buildings

Article
Construction 4.0 Application: Industry 4.0, Internet of Things
and Lean Construction Tools’ Application in Quality
Management System of Residential Building Projects
Amusan Lekan 1,2, * , Aigbavboa Clinton 2,3 , Essien Stella 1 , Emetere Moses 4 and Obaju Biodun 1

1 Building Technology Department, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University,

Cannanland Ota 520003, Nigeria
2 Cidb Centre of Excellence Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of Johannesburg,
Door-Fotein Campus, Auckland Park, Johannesburg P.O. Box 524, South Africa
3 Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management, Cidb Centre of Excellence Faculty of
Engineering and Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Doorfotein Campus, Auckland Park,
Johannesburg P.O. Box 524, South Africa
4 Physics Department, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University,
Cannanland Ota 520003, Nigeria
* Correspondence: lekan.amusan@covenantuniversity.edu.ng

Abstract: The advent of Construction 4.0 has played a major role in construction industry develop-
ment through the improvement of quality performance. One of the parameters that have contributed
immensely to the management of construction quality in the industrial revolution era is Industry 4.0,
the Internet of Things (IoT), and Lean thinking concepts. Lean construction is characterized by a set
of clear objectives in project delivery involving the concurrent design of products and processes. The
Citation: Lekan, A.; Clinton, A.;
study aims to carry out an exploratory study of the application of Construction 4.0 and Industrial 4.0
Stella, E.; Moses, E.; Biodun, O. in quality management of building works and the development of Lean-based quality management
Construction 4.0 Application: models: The study engaged a survey design approach, and a random sampling technique was used
Industry 4.0, Internet of Things and to select the study samples. A structured questionnaire designed on a Likert scale 1–5 was used to
Lean Construction Tools’ Application collate data on the quality aspect of a construction project, and the data were used in model creation.
in Quality Management System of The parameters that emerged are cast as the quality management model. The resultant factors were
Residential Building Projects. categorized into three (3) quality categories, which are the Zero level Defect range, Medium Quality,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557. https://
and High-Level Quality Range. The three (3) quality factors were recommended for adoption for
doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101557
quality management of residential building projects.
Academic Editors: Tarek Zayed
and Heap-Yih Chong Keywords: Internet of Things; lean; waste; quality; regression; factor

Received: 1 July 2022

Accepted: 5 September 2022
Published: 28 September 2022
1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
The building is one of the construction products often patronized in the economy. It is
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
responsible for the provision of shelter and dwelling space for the masses. The essentiality
published maps and institutional affil-
of shelter provision is of utmost importance, therefore there is a need to maintain quality at
iations.
the production stage. The construction process for building production requires quality
of the procurement system, material processing, planning process, and post-occupancy
stage. However, in recent times, the focus has been on the need to maintain quality in the
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. construction process. Clients are gradually complaining more about the requirements for
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the cost, time, quality, and performance of the building products. Government and statutory
This article is an open access article organizations are also formulating standards and laws that are focused on meeting the
distributed under the terms and basic building regulation requirements that border on cost, quality, and time parameters.
conditions of the Creative Commons The developed countries of the world have patterned their laws around health and safety
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// practices on site, while in developing countries and the underdeveloped world, the bane
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ has been a compromise on the quality of the final construction process [1].
4.0/).

Buildings 2022, 12, 1557. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12101557 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 2 of 26

In the developing world, a system that would enable zero error right from the begin-
ning of the production process is necessary. Maintaining a high-quality production process
would enable the attainment of zero defects, which in turn would reduce production costs.
One such system that could assist in error reduction at the early and later stages of a
project and as the project progresses is Lean applications. Lean applications have gained
much publicity in the manufacturing sector but is now spreading through the construction
industry [2,3]. One of the major problems in residential building project delivery is poor
quality management on construction sites. Poor quality management often leads to delay,
time wastage, cost increase, poor performance, and poor productivity amongst others in
construction projects. Poor quality management on site often leads to waste generation and
non-value-adding activities such as re-work, etc., which sometimes results in a drop in the
quality of the project and leads to customer dissatisfaction [4].
However, high-quality management eliminates waste and increases productivity at
a minimum cost. It is, therefore, against this background that this research work has
demonstrated how the Lean concept could be deployed to create a regression model that
could help in creating a quality model for a construction work application, to prevent
poor-quality management on sites. In the context of this study, the following objectives
were articulated: Exploring (i) the extent of the current level of the wastage threshold
on construction sites, (ii) the influence of Construction 4.0 parameters on the quality
management of building projects, (iii) the impact of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Industry
4.0 tools in the quality management process of a construction project, and (iv) critical success
influencers of construction quality management using the Lean construction concept and
developing a Lean-based quality management framework for residential projects. As
regards the statement of the problem of this study, which borders on quality management
and control in a construction project, in construction work, the risk is inherent in most of
the construction portfolio, which tends to make proper planning essential. One of the areas
that constitute risk is the quality management of construction activities.
Poor quality management on site always has negative consequences for the project’s
overall success. Therefore, quality management must be defined clearly from all the
stakeholders’ perspectives to a great extent, determining the overall success of a project.
In terms of risk management and its impact, previous research [4] stressed the negative
consequences that could arise on account of the project including cost overrun, a poor
project, and delayed projection completion. There are dependent variables in a project
that need to be observed, which has been referred to as risk management, while the
independent project variable, on the other hand, is project success. For instance, risk
management was described in [4,5] as something that needs to be committed to other
project parties by the project managers on a project while relying on the framework of
implementation as appropriate. Communicating risk in quality management on a project
is, however, important, in a bid to communicate the risk of the project. Various methods
are often used, and some of the methods exist in the form of categorical regression models,
frameworks that are stochastic-based and formed from a recent expert model, artificial
intelligence, Lean applications, and the Internet of Things (IoT). For instance, several
types of frameworks have been employed in risk quality management in the construction
industry. In recent research work, the structural modeling equation (SME) was used to
model risk quantification by identifying the risk involved in managing quality.
In recent times, different paradigms have been used to develop frameworks and mod-
els for quality management. Artificial intelligence models are vastly being used to develop
quality models. For instance, previous authors [6] presented models to be used in quality
management and included quality cycles, Taguchi methods, the price-criteria approach,
Japanese total quality, the approach company model, total quality management, the ele-
ment approach, and the Guma approach. The types of models mentioned were alluded
to by [4,7,8]. Similarly, the use of the TQM model has been prevalent in the construction
industry for decades in developed countries, without prejudice against developing coun-
tries such as Nigeria. For instance, previous research [8] presented a mechanism and a
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 3 of 26

model that could be used to manage the quality of residential building projects with differ-
ent models and frameworks. In the past, regression and stochastic models were used in
quality monitoring, until the advent of Industry 4.0 introduced expert models. Categorical
regression was used in modeling Lean frameworks in the past, such as the Lean production
model, just-in-time production models, six sigma, and total quality management (TQM).
In the recent period of the industrial revolution, there has been an emergence of expert
models, which include the Artificial intelligence (AI) model, the Neural network model,
the Internet of Things (IoT), and the Lean model.
The models are considered composite expert models and are neuro-regressive in
structure. Therefore, in the context of this study, a composite model was presented that
illustrates the relationship that exists between the three systems, i.e., Industry 4.0, Internet
of Things (IoT), and the Lean concept. The concepts of IoT, Lean, and Industry 4.0 show
a paradigm shift in the sphere of industrialization and technological development. The
main common objective of the concepts is to eliminate onsite waste as much as possible.
The adoption of the Lean concept targets the elimination of waste and maintaining quality
output and zero defects as a process and product. The Internet of Things (IoT) tends to
enable a smooth interconnection of components to enhance the quality of performance and
output, while Industry 4.0 is the bedrock of technological change through an adaptable tool
to ensure desirable change and automation occur in the process of adopting IoT and Lean
concepts, which was supported in [7–10].
Therefore, in the context of this study, Industry 4.0 tools and technology were com-
bined with the parameters of the Lean concept and IoT concepts to develop a composite
Construction 4.0 framework, which could be used in the quality management of residential
building projects.

