wave leaves a source, the power spreads out.
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 The power passes perpendicularly through surface 1 and then surface 2 which has the larger area.
 The greater the distance from the source, the larger the area over which a given amount of sound
energy is spread, and thus the lower its intensity.

 The sound intensity I is defined as the sound power P that passes perpendicularly through a
surface divided by the area A of that surface.
𝑃
𝐼=
𝐴
 The unit of sound intensity is power per unit area (W m-2).

Dependence of intensity on amplitude Dependence of intensity on distance

Since Since
𝑃 𝐸 1 𝑃
𝐼= 𝑃= and 𝐸 = 𝑘 (𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒)2 𝐼= and 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Thus, intensity is directly proportional to the Thus, intensity is inversely proportional to the
squared of amplitude. squared of distance.

1
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 2 𝐼∝
𝑟2
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10.4 Application of Standing Waves

In musical instrument, the source of sound is set into vibration by striking, plucking, bowing, or
blowing. Standing waves are produced and the source vibrates at its natural resonant frequencies.
The vibrating source is in contact with the air (or other medium) and pushes on it to produce sound
waves that travel outward. The frequencies of the waves are the same as those of the source, but the
speed and wavelengths can be different. Important terms:
 Fundamental frequency : The lowest resonant frequency of a vibrating object.
 Harmonic : An integer (whole number) multiple of the fundamental frequency
of a vibrating object
 Overtone : Any resonant frequency above the fundamental frequency. An
overtone may or may not be a harmonic

Stretched String (Example: guitar, violin, etc)

When a guitar string is plucked, a wave is produced in the
string; this wave is reflected and re-reflected from the ends
of the string, making a standing wave. This standing wave
on the string in turn produces a sound wave in the air, with a
frequency determined by the properties of the string such as
the mass, m and the length of the string, l.
Relationship
Mode Figure Summary
between l and λ
Harmonic n Mode
1st 1 Fundamental
2nd 2 1st overtone
Fundamental 𝜆 3rd 3 2nd overtone
𝑙=
(1st Harmonic) 2 General relationship between l
and λ:
𝑛𝜆
𝑙=
2

Wave velocity general equation:

𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
1st Overtone
𝑙=𝜆
(2nd Harmonic) Wave velocity on string:
𝑇
𝑣=√
𝜇
where
𝑚
𝜇=
𝑙
2nd Overtone 3
𝑙= 𝜆
(3rd Harmonic) 2 Frequency
𝑛 𝑇
𝑓𝑛 = √ = 𝑛𝑓1
2𝑙 𝜇
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Open-end air-column (Example: flute)

An open tube has antinodes at both ends since the air is free to move at open ends. There must be at
least one node within an open tube if there is to be a standing wave at all. For open-end air-column,
all harmonic exist.

Relationship
Mode Figure Summary
between l and λ
Harmonic n Mode
st
1 1 Fundamental
Fundamental 𝜆 2nd 2 1st overtone
𝑙= rd
3 2nd overtone
(1st Harmonic) 2 3
General relationship between l
and λ:
𝑛𝜆
𝑙=
2
1st Overtone
𝑙=𝜆
(2nd Harmonic) Wave velocity general equation:
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
where v is the speed of sound in
air.
2nd Overtone 3
𝑙= 𝜆
(3rd Harmonic) 2 Frequency
𝑛𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = = 𝑛𝑓1
2𝑙

Closed-end air-column (Example: clarinet)

For a closed-end air-column, there is always a node at the closed end because the air is not free to
move and an antinode at the open end where the air can move freely. For closed-end air-column,
ONLY odd harmonic exist

Relationship
Mode Figure Summary
between l and λ
Harmonic n Mode
st
1 1 Fundamental
Fundamental 𝜆 3rd 3 1st overtone
𝑙= 5th 5 2nd overtone
(1st Harmonic) 4
General relationship between l
and λ:
𝑛𝜆
𝑙=
4
1st Overtone 3
𝑙= 𝜆
(3rd Harmonic) 4 Wave velocity general equation:
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
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where v is the speed of sound in

air.
2nd Overtone 5
𝑙= 𝜆
(5th Harmonic) 4 Frequency
𝑛𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = = 𝑛𝑓1
4𝑙

10.5 Doppler Effect

Doppler Effect is the change in frequency or pitch of the sound detected by an observer because the
sound source and the observer have different velocities with respect to the medium of sound
propagation

General equation of Doppler Effect:

Two cases for Doppler Effect

Case 1: Stationary observer, Moving source
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Subcase 1: Source moves towards observer (approaches)

𝑣
𝑓0 = ( )𝑓
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 𝑠

Subcase 2: Source moves away from observer (recedes)

𝑣
𝑓0 = ( )𝑓
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠 𝑠

The following graph is applied for the case of stationary observer where the source is moving
towards, passing by and moving away from the observer.

 Part A: When the source moves towards the observer, the apparent frequency, fo is greater
than the source frequency, fs and its value is constant.
 Part B: At the moment source crosses observer, the apparent frequency, fo is equal to the
source frequency, fs.
 Part C: When the source moves away from the observer, the apparent frequency, fo is less
than the source frequency, fs and its value is constant.