Development of Research Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a conjectural statement, a statement of fact that is regarded as incom-
plete and needs further validation through the support of additional information, facts,
and data. A hypothesis usually forms part of the objectives and is a further platform for the
cross-examination of facts for the purpose of establishing a validation platform for basic
research questionnaires and data collation. In this study, the hypothesis was drawn from
some of the objectives set earlier to validate their content reliability. Research gaps were
established through the review of related concepts in the study. The gaps identified include
the extent of onsite wastage, the impact of Industry 4.0 tools, especially IoT, the influence of
Construction 4.0 in quality management, the influencers of success in construction quality
management, and the challenges of Lean thinking in construction. The gaps led to the
evolution of the pertinent research questions, from which the hypothesis emanated. Some
of the questions are as follows: What is the extent of measurable wastage onsite to ensure
quality management? What impact does Industry 4.0 have? What are the necessary tools in
quality management? What are the success enablers in Construction 4.0 on construction
projects? What are the influencers of success in construction quality management? Is it
possible to develop a Construction 4.0 quality framework application model with Industry
4.0 and Lean construction?
With the aim of further expansion on selected pertinent objectives, the hypothesis was
developed from the objectives. Three hypotheses were proposed to further validate some
of the objectives. The hypotheses are as follows: (i) Hypothesis 1 H1 (objective 3): There
is consistency in the opinions on the impact of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Industry
4.0 tools on the quality management process; (ii) Hypothesis 2 H2 (objective 2): There is
positive agreement as regards the wastage threshold on construction sites on account of
process automation; and (iii) Hypothesis 3 H3 (objective 4): There is variation in the opinion
of respondents related to the rating of success influencers of a construction project.
The integration of structural components of the quality management system with other
research domains is presented in the chart in Figure 1. The structure is based on the input
process–output structure, as well as other domain activities geared toward the fulfillment
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 27

The integration of structural components of the quality management system with

other research domains is presented in the chart in Figure 1. The structure is based on the
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 4 of 26
input process–output structure, as well as other domain activities geared toward the ful-
fillment of the content of the structure. This is reflected in quality being observed at the
three stages of the construction process. The bedrock of the whole process is the develop-
of theofcontent
ment of the that
a framework structure. ThisLean
integrates is reflected in quality
construction, being observed
the Internet of Things,at theIndus-
and three
stages of the construction process. The bedrock of the whole process is
try 4.0 tools Therefore, the developed quality management system integrated Internet ofthe development
of a framework
Things that integrates
(IoT) parameters, Lean Lean construction,
construction the Internet
parameters, of Things,4.0
and Industry and Industry 4.0
parameters to
develop the quality monitoring system. Therefore, the inter-phase used in the of
tools Therefore, the developed quality management system integrated Internet Things
develop-
(IoT) parameters,
ment Lean construction
of the framework parameters,
includes IoT tools, Industryand4.0Industry 4.0Lean
tools, and parameters to develop
construction. The
the quality monitoring system. Therefore, the inter-phase used in the development
objectives represent the quality-oriented input articulated through tools to be able of the
to
framework includes IoT tools, Industry 4.0 tools,
achieve output in the form of an operationalized model. and Lean construction. The objectives
represent the quality-oriented input articulated through tools to be able to achieve output
in the form of an operationalized model.

Figure 1. Integration of quality management system with the Internet of Things (IoT), Lean Construc-
Figure 1. Integration of quality management system with the Internet of Things (IoT), Lean Con-
tion (LC), and Industry 4.0 (I 4.0) domains.
struction (LC), and Industry 4.0 (I 4.0) domains.
2. Literature Review
2. Literature Review
2.1. Construction 4.0 (C 4.0)
2.1. Construction 4.0 (C 4.0)
Construction 4.0 has been an interesting phenomenon. It entails the application of
Construction
Industry 4.0 tools 4.0 has beenaan
in creating interesting
good phenomenon.inIt the
output environment entails the application
construction of
industry.
Industry 4.0 tools
Construction in creating
4.0 introduces thea application
good output environment
of new dimensionsin the construction
in the industry.
design, construction,
Construction
and management 4.0 introduces the application
of construction works. Inof new dimensions
design, in the design,
there are different construction,
dimensions such as
and management
2D, 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D, of construction
and 7D, withworks.
an era Inof design, there are different
smart technology that helpsdimensions such as
solve the issue of
2D, 3D, 4D, 5D, 6D, and 7D, with an era of smart technology that helps solve
client and construction challenges on site. Therefore, Construction 4.0 is the integration the issue of
client and construction
of Industry 4.0 technologychallenges
and toolsontosite. Therefore,
enhance Construction
production 4.0 is the integration
and manufacturing of
efficiency.
Industry 4.0 technology
Construction and tools
4.0 also bridges to enhance
the gap production
that exists between and manufacturing
the organization or efficiency.
client and
Construction
the technology. 4.0Therefore,
also bridges the gap thatofexists
an adaptation between
technology andthe
itsorganization
application of ortechnology
client and
the
playstechnology. Therefore,
a major role an adaptation
in the adoption of technology
and utilization and 4.0.
of Industry its application of technology
The construction industry
plays a major role
has challenges thatinborder
the adoption
on work and utilization of
organization, Industry 4.0.
productivity, The
and construction
process indus-
management,
which Industry 4.0 provides means to overcome. Therefore, C 4.0 utilizes Industry 4.0 tools
that assist in decision making, planning, organization work, site productivity enhance-
ment, cutting-edge tools, and process management. In the current dispensation, some
applications have been enhanced through several applications in the construction field,
including robotics, application in the design and construction process, embedded systems,
 try has challenges that border on work organization, productivity, and process manage-
ment, which Industry 4.0 provides means to overcome. Therefore, C 4.0 utilizes Industry
4.0 tools that assist in decision making, planning, organization work, site productivity en-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 hancement, cutting-edge tools, and process management. In the current dispensation, 5 of 26
some applications have been enhanced through several applications in the construction
field, including robotics, application in the design and construction process, embedded
systems, manufacturing/production,
additive additive manufacturing/production, the introduction
the introduction of human–computer
of human–computer appli-
application,
cation, and automation,
and automation, among others. among others.
Similarly,some
Similarly, someapplications
applicationsare are interconnected
interconnected by by internet
internet applications
applications and and func-
functions,
tions, which
which enableenable
fast andfast andaccess
easy easy access to functions
to functions in the in the construction
construction process.process. For in-
For instance,
stance, Construction
Construction 4.0tohas
4.0 has led theled to the introduction
introduction of smart technologies
of smart technologies in the designinprocess
the design
and
processmaintenance
facility and facility maintenance
work. In recentwork. In recent
times, times, construction
construction building information
building information modeling
modeling
(BIM) has (BIM)
come haswithcome
2D and with3D2Dapplications
and 3D applications
(see Figure (see2).
Figure
They2).include
They include
Primavera Pri-
mavera
and and
Revit, Revit,enable
which whichthe enable the modeling
modeling of realities
of realities of 2D and of 2D
3D and 3D printing
printing applica-
applications in
tions in construction
construction designmanagement
design quality quality management and assurance.
and assurance. The most The most4D
recent recent 4D ap-
application
plication
in in smart emerged
smart systems systems emerged
recently, recently, which more
which enables enables moretoaccess
access to applications
applications in which in
smart
whichconstruction applications
smart construction were developed.
applications were developed.ExpertExpert
systems of artificial
systems intelligence
of artificial intel-
came
ligenceto came
the fore in the
to the C in
fore 4.0the
eraCand
4.0 have
era and accelerated the waysthe
have accelerated things
ways arethings
conducted
are con- in
manufacturing and industrial production. Some programs think independently,
ducted in manufacturing and industrial production. Some programs think independently, although
not without
although nothuman effort
without in formulating
human a solution to various
effort in formulating a solutionsiteto
challenges,
various sitewhich involve
challenges,
cost,
which time, and resources.
involve cost, time, Furthermore,
and resources.Construction
Furthermore, 4.0Construction
has enabled 4.0 enhanced printing,
has enabled en-
providing smart printing
hanced printing, providing over analog
smart types.
printing overIn analog
[5], thetypes.
authors In alluded to the fact
[5], the authors that
alluded
additive
to the fact manufacturing
that additive or 3D printing has
manufacturing or led
3D to automation
printing has led in design printinginfordesign
to automation local
industrial manufacturing, including the Internet of Things (IoT).
printing for local industrial manufacturing, including the Internet of Things (IoT).

3D MODEL OF WHEEL 4D BUILDING MODEL

Figure 2.
Figure 2. 3D
3D and
and 4D
4D Models
Models http://3dexport.com/free-3d-models
http://3dexport.com/free-3d-models (accessed
(accessedonon2323May
May2022).
2022).

In
In recent
recenttimes,
times,several
severalstudies
studieshave
havebeen
been carried
carriedout in in
out a bid to situate
a bid thethe
to situate application
applica-
of Construction 4.0 and Industry 4.0 in the construction industry.
tion of Construction 4.0 and Industry 4.0 in the construction industry. The documentation The documentation
covers
covers the
the education
education application
application of of smart technology
technology and blended technology
technology application
application
on
on construction
construction sitessites and
and deployment
deployment in in the
the manufacturing
manufacturing and and production
production sectors.
sectors. For
For
instance,
instance,[6][6]focuses
focuseson onananoverview
overviewofofConstruction
Construction 4.04.0
and
and also leverages
also leverages thethe
application of
application
four-layer
of four-layerimplementation
implementation strategies being
strategies considered
being for industrial
considered application,
for industrial which
application, was
which
also
was alluded to into
also alluded [7].
inIn
[7].the
In development
the development of Construction
of Construction 4.0 applications in construction,
4.0 applications in construc-
there
tion, there are basic elements of Construction 4.0 necessary for its success.the
are basic elements of Construction 4.0 necessary for its success. In [6,7], In elements
[6,7], the
include
elements virtual
includereality, augmented
virtual reality, robotics,
reality, augmented 3D printing,
reality, robotics, BIM, IoT, big data,
3D printing, BIM, artificial
IoT, big
intelligence,
data, artificialand drones. However,
intelligence, and drones.contributions abound in abound
However, contributions financialinapplications on
financial appli-
construction sites, and the
cations on construction emergence
sites, of systems of
and the emergence based on intelligence
systems systems has
based on intelligence made
systems
the introduction of productivity enhancement functions to the extent of monitoring quality
on site possible. Cryptocurrency has the promise of virtual payment of services and duty
on construction sites. It is regarded as the technology of the future [8,9].

2.2. Industry 4.0 (I 4.0) and the Construction Industry

The industrial revolution has been a major addition to contemporary society. Industry
4.0 (I 4.0) induces enhanced productivity in the construction industry, and it was reported
to increase the global GDP of countries by 6% and the construction industry’s GDP by
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 6 of 26

8%. According to [8] in [10], global building investment had reached $11 trillion by 2019
and is projected to reach $14 trillion by 2025. Industry 4.0 was initiated as far back as the
eighteenth century (the 1800s). It stemmed from the coal era to the iron era, up until the
mid-eighteenth century, which witnessed mechanization. A synopsis of the process of the
industrial revolution was illustrated in [11]. Regarding the submission in [11], the authors
alluded to the fact that the Industrial Revolution began in 1800 with industry 1.0, which
was mainly focused on the development of steam power plants and locomotive innovations.
This continued until the beginning of the 20th century, which birthed Industrial revolution
2.0 (I 2.0). Industry 3.0 (I 3.0) came at the onset of the 20th century with the evolution of
industrial automation with artificial intelligence and robotics. The digitization era started
when equipment and tools that had been manually operated were replaced with sensor-
based appliances. The era of process digitalization is what is encapsulated in Industry 4.0.
Industry 4.0 has led to the development of construction automobiles and accessory items
that are equipped with laser lights that enable enhanced output and operations. Industry
4.0 started in 2013, while industry 5.0 was birthed in 2020. Industry 5.0 entails innovations
of 5D, which enables cooperation between humans and machines through robotics and
intelligent manufacturing/production. Industry 4.0, however, according to [11–13], still
has a promising future. For instance, some of the good prospects of Industry 4.0 is the
digitization of the value chain in material and construction management and intelligent
manufacturing with sensor-based applications.

2.3. Construction 4.0 and Internet of Things (IoT) Application in Quality Management in the
Construction Field
The construction industry all over the world is noted for provisioning real estate
products, which in turn satisfies the needs of consumers. Products include major housing
and accommodation facilities. The production of construction products, however, is labor-
intensive and demands a great deal of effort. The input in this context refers to the input on
the part of construction project actors whose efforts determine the quality of the construction
products. In light of the above, monitoring and control is essential for quality results and
output in the construction industry. The quality, therefore, has to be holistic, covering the
life cycle of a product. The life cycle of construction starts from the idea conception stage,
which invariably implies that quality formulation and implementation begin right at the
idea conception stage. Before the advent of Construction 4.0, the analog model of reality was
predominantly in use in the design decision support system and construction monitoring
and control. The analog model was reputed for its time-consuming and cost-intensive
characteristics, as well as its non-flexibility in function adaptation, among other reasons.
However, the advent of Construction 4.0 has an enhanced model output. For instance,
in the Construction 4.0 era, sensor-based 3D systems are in use in construction product
modeling. The advent of computer-aided design (CAD) in the construction industry has
enabled quality assurance in the design process. CAD enables designers to visualize how
the drawing appears or the drawing outlook. This allows for on-time adjustment and
manipulation. According to [11–14], the calibrated application has gained access to the
construction industry. In Construction 4.0, quality management quantitative tools that
capture function and form are being used in decision support systems and in quality
parameter formulation and development, while virtual reality and augmented reality
applications help one to visualize how the effect of quality could be quantified in the
construction process. Therefore, opportunities abound in the application of Industry 4.0 in
construction quality management.

2.4. Lean Construction (LC): Adopting Lean Construction Technique in the Construction Field
Although LC implementation in the construction industry has been fraught with
difficulties, several industries have seen value in embracing advancements through Lean
implementation [13]. Many advantages and benefits have been identified by researchers.
One of the major advantages of employing Lean construction in businesses is the minimiza-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 7 of 26

tion of waste [14]. Lean construction encourages the following, by eliminating waste in
the construction process: Reducing the duration that equipment and workers are handled,
balancing the team, coordinating the flow of information, removing any limitations im-
posed by material constraints, reducing input variance and changeovers as well as difficult
setups, and decreasing interpersonal tensions.
Similarly, the most important benefit, according to [15], is increased customer satis-
faction. Construction companies that implement Lean construction with a customer focus
can meet the needs of the client, define value from the perspective of the project, respond
to opportunities and changing needs with flexible resources and adaptable planning, and
apply targeted cost and value analyses.
Sanitation and coordination are important benefits because they often obscure oppor-
tunities for improvement and the sources of problems. According to [16], when one has
a clean workplace, cracks, missing parts, or leaks in equipment are more visible, which
increases workplace safety and reduces the risk of accidents to a minimum. In addition,
Lean construction promotes equipment productivity, skilled operators, the use of appropri-
ate equipment, and high equipment performance. Housekeeping is a good starting point
and a successful way to cultivate and strengthen important work customs, behaviors, and
skills for waste reduction, continuous product improvement, and Lean building. According
to [17], the Lean construction benefits that flow from construction organizations, and are
known to be the most important gains of implementing the Lean construction technique
in the construction industry, are as follows: Enhanced security, reduced waste, reduced
expenses, increased productivity, shorter schedules, improved trustworthiness, higher
standard of living, increased customer satisfaction, higher predictability, and improved
design for easier construction
According to [18], Lean construction practitioners believe that Lean construction helps
organizations to reduce their inventory, increase the use of multi-skilled workers, eliminate
the management structure, and focus resources on the most effective tasks. Furthermore,
according to [18], the benefits of using the Lean construction technique in the construction
industry include shorter lead times, lower costs, higher efficiency, less waste, better quality
or fewer defects, and shorter cycle times. The following are the labor-related advantages of
Lean construction, as discussed by [18]: Reduced labor while the output is maintained or
increased, maximized use of multi-skilled workers, increased effectiveness of stakeholder
relations, higher level of encouragement for working together, and more encouragement
for all project participants to think in a Lean way.

2.5. Review of Application of Quality Management Framework

The review was carried out on the frameworks and concepts of Construction 4.0,
Industry 4.0, Internet of Things (IoT), and Lean and quality management in residential
work, regarding the processes and products. In construction work, there are two types of
quality being enforced, namely quality enforcement in terms of the process of construction
and the quality of the product produced. In [4,5], quality was viewed as a subjective
concept. It is subjective in terms of parameters often dictated by consumer needs, client
needs, and professional input in one of the quality standards. In the submission of the
ISO 9001 standard, quality management as a process entails quality in the component
as a process to achieve quality in the construction project. This involves focusing on the
consumer’s needs and requirements, leadership, involving people, adopting a system ap-
proach, enforcing continual improvement, using facts in decision-making, and establishing
a mutually beneficial relationship. The quality management system ensures compliance
with quality regulations to satisfy customers’ requirements, the continual improvement of
quality processes, and ensuring the product and services are in line with company objec-
tives and standards. Similarly, quality management in a residential project as a product
could be viewed from the perspective of the component that is summed up as quality in the
finished product. It entails achieving zero defects in the final product generated. In [5–8],
the quality component as a product could be summarized as a required composition, the
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 8 of 26

reported quality management, quality system, quality management team, and the degree
of quality achieved. Summarily, the quality of the products could be measured based on
the perceived quality of the final product, the quality of the management process, the set of
interrelated systems, and the set of requirements incorporated in a way that modeled the
finished product.