Case 2: Moving observer, Stationary source

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Subcase 1: Observer moves towards source (approaches)

𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑓0 = ( ) 𝑓𝑠
𝑣

Subcase 2: Observer moves away from source (recedes)

𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑠
𝑣

The rules of using the general equation for Doppler Effect

 vS OR vO in the same direction with v (speed of sound) → “‒”
 vS OR vO opposite direction with v (speed of sound) → “+”
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Exercise
Properties of Waves
1. A fisherman notices that wave crests pass the bow of his anchored boat every 3.0 s. He
measures the distance between two crests to be 7.0 m. How fast are the waves traveling?
2. Using the data in the graphs that accompany this problem, determine the speed of the wave.

3. A progressive wave is represented by the equation

𝑥
𝑦 = 4.0 sin 2𝜋 4𝑡 +
5
where x and y are in cm, and t is in second. Determine
a) the wave speed
b) the vibrational velocity at time = 0 for the particle at
i. x = 0
ii. x = 3.0 cm
c) What is the conclusion that can be made based on the values of velocity in question (a)
and (b)?
4. The displacement-distance graph of a progressive wave of frequency 20 Hz moving in the
negative x – direction as shown in figure below.

Deduce the equation for the wave.

5. Figure below shows the displacement-time graph which represents the simple harmonic
motion of a particle in a progressive wave with wavelength 0.5 m.

Deduce the equation for the wave.

6. A progressive wave is represented by the equation y = 2 sin (2πt + 4πx), where x and y are in
cm and t in second. Sketch
a) the displacement-time graph of the particle at x = 0 cm
b) the displacement-distance graph of the particle at t = 0 s
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Superposition of Waves
1. Transverse waves travel along a stretched string at speed 80 m s -1 and frequency 200 Hz.
Stationary waves are produced on the string. Determine the distance between
a) 2 consecutive nodes.
b) A node and the adjacent antinodes.
2. A stationary wave is represented by the following expression
𝑦 = 5 cos 𝜋𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑡
where y and x in centimetres and t in seconds. Determine the three smallest vale of x (x > 0)
that corresponds to
a) nodes
b) antinodes

Sound Intensity
1. A loudspeaker radiates sound waves uniformly in all directions. At a distance 3 m the
intensity of the sound is 0.85 W m-2. Determine
a) the power of loudspeaker,
b) the sound intensity at distance 6 m from the source.
2. A rocket in a fireworks display explored high in the air. The sound spreads out uniformly in
all directions. The intensity of the sound is 2.0×10-6 W m-2 at a distance 120 m from the
explosion. Find the distance from the source at which the intensity is 0.80×10-6 W m-2.
3. If the amplitude of a sound wave is made 3.5 times greater, by what factor will the intensity
increase?

Application of Standing Waves

1. If a violin string vibrates at 440 Hz as its fundamental frequency, what are the frequencies of
the first three harmonics?
2. A guitar string is 92 cm long and has a mass of 3.4 g. The distance from the bridge to the
support post is l = 62 cm and the string is under a tension of 520 N. What are the frequencies
of the fundamental and first two overtones?
3. An organ pipe is 116 cm long. Given speed of sound is 331 m s-1. Determine the fundamental
and first three audible overtones if the pipe is
a) closed at one end
b) open at both ends
4. The frequency of the first overtone produced by an open pipe is equal to the frequency of the
overtone produced by a closed pipe of length 0.6 m. Determine the length of the open pipe.
5. A variable length air column is placed just below a vibrating wire that is fixed at both ends.
The length of the air column open at one end is gradually increased until the first position of
resonance is observed at 34.0 cm. The wire is 120 cm long and is vibrating in its third
harmonic. Calculate the speed of transverse waves in the wire. Given speed of sound is
331 m s-1.
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6. A tuning fork is set into vibration above a vertical open tube filled with
water. The water level is allowed to drop slowly. As it does so, the air
in the tube above the water level is heard to resonate with the tuning
fork when the distance from the tube opening to the water level is 0.125
m and again at 0.395 m. What is the frequency of the tuning fork?

7. A stretched wire of length 80.0 cm and mass 15.0 g vibrates transversely. Waves travel along
the wire at speed 220 m s-1. Two antinodes can be found in the stationary waves formed in
between the two fixed ends of the wire.
a) Sketch and label the waveform of the stationary wave.
b) Determine
i. the wavelength of the progressive wave which move along the wire,
ii. the frequency of the vibration of the wire,
iii. the tension in the wire.

Doppler Effect
1. The whistle from a stationary policeman at a junction emits sound of frequency 1000 Hz. If
the speed of sound is 330 m s-1, what is the frequency of the sound heard by a passenger
inside a car moving with a speed of 20 m s -1.
a) Towards the junction?
b) Away from the junction ?
2. A train moving at constant speed 20 m s -1 towards a stationary observer standing on the
station platform produces a loud sound signal at frequency 500 Hz. Determine the frequency
of sound heard by the observer when the train
a) Towards the observer
b) Moves away from the observer.
Given speed of sound in air = 340 m s-1
3. A bat flying at 5 m s-1 towards a wall emits a chirp at 50 kHz. If the wall reflects this sound
pulse, what is the frequency of the echo received by the bat? Given speed of sound is
331 m s-1.
4. Two trucks travel at the same speed. They are far apart on adjacent lanes and approach each
other essentially head-on. One driver hears the horn of the other truck at a frequency that is
1.14 times the frequency he hears when the trucks are stationary. The speed of sound is 343
m s-1. At what speed is each truck moving?