2.6. Justification of Proposed Quality Management Frameworks

In the construction industry, there have been several types of research on the quality
management of construction projects. Frameworks based on stochastic and regression
models abound. Some of these frameworks include total quality management (TQM),
hedonic models, case-based models, Lean models, expert models, and artificial intelligence
models. A study carried out by [16,19] submitted that the current regression-based models
are lacking in data processing and consistency. The TQM model and related framework
according to [16] is limited in data application and restricted in its capacity to predict
variables, ability to update data, and data parsimony, among other factors.
However, there are reasons why new frameworks and models are needed, and this
reason lies in the fact that the previous model, according to [13,15], is based on a step
approach in structure, while the proposed framework in this study is based on the system
approach. However, their similarity lies in the following facts: A tendency to be condensed
into a single framework, the capacity to incorporate detailed goals, objectives, and plan
implementation, and the tendency to update the framework component, which was alluded
to by [12,13,19]. In the context of this current study, however, no study has used the three
Construction 4.0 tools in the way they have been applied in the context of this study to
develop a quality framework. Therefore, this study attempted to use Industry 4.0 tools
and the Lean concept to develop a model that could be used to monitor project quality
holistically through the project cycle.
In the context of this study, Industry 4.0 tools, i.e., the Internet of Things and Lean
thinking tools, were used in the configuration of the structure of the framework. The
choice of the systems was unique due to the positive attributes of the Lean concept and
the Internet of Things. The holistic model enables the use of the good attributes of IoT in
the automation base, while the parameters of Lean construction were used to formulate
the quality dichotomy of the resultant model. The attributes include zero defects, effective
quality communication, quality monitoring and control, and training and development,
among others.

3. Materials and Methods

In this section, the methodology used in the research is presented.

3.1. Research Design

The qualitative research approach was used with purposive sampling methods cen-
tered on professionals and construction companies, where industry tools, the Internet of
Things, and the Lean concept approach are practiced, as indicated in the questionnaire that
was used to collate responses from the respondents. The survey was carried out with the
aid of a structured questionnaire, designed with a semantic rating scale.

3.2. Population Frame

A sample of 250 medium and large-scale construction companies was used in this study.

3.3. Sample Size

The sample used in this study constitutes the professionals that work in the con-
struction companies sampled, constituting a total of 150 construction professionals. The
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 9 of 26

questionnaires were designed on a Likert scale of scale 1 to 5 and administered to 150 re-
spondents. The sample size was determined using this relationship:

n = N/[1 + ((S−1))/N] (1)

where n is the sample size, N is the population, and S is the margin error.
The respondents include professionals such as builders, architects, engineers, and
contractors, comprising architect = 30, builders = 30, quantity surveyors = 30, engineers = 30,
and contractors = 30.

3.4. Sampling Techniques

The random sampling technique is often used to pick a sample from a population frame
in a qualitative and quantitative method used in research work. Therefore, the random
sampling method was used to select the 150 respondents that constituted the research
sample used in the study. The respondents were picked from different construction firms,
and personal interviews were collected from professionals from the construction firms.

3.5. Research Data

The secondary data for the study were collected through the exploration of various
relevant literature and previous research conducted in the area of study. These include data
from textbooks, learned journal articles, peer-reviewed research papers, academic articles,
conference proceedings, and electronic sources. Respondents were asked to indicate their
level of understanding by ticking a column of relative importance.

3.6. Data Analysis

The analysis aimed to establish the validity of the data collated in terms of justifying
the research variables. Some of the methods used in analyzing the collated data include the
simple percentage, Chi-square, Mann–Whitney U test, Spearman rank test, and mean item
scores. The Relative Mean Index (RMI) and Relative Importance and Agreement Index of
Mean item scores were calculated using the equation stated below, as used in Likert (2004)
following a Likert scale of 1 to 5 [20]:

Relative Agreement Index (RAI) = 5SA + 4A + 3N + 2SD + 1D [5(SA + A+N + SD + D)−1 ] (2)
where SA represents Strongly Agree, A represents Agree, N represents Neutral, SD rep-
resents Strongly disagree, D represents Disagree, RII represents the Relative Importance
Index, and RAI represents the Relative Agreement Index.

Relative Importance Index (RII) = 5SI + 4I + 3N + 2SNI + 1I [5(SI + I+N + SNI + NI)] (3)
where SI represents Strongly Important, I represents Important, N represents Neutral, SNI
represents Strongly Not Important, and RII represents the Relative Importance Index.

3.7. Factor Rotation and Extraction for Model Development

A quality management model was developed in this study, using parameters that
cut across the three (3) concepts, i.e., Lean concept, Industry 4.0, and Internet of Things
(IoT) parameters. The raw data from the survey were extracted from the three (3) concepts
and used in the model developed with the aid of SPSS statistical analysis software. The
factors were subjected to factor rotation to reduce the factors from twenty-four to twelve,
which would represent other factors using Direct Obilim and Varimax with Kaiser Normal-
ization, while the factors with small coefficients were suppressed, only extracting factors
with Eigenvalues between 0.97 and 1.0. The resultant factors were used to produce the
composite model. The scores obtained from each of the independent variables, that is, the
Lean construction principle-based parameters, Internet of Things (IoT), and Industry 4.0
parameters for managing quality, were cross-examined to determine the parameters to
be included in the model. The Eigenvalues of the parameters were used to classify the
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 10 of 26

factors into high-, medium-, and low-quality factors. An Eigenvalue of 1.0 was accepted
as the point of highest perfect reliability, and therefore the closer the value to 1.0 the more
reliable. Therefore, values between 0.9 and 1.0 were classified as the highest point of quality
reliability, scores between 0.7 and 0.8 were classified as medium reliability or medium
quality, and scores between 0.5 and 0.6 were classified as low-quality values, in accordance
with [20,21].

4. Results
4.1. Respondents’ Bio-Data Information
Bio-data information of the respondents is presented in Table 1. The status of the com-
panies used in this study includes property development firms, contracting organizations,
project clients, and consultancy firms. The respondents were taken from the company
categories presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Bio-data information of respondents.

Parameters Category Frequency Percentage

Are you exposed to C 4.0 and I 4.0 Yes 80 79.21
No 20 19.80
Neural 1 0.99
Age Group 21–30 y 60 59.41
31–40 y 30 29.70
41–50 y 11 10.81
Years of Experience ≥15 y 45 44.55
11–15 y 29 28.71
5–10 y 19 18.82
≥5 y 8 7.92
Placement in the Company Project Manager [Builders] 41 41.00
Design Specialist [Architect] 30 29.70
project site Coordinator
15 14.85
[Civil engineer]
Quantity Surveyor 15 14.85
Company Status Developer 41 40.59
Contractor 30 29.70
Client 15 14.85
Consultant 15 14.85
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021. C 4.0–Construction 4.0; I 4.0 (Industry 4.0).

4.2. Normality Test for Variables

A reliability test was carried out on the research variables to establish the extent of
their reliability using 99 variables from research variables.
The test was carried out based on standardized items using ‘N’ numbers of variables
and the results are presented in Table 2. The reliability of a variable often falls between 0 and
1, and the closer the Cronbach alpha value is to 1, the higher the reliability of the research
variables. In the context of this study, the Cronbach alpha test value obtained was 0.839.
The value obtained through statistical analysis (0.839) was close to 1.0, indicating a strong
correlation and strong reliability. It also indicated, as alluded to in [16,19], consistency in
the calibrated data collection instrument and other research variables.
Table 2. Cronbach alpha test statistics on research variables.

Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized Items Number(N) of Items
0.839 0.259 99
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 11 of 26

4.3. Influence of Construction 4.0 on Quality Management of Building Projects

The influence of C 4.0 is presented in Table 3, where both intelligence manufacturing
and the development of digitalization initiatives in quality management have RAI values
of 0.897 and were ranked first. Additive manufacturing was ranked third with an RAI
value of 0.895, while other factors were ranked in the following order, according to their
respective relative agreement index (RAI): Artificial intelligence in quality management
and mobile computing systems was ranked fifth with an RAI of 0.979, social media and
multimedia systems was ranked sixth with an RAI score of 0.871, while innovative robotics
in quality assurance and the automation of construction systems quality management was
ranked 7th with RAI scores of 0.870. The remaining factors were ranked ninth to thirteenth
in the following order: Big data application was ninth, cloud computing application was
tenth, virtual reality and augmentation was eleventh, 3D printing and quality output in
documentation was twelfth, and expert system and neural networking was thirteenth.

Table 3. Influence of Construction 4.0 on quality management.

Construction 4.0 Influence Parameters Mean RAI Rank

Intelligence Manufacturing 4.485 0.897 1st
Development of Digitalization Initiative in quality management 4.485 0.897 1st
Additive Manufacturing 4.475 0.895 3rd
Artificial Intelligence in quality management 4.440 0.888 4th
Mobile Computing System for quality management 4.395 0.879 5th
Social media and Multimedia System 4.355 0.871 6th
Innovative Robotics in quality assurance 4.350 0.870 7th
Automation of Construction Systems quality management 4.350 0.870 7th
Big data application 3.990 0.798 9th
Cloud Computing and Applications 3.975 0.795 10th
Virtual Reality and Augmentation 3.755 0.751 11th
3D-Printing in quality output in documentation 3.750 0.750 12th
Expert system and Neural Networking 3.745 0.749 13th
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021 RAI- Relative Agreement Index.

The importance of Construction 4.0 has largely contributed to the changes in productiv-
ity experienced in the construction industry and enhanced delivery all over the world with
the adoption of intelligent manufacturing and the development of digitalization initiatives
in quality management. Intelligence manufacturing has enabled risk reduction on account
of the automation of the construction process. In quality management, the manual approach
to quality assurance in the construction process has been replaced with automation systems.
For instance, artificial intelligence-based support and decision-based systems are widely in
use, with tremendous results. In the design stage, decision support systems have helped
to maintain automation in design, thereby eliminating waste and ensuring quality deci-
sions. Some such systems include AutoDesk, Revit, Orion, and Primavera [20,21]. These
systems have helped to ensure quality in processes and products. The role of Industry 4.0
in the construction industry has been mentioned in other submissions such as in the works
of [22–24], in which the challenges involved in C 4.0 quality issues were mentioned in [22],
risk management was studied in [23], and a solution to quality management in construction
was stressed in [21,24,25]. Furthermore, Construction 4.0, as presented in Table 3, has
influenced the construction industry positively, and according to submissions in [20,21],
which explored issues around Construction 4.0, the areas of influence of Construction 4.0
in the construction industry include automation, robotics, mobile computing, cybernetics,
and additive and intelligent manufacturing. It has tremendously impacted the ecological
landscape; therefore, in the context of this study, the area of influence of Construction 4.0
was identified to include intelligence manufacturing, the development of digitalization
initiatives in quality management, additive manufacturing, artificial intelligence in quality
management, and mobile computing systems for quality management, among others.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 12 of 26

4.4. Impact of Industry 4.0 Tools on Quality Management Process of Construction Project
Industry 4.0 (I 4.0) induced Construction 4.0 (C 4.0), and since then, Industry 4.0
(I 4.0) has become the center of industrialization, which has led to enhanced construction
productivity. Research has been exploring Industry 4.0 and Construction 4.0 earnestly.
The impact has cut across industries and organizations across the world, for instance [26]
presented Industry 4.0 attributes concerning future industrial opportunities and challenges,
a major factor identified is enhanced productivity and enhanced industrial productivity.
Similarly, [27] explored the design and control of the logistic process in an Italian company,
stressing the design and quality control process in Italian construction and industrial
organization based on Industry 4.0 principles.
Therefore, in the context of this study, the impact of the Internet of Things (IoT) as an
Industry 4.0 tool in the quality management process of a construction project was explored
and is presented in Table 4. Some of the biggest impacts were observed for the introduction
of robotics automation in construction, which was ranked first by the three categories of
respondents used in the study, including design specialists, project site coordinators, and
project managers. The respondents rated the same parameters as being of high impact or
influence in the construction industry. The following factors were rated on a scale of 1 to 6:
Additive product manufacturing was ranked first, development of the Internet of Things
for system development was ranked second, mobile computing was ranked third, and the
digitalization of functions and processes in construction was ranked fourth,, while big data
application in the construction process was ranked fifth.

Table 4. Industry 4.0 tools’ impact on quality management process of a construction project.

Construction 4.0 Influence

PM Rank DS Rank PSC Rank
Parameters
Introduction of Robotics 0.897 1st 0.867 1st 0.931 1st
Automation in Construction 0.897 1st 0.867 1st 0.915 2nd
Additive Product Manufacturing 0.888 3rd 0.856 3rd 0.907 3rd
Development of the Internet of
0.888 3rd 0.854 4th 0.903 4th
Things for system development
Mobile Computing 0.886 5th 0.854 4th 0.853 5th
Digitalization of Functions and
0.885 6th 0.843 6th 0.842 6th
Processes in Construction
Big data application in the
0.875 7th 0.843 6th 0.842 6th
construction process
Simulation Models Development 0.871 8th 0.843 6th 0.753 8th
The invention of Social
0.798 9th 0.822 10th 0.757 9th
Media applications
Advent of Cybernetics 0.790 10th 0.757 11th 0.753 10th
Synthesization of Augmented
0.770 11th 0.745 12th 0.745 11th
Reality and Virtual Reality
The proliferation of
0.770 11th 0.681 13th 0.681 12th
Encoding System
The advent of Building
0.751 13th 0.657 14th 0.680 13th
Information Modelling(BIM)
Introduction of
3.725 14th 0.650 15th 0.645 14th
Human-Computer Interaction
The advent of Embedded
3.705 15th 0.541 16th 0.541 15th
systems and Encryption
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021, DS: Design Specialist; PSC: Project Site Coordinator; PM: Project Manager.

4.5. Perpetual Comparison of Construction Stakeholders on the Impact of Internet of Things (IoT)
and Industry 4.0 Tools in the Quality Management Process
A Chi-square analysis of the data is presented in Table 5. The parameters of the impact
of IoT on the total quality management process in the construction field were subjected to
Chi-square analysis to validate the hypotheses based on the level of agreement of opinions
on the impact of the Internet of Things on the quality management of construction processes
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 13 of 26

and technology. It was discovered that the major impact of IoT, according to the data
analysis, was found to include the advent of robotics and the automation of construction
content in product manufacturing and development. Table 5 presents a Chi-square analysis
using four categories of respondents, that is, project managers, design specialists, project
site coordinators, and contractors. The Chi-square analysis was carried out at an alpha
value of 0.05 with varying degrees of freedom based on the test parameters adopted. It was
noted that the asymptotic significance of all the categories of respondents was greater than
0.05. This shows that the Chi-square result was greater than 0.05. The implication of this
result lies in the fact that there is no divergence of opinions among the respondents and in
the ranking of the factors. The null hypothesis was rejected at a p-value greater than 0.05.
Therefore, there is a similarity in the opinions of the project managers, design specialists,
project site coordinators, and contractors as regards the impact of the Internet of Things
and Industry 4.0 tools on the quality management process in the construction industry.
Asymptotic significance values were observed in the resultant analysis, including project
manager (0.963), design specialist (0.801), project site coordinator (0.990), and constructor
(0.480). Previous authors [26,28] posited the industrial application of Industry 4.0 tools, of
which the Internet of Things was among. It was regarded as the future of industrialization,
and this could have alluded to the reason behind the trend in the respondents’ opinions
reported in this stud

Hypothesis 1 (H1): There is consistency in the opinion on the Impact of Industry 4.0 Tools in
115 Quality Management process 116.

Hypothesis 1 (H2): There is no consistency in the opinion on the Impact of Industry 4.0 Tools in
117 Quality Management processes.

Table 5. Chi-Square test analysis on the extent of opinion consistency on Industry 4.0 tools.

Statistics Variable Project Managers Design Specialist Project Site Coordinator Contractor
a b c
Chi-Square 1.000 1.000 0.750 0.500 d
Degree of Freedom (df) 5 3 6 1
Asymp. Sig. 0.963 0.801 0.993 0.480
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021.

4.6. Industry 4.0 Impacts on Quality Management Process of Construction Project

The statistical test results on the Internet of Things (IoT) and Industry 4.0 impacts on
the quality management process of a construction project are further presented in Table 6.
The table presents an analysis of the impact of IoT on the quality management process in
the construction industry. The test analysis was carried out on the variables of Industry 4.0
and IoT. The Internet-of-Things measures include mobile computing, computer networking,
data banking, big data application, sensor-based applications in building, and human–
computer interaction, among others. Mann–Whitney U and Wilcoxon U tests were carried
out on the IoT and Industry 4.0 parameters and are presented in Table 6. It was discovered
that the asymptotic significance value of the parameters tested was higher than the p-value
of 0.05. Therefore, some of the areas of consensus on the impact of IoT and I 4.0 with
high values include the advent of robotics applications in the industry, the introduction of
automation in the construction process, and the quality assurance of construction processes
and procedures and the post-occupancy period. A new area that was recently introduced
was the aspect of additive manufacturing. In the construction field, quality assurance
has recently been carried out with the aid of robotic applications. Robotics has found
applications in material production and processes, as in the case of advanced countries
such as European countries and Asia countries. For instance, Refs. [12,23] explored the
application of automation and the Internet of Things in managing construction processes to
maintain quality and ensure seamless production and manufacturing. Similarly, previous
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 14 of 26

authors [27–31] presented opportunities for industrial applications of I 4.0 and IoT in
construction based on the paucity of their applications for enhancing construction products.

Table 6. Mann–Whitney U and Wilcoxon W statistical test results on Internet of Things (IoT) and
Industry 4.0 impacts on quality management process of a construction project.

Industry 4.0 and Internet of Things Impact Parameters N Mean Rank Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon Asymp Sig.
0.00 4 2.00 1.000 4.00 1.00
Introduction of Robotics [I4.0]
1.00 4 2.00
0.00 4 2.25 0.500 1.50 0.48
Automation in construction [I4.0]
1.00 4 1.50
0.00 4 2.00 1.000 4.00 1.00
Additive production and manufacturing [I4.0]
1.00 4 2.00
0.00 4 2.50 0.000 1.00 0.157
Internet of things application [IoT]
1.00 4 1.00
0.00 4 1.75 0.500 3.500 0.480
The advent of Mobile computing [IoT]
1.00 4 2.50
0.00 4 2.00 1.000 4.000 1.000
Digitalization of construction functions [IoT]
1.00 4 2.00
0.00 4 1.50 0.000 3.000 0.157
Big data application in the construction process [I4.0]
1.00 4 3.00
0.00 4 2.00 0.000 3.000 0.157
Simulation models development [I4.0]
1.00 4 2.00
0.00 4 2.25 0.500 4.000 0.480
The invention of Social Media applications [IoT]
1.00 4 1.50
0.00 4 2.25 0.500 1.500 0.480
The advent of Cybernetics application [IoT]
1.00 4 1.50
Synthesization of Augmented Reality and Virtual 0.00 4 2.25 0.500 1.500 0.480
Reality [I4.0] 1.00 4 1.50
0.00 4 2.50 0.000 1.000 0.221
The proliferation of Encoding systems [I4.0]
1.00 4 1.00
0.00 4 2.25 0.500 1.500 0.480
The advent of Building Information Modelling [I4.0]
1.00 4 1.50
0.00 4 2.25 0.500 1.500 0.480
Introduction of Human-computer interaction [IoT]
1.00 4 1.50
0.00 4 2.25 0.500 1.500 0.480
The advent of Embedded System and Encryption [I4.0]
1.00 4 1.50
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021, C 4.0—Construction 4.0; I 4.0—Industry 4.0; IoT—Internet of Things.

4.7. Project Stakeholder on Impact of Industry 4.0 Tools in Quality Management Process
Statistical analysis was carried out on project consultants’ responses regarding the
impact of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Industry 4.0 (IoT) tools in the quality management
process as they relate to the applicability and potential advantages of the Internet of Things.
The results are presented in Table 7. Mann–Whitney U and Wilcoxon U test results tended
to agree on the extent of the impact of the Internet of Things and Industrial 4.0. There was
uniformity and agreement in the respondents’ opinions. This validates the applicability of
IoT in changing the terrain of productivity in the construction industry.

Table 7. Project consultants on impact of Industry 4.0 tools in quality management process.

Statistical Parameters DS PSC PM

Mann-Whitney U 2.500 3.000 3.000
Wilcoxon W 17.500 18.000 18.000
Z −1.547 −1.350 −1.358
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.122 0.177 0.174
Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)] 0.143 b 0.250 a 0.250 b
aGrouping Variable; a&b Not corrected for ties. DS: Design Specialist; PSC: Project Site Coordinator; PM: Project
Manager. Source: Author’s field survey, 2021.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 15 of 26

4.8. Developing Lean Thinking Tools—Internet of Things (IoT) and Industry 4.0 (I 4.0) Based
Quality Management Model for Residential Projects
The model was premised around Lean thinking’s main parameters, which were further
consolidated into a few factors, such as establishing quality cost objectives, communication,
authority and responsibility, monitoring, and control. Several factors were grouped under
these variables and were later subjected to factor analysis. In creating a dynamic model to
manage quality in residential building projects, certain Industry 4.0, Internet of Things, and
Lean Construction tools’ parameters were used in the model developed in this study. The
parameters include quality cost objective, monitoring and control, communication, author-
ity, and responsibility. The model was premised around the Lean thinking concept, Internet
of Things (IoT), and Industry 4.0 (I 4.0)-based parameters. The parameters are consoli-
dated into five parameters, which are establishing quality cost objectives, communication,
authority, responsibility, monitoring, and control.

4.9. Detailing Objectives for Project Quality Cost

Setting quality objectives first, before allocating resources to their fulfillment, and
then the provision of means of carrying out the specifics of the objective, are the priorities
in quality monitoring. Furthermore, project expenditure benchmarking, objective opera-
tionalization, and, above all, expenditure, should be minimized in all phases of quality
management. To this end, Table 8 presents the parameters of the quality cost objectives.
The results reveal that allocating contingency allowances for the provision of tools and
equipment and improving construction processes, thereby reducing project costs, each with
a corresponding relative importance index value (RII = 0.84), were rated as the most impor-
tant factors among the variables examined, followed by benchmarking project expenditure
on account of machine and plant maintenance (RII = 0.83). Minimizing expenditure to
maximize profit was rated the lowest by the respondents (RII = 0.81) [32–34]. Summarily,
quality cost objectives, considering the importance of quality management in building
construction management as identified in the study, constitute allowing contingencies for
tools and incidentals for internal and external failure, improving construction processes
and thereby reducing project costs, benchmarking project expenditure on account of ma-
chines’ and plants’ maintenance, and minimizing expenditure to maximize profit. Statistical
analysis was carried out on the parameters and is presented in Table 9. The cost quality
objectives highlighted in Table 8 are in accordance with previous research [35–38], which
recommended a system approach to quality management in construction project quality
management. Setting quality objectives comes first before allocating resources to their
fulfillment, which is then followed by the provision of means of carrying out the specific
objectives, project expenditure benchmarking after the objectives’ operationalization, ad
then, above all, expenditure should be minimized in all phases of quality management.

Table 8. Parameters on quality cost objectives.

Parameters Mean RII Rank

Allowing contingencies for tools and incidental for internal and external failure 4.290 0.858 1st
Improving construction processes thereby reducing Project cost 4.240 0.848 2nd
Benchmarking project expenditure on account of machine and plants maintenance 4.185 0.837 3rd
Minimizing expenditure to maximize profit 4.135 0.827 4th
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021 RII—Relative Importance Index.

Table 9. The Chi-Square test’s statistical results on quality cost objectives of construction quality management.

Allowing Improving Periodic Minimizing

Contingencies Construction Establishment Expenditure
Chi-Square 0.400 0.600 0.600 0.000
df 2 3 3 4
Asymp. Sig. 0.819 0.896 0.896 1.000
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 16 of 26

The Chi-square results of the analysis are presented in Table 9. The Chi-square test
examined the alignment of cost and quality. Some of the parameters that were considered
important in formulating quality objectives tested in this study include allowing contingen-
cies as part of the means of funding the quality cost, improving the construction process
and procedure, the periodic establishment of quality assurance training and empowerment,
and minimizing expenditure onsite. The SPSS values obtained for the factors were higher
than the p-value of 0.05, therefore the null hypothesis is accepted as the Asymp. Sig. is
higher than the p-value of 0.05. Therefore, there is a significant difference in the opinions
of respondents on three of the four factors presented. However, there was agreement
among the respondents on the fourth factor, which focuses on minimizing expenditure on
construction sites. In [35], objectives come first before resource allocation, and the system
approach was advocated as one of the ways to solve the quality problem at the outset of
project development, while objectives should be further expressly stated in clear terms to
ensure the team is aware of the objectives of the operations to be carried out. Similarly,
Refs. [37,38] described cost quality as a necessity that is of utmost importance at every stage
of the building process, while setting quality objectives is important as is communicating
the quality review carried out to team members.
The survey data presented in Table 10 indicate some of the parameters measuring
communication, authority, and responsibility. The results reveal that promoting effective
communication of information on work quality standards to the maintenance personnel
received the highest support among the surveyed professionals (RII = 0.896), followed
by the delegation of responsibilities (RII = 0.877) and management periodically holding
meetings on quality in maintenance issues (RII = 0.860). The last factor identified by
the respondents was designing a future value stream mapping of materials (RII = 0.791).
Effective communication of quality issues is an important aspect of quality monitoring and
benchmarking in the construction field. The decisions made about quality issues should
be communicated to all project team members. Similarly, the following parameters are
also important as regards quality issues in the construction process: Setting up an effective
communication strategy for work quality and the improvement of the quality of work
and operational standards, the delegation of responsibilities, the periodic establishment of
quality and maintenance management meetings on sites, and the establishment of a policy
implementation committee ([35–38]).

Table 10. Parameters on communication, authority, and responsibility.

Parameters Mean RII Rank

Setting up an effective communication strategy for work quality
4.480 0.896 1st
and improvement of quality of work and operational standard
Delegation of responsibility is essential 4.385 0.877 2nd
Periodic establishment of quality and maintenance Management
4.300 0.860 3rd
meetings on sites
A policy implementation committee needs to be established 4.265 0.853 4th
Establishing a line of command is essential 4.220 0.844 5th
Identify value from the client’s perspective 4.240 0.848 6th
Benchmarking project expenditure on account of machine and
3.955 0.791 7th
plants maintenance
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021 RII-Relative Importance Index.

A test of the agreement was carried out on the parameters to model the proposed
model and the results are presented in Table 11. The main group concept tested was
parameters on communication, authority, and responsibility. The number of components of
the group parameter that were tested is seven in total. The Chi-square test was conducted
with a p-value of 0.05, and the null hypothesis is usually rejected when the asymptotic sig-
nificance is less than the p-value of 0.05. Conversely, the null hypothesis should be accepted
when the asymptotic significance is higher than the p-value of 0.05. Therefore, there is a
significant difference between the responses of respondents to the tested parameters, i.e.,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 17 of 26

setting up an effective communication strategy for work quality, improving the quality of
work and operational standards, and establishing a line of command are essential as their
values are higher than p-value 0.05. Similarly, there was no significant difference between
the responses of respondents regarding the other five factors, which include the delega-
tion of responsibility, the periodic establishment of quality and maintenance management
meetings onsite, the establishment of a policy implementation committee, the identification
of value from the client’s perspective, and the benchmarking of project expenditure on
account of machine and plant maintenance, which was supported in [26,29,32].

Table 11. Chi-square statistical analysis on communication, authority, and responsibility parameters
of the proposed model.

Test Statistics
Establishing Identity Benchmarking
Setting Up an Delegating Periodic Policy
Communication Value-Adding Project
Effective System Responsibility Establishment Implementation
Line Activity Expenditure
Chi-Square 0.600 a 0.000 b 0.000 b 0.000 b 0.600 a 0.000 b 0.000 b
df 3 4 4 4 3 4 4
Asymp. Sig. 0.896 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.896 1.000 1.000
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021. a 4 cells (100.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum
expected cell frequency is 1.3. b 5 cells (100.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell
frequency is 1.0.

4.10. Framework for Managing Quality System Building Construction Project

Table 12 presents the ratings of the respondents concerning monitoring and control in
the conceptual phase. The results reveal that demonstrating organizational features, Lean
knowledge training, and establishing communication, each with a corresponding relative
importance index value of (RII = 0.86), received the highest rating from the respondents,
while defining assessment matrices received the lowest rating (RII = 0.79) from the surveyed
building professionals [39]. The study also itemizes the essential components that could
be adopted in the design phase, including associating waste practices, identifying waste
types, waste analysis, questionnaire and work sampling assessment, SWOT analysis for
Lean supply, a Lean transformation plan, and documenting the current state gap.

Table 12. Monitoring and controlling quality in the management of the construction process.

Conceptual Phase Mean RII Rank

Demonstrating organization features 4.435 0.887 1st
Lean knowledge training 4.390 0.878 2nd
Establish communication 4.325 0.865 3rd
Review potential waste and lean practice 4.325 0.865 3th
Define assessment matrices 3.955 0.791 5th
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021.

A Chi-square test was conducted at a p-value of 0.05. The null hypothesis is usually
rejected when the asymptotic significance is less than the p-value of 0.05 and the null
hypothesis should be accepted when the asymptotic significance is higher than the p-value
of 0.05. Similarly, there should be an efficient line of communication, a review of waste
practices, and the setting up of assessment matrices to ensure quality. According to Table 13,
there is no significant difference in the responses of respondents regarding five factors,
which include demonstrating organizational features, Lean knowledge training, establish-
ing communication, and reviewing potential waste and Lean practices. The value should
be identified from the client’s perspective and the benchmarking of project expenditure
on account of machine and plant maintenance, which was supported in [26,28,29]. In the
context of the analysis, in the monitoring and control of quality, knowledge of the Lean
technique in eliminating waste is essential to ensure quality [24,39].
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 18 of 26
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 27

Table 13. Chi-square statistical analysis of parameters of monitoring and controlling quality in the
Test Statistics management of construction processes.
Demonstrating
Test Statistics Lean Knowledge Establish Communi- Review Potential Define Assessment
Organization
Demonstrating Training
Lean Knowledgecation
Establish Waste
ReviewPractice
Potential Matrices
Define Assessment
Features
Organization Features Training Communication Waste Practice Matrices
Chi-Square 0.000 b 0.000 b 0.000 b 0.600 a 0.000 b
Chi-Square 0.000 b 0.000 b 0.000 b 0.600 a b
Df 4 4 4 3 4 0.000
Df 4 4 4 3 4
Asymp. Sig.
Asymp. Sig. 1.000
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.0001.000 0.896
0.896 1.000
1.000
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021. a 4 cells (100.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021. a 4 cells b(100.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum
minimum expected cell frequency is 1.3. 5 cells (100.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The
expected cell frequency is 1.3. b 5 cells (100.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell
minimum
frequency expected cell frequency is 1.0.
is 1.0.

Figure33presents
Figure presentsthetheratings
ratingsofofthe
thesurveyed
surveyedrespondents
respondents regarding
regarding thethe implemen-
implementa-
tation
tion phase
phase of aofframework
a framework developed
developed for paradigm
for the the paradigm of residential
of residential building
building projects.
projects. The
survey data reveal
The survey that expanding
data reveal Lean practice
that expanding received
Lean practice the highest
received ratingrating
the highest (RII = (RII
0.88),=
followed by employees
0.88), followed organizing
by employees and training
organizing and standardizing
and training the Leanthe
and standardizing practice,
Lean each
prac-
with
tice, a corresponding
each relative importance
with a corresponding index of (RII
relative importance index= of
0.87),
(RIIwhile pilot
= 0.87), project
while pilot imple-
project
mentation received
implementation the lowest
received rating (RII
the lowest rating= 0.81)
(RII =from
0.81)respondents.
from respondents.

Figure3.3.Lean
Figure Leanthinking
thinkingquality
qualitycontrol
controlparameters.
parameters.Legend:
Legend:RII—Relative
RII—RelativeImportant
ImportantIndex.
Index.

4.11.Framework
4.11. Frameworkfor forManaging
ManagingQuality
QualitySystem
SystemBuilding
BuildingConstruction
ConstructionProject
Project
Thecreation
The creationofof a model
a model for for management
management quality
quality on residential
on residential projectsprojects was per-
was performed
formed using factor analysis, with principal component analysis
using factor analysis, with principal component analysis (PCA) used as the method (PCA) used as theof
method of extraction and Varimax with Kaiser Normalization used
extraction and Varimax with Kaiser Normalization used as the method of rotation. Factor as the method of ro-
tation. Factor
analysis was usedanalysis was used
to classify the to classify the
forty-two forty-two
items items
in section F ofinthe
section F of instrument.
research the research
instrument.
Factor analysisFactor
was analysis was used which
used to determine to determine
group or which groupconstructs
theorized or theorized constructs
of the factors
of the factors
identified identified
in the researchininstrument
the research areinstrument
important are important the
for managing for managing the quality
quality of residential
of residential
building building
projects and whichprojects andcan
factors which factors can
be removed be removed
to reduce to reduce
the number the number
of factors to only
of factors
those to only
that are those that
significant. Theare significant.
first step was to The first stepthe
determine wasnumber
to determine the number
of components to beof
components to be selected for the factor analysis. This can be achieved by
selected for the factor analysis. This can be achieved by either examining the scree plot or either examining
thetotal
the screevariance
plot or the total variance
explained. explained.
Therefore, for thisTherefore,
study, the for thismethod
latter study, was
the latter method
adopted. As
seen
was in Table 14,
adopted. Aseleven
seen incomponents were extracted
Table 14, eleven components withwere
the factor reduction
extracted method
with the factorandre-
used for the
duction analysis.
method and The
usedanalysis
for the was set atThe
analysis. an Eigenvalue
analysis was of 0set
toat
1. an
TheEigenvalue
variables with
of 0 low
to 1.
Eigenvalues
The variables were
withsuppressed while those
low Eigenvalues with values while
were suppressed between
those0.8with
and values
1.0 were extracted
between 0.8
for representative factors. The extraction of the eleven components was justified
and 1.0 were extracted for representative factors. The extraction of the eleven components by the total
was justified by the total variance explained for the identified components, which describe
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 19 of 26

variance explained for the identified components, which describe the important parameters
for managing quality in residential buildings (i.e., 66.546%). The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin
(KMO) measure of sample adequacy was 0.558. Bartlett’s test of sphericity provided a
p-value of 0.001. The highly significant values of Bartlett’s test (p < 0.001) indicated that
factor analysis was appropriate for the data [24,38]. To optimize the factor structure and
search for the best explanation for the patterns in the data, factor rotation (Varimax with
Kaiser Normalization) was applied. According to Kaiser’s criterion [24], eleven factors
with eigenvalues greater than 1 were extracted.

Table 14. Statistical parameters of sampling test (executing Bartletts’ Test and KMO Characteristics).

KMO and Bartlett’s Test

Sample Adequacy Test of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin 0.658
Approx. Chi-Square Value 925.187
Bartlett’s Test of Sample Sphericity Degree of freedom [df] 675
Asymptotic Significance. 0.001
Source: Author’s field survey, 2021.

4.12. Model Correlation Matrix for Quality Management System for Residential Building
Management Model
The quality management correlation matrix is presented below in model groups. The
model group was classified into 10 quality models. The factors were picked based on their
respective Eigenvalues with a magnitude of less than 1 or equal to 1. The model contains a
pairing of variables that could be used each time for the quality management of a building.
The group factors based on their Eigenvalues are stated below [38–40]:
Model Group F1 I (Performance monitoring factors [1.0]); Model Group F2 II (Estab-
lishing Communication line factors [1.0]); Model Group F3 III (Adopting expert system
and Industry 4.0 tools in quality management [1.0]); Model Group F4 IV (Quality cost
objective factors [0.99]); Model Group F5 V (Communication, authority, and responsibility
factors [0.87]); Model Group F6 VI (Communication/quality cost objective-related factors
[0.89]); Model Group F7 VII (Manpower training and development-related factors [0.82]);
Model Group F8 VIII (Measurement and precision-related factors [0.99]); Model Group F9
IX (Quality cost objective [0.97] and performance monitoring [0.83]-related factors); Model
Group F10 X (Quality cost objective-related factors [0.98]); Model Group F11 XI (commu-
nication [0.92] authority [0.97]); Model F12 XII (Internet of Things parameters [0.92]) and
Construction 4.0 tools-related factors [0.89]). The model is in accordance with [28,39,40].
However, the application of Lean principles gives little or no opportunity for changes
in the construction process as corroborated in [41–47]. Finally, one of the main parameters
of the Lean concept is just-in-time deliveries, which are applicable in the context of this
study to supply chain management of construction resources. The just-in-time delivery
habit tends to induce congestion in the supply chain system, thus there is a need for an
early warning system in the project. This trend is in accordance with the research in [46–49].

4.13. Benchmarked Quality Parameters

4.13.1. Modelling Parameters
The parameters used in modeling were articulated and are presented in Tables 8–11.
The following summary can be drawn from Figure 4: The zero-defect range: 1F1 + 1F2
+ 1F3; the medium-quality range: 0.87F6 + 0.8F11 + 0.82 F14 + 0.82 F11; and the high-quality
range: 0.97F9+ 0.9F8 + 0.99 F10 + 0.9F11.

4.13.2. Description of the Emerged Factors after Rotation

“F1Performance monitoring factors [1.0].
“F2Establishing Communication line factors [1.0]).
“F3Adopting expert system and Industry 4.0 tools in quality management [1.0].
“F4Quality cost objective factors [0.99].
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 20 of 26

“F5Communication, authority, and respondent factors [0.87]).

“F6Communication/quality cost objective related factors [0.89].
“F7Manpower training and development-related factors [0.82]).
“F8Measurement and precision-related factors [0.99].
“F9Quality cost objective [0.97] and performance monitoring [0.83].
“F10Quality cost objective related factors [0.98].
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 27
“F11Communication [0.92] and authority [0.97]).
“F12Internet of Things parameters [0.92] and Construction 4.0 tool-related factors [0.89].

Figure
Figure 4. Framework
Framework of
of the
the benchmarked
benchmarked quality parameters for residential building projects.

4.13.2.
4.13.3. Description
Description of of the
the Emerged
Components Factors
of theafter Rotation
Framework
“F1Performance monitoring
Three groups of models factors
emerged [1.0].
after the factors were rotated, and the factors were
grouped“F2Establishing Communication
using the following labels: (i)line
Thefactors
quality [1.0]).
management system (QMS) linked to
Lean“F3Adopting
Constructionexpert system and(ii)
(LC) [QMS-LC]; Industry 4.0 tools
the quality in qualitySystem
Management management
(QMS)[1.0].
linked to
“F4Quality
Construction 4.0cost
(C objective
4.0); and factors
(iii) the[0.99].
quality management system (QMS) linked to the
“F5Communication,
Internet of Things (IoT). authority, and respondent factors [0.87]).
Therefore, six groups of factors,
“F6Communication/quality F2, F4, F5,
cost objective F6, and
related F9, are
factors associated with a quality
[0.89].
management
“F7Manpowersystem with Lean
training construction (QMS-LC).
and development-related The[0.82]).
factors factors are F2Establishing
Communication
“F8Measurementline factors [1.0])l F4Quality cost
and precision-related objective
factors [0.99].factors [0.99]; F5Communication,
authority, and respondent factors [0.87]); F6Communication/quality
“F9Quality cost objective [0.97] and performance monitoring [0.83]. cost objective related
factors [0.89]; and F9Quality cost objective
“F10Quality cost objective related factors [0.98].[0.97] and performance monitoring [0.83].
Similarly, the Quality [0.92]
“F11Communication Management System[0.97]).
and authority (QMS) linked to Construction 4.0 (OMS-C
4.0) consists of fouroffactors,
“F12Internet Thingswhich include[0.92]
parameters F1, F3,andF8, Construction
and F12. The details of the factors
4.0 tool-related are
factors
as follows: F1Performance monitoring factors [1.0]; F3Adopting expert system and Industry
[0.89].
4.0 tools in quality management [1.0]; F8Measurement and precision-related factors [0.99];
and F12Internet
4.13.3. Description of Things parameters [0.92]
of the Components of theand Construction 4.0 tool-related factors [0.89]
Framework
Furthermore, the third quality management system is referred to as the quality man-
Three groups of models emerged after the factors were rotated, and the factors were
agement system linked with IoT (QMS-IoT) and consists of five factors, which are F2, F7,
grouped using the following labels: (i) The quality management system (QMS) linked to
F8, F11, and F12. The details are as follows: F2Establishing Communication line factors
Lean Construction (LC) [QMS-LC]; (ii) the quality Management System (QMS) linked to
[1.0]); F7Manpower training and development-related factors [0.82]); F8Measurement
Construction 4.0 (C 4.0); and (iii) the quality management system (QMS) linked to the
and precision-related factors [0.99]; F11Communication [0.92] and authority [0.97]); and
Internet of Things (IoT).
F12Internet of Things parameters [0.92] and Construction 4.0 tool-related factors [0.89]
Therefore, six groups of factors, F2, F4, F5, F6, and F9, are associated with a quality
F5 refers to Lean thinking quality control parameters, including pilot project implemen-
management system with Lean construction (QMS-LC). The factors are F2Establishing
tation, Lean implementation documentation, standardizing the Lean practice, organizing
Communication line factors [1.0])l F4Quality cost objective factors [0.99]; F5Communica-
and training employees, expanding Lean practice, manpower training, measurement and
tion, authority, and respondent factors [0.87]); F6Communication/quality cost objective
description, zero defects, six sigma parameters, and communication and Lean quality.
related factors [0.89]; and F9…….Quality cost objective [0.97] and performance monitor-
F12 Industry 4.0 parameters are linked to the Internet of Things parameters. A motion-
ing [0.83]. lighting system should be installed to aid energy management system practices.
controlled
Similarly, the Quality
The implementation Management
of cardholder System (QMS)
energy-saving switches linked to Construction
should be connected 4.0 (OMS-
to lighting
C 4.0) consists of four factors, which include F1, F3, F8, and F12. The
circuits and air conditioning systems. The implementation of building automation systems details of the factors
are as follows:
should be used F1Performance
to provide data monitoring
from HVAC factors [1.0]; F3Adopting
operations. The useexpert systemnodes
of sensory and In-
of
dustry 4.0 tools in quality management [1.0]; F8Measurement and
lighting and HVAC should be incorporated into building design. There should be a centralprecision-related fac-
tors [0.99]; and
monitoring F12Internet
controlling of Things
system parameters
of electrical energy. [0.92]
Thereandshould
Construction 4.0 tool-related
be the implementation
factors [0.89]
of smart energy management. A smart energy-saving air conditioning system should be
Furthermore, the third quality management system is referred to as the quality man-
agement system linked with IoT (QMS-IoT) and consists of five factors, which are F2, F7,
F8, F11, and F12. The details are as follows: F2Establishing Communication line factors
[1.0]); F7Manpower training and development-related factors [0.82]); F8.Measurement
and precision-related factors [0.99]; F11Communication [0.92] and authority [0.97]); and
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 21 of 26

installed in buildings. A computer-based energy management system should be adopted

in buildings. A computer-based energy management system should be implemented
to improve energy efficiency. A computer-based energy management system should
be employed to reduce energy waste. The introduction of robotics and automation in
construction and additive product manufacturing and the development of the Internet of
Things are beneficial for system development.

5. Discussion
The global construction industry is noted for provisioning real estate products, which
in turn, satisfy the needs of consumers. The products include major housing and accom-
modation facilities. The production of construction products, however, is labor-intensive
and demands a great deal of effort. The input in this context refers to the input on the
part of construction project actors whose efforts determine the quality of the construction
products. In light of the above, monitoring and control is essential for quality results and
output in the construction industry. The quality, therefore, has to be holistic, covering the
life cycle of a product. The life cycle of construction starts from the idea-conception stage,
which invariably implies that quality formulation and implementation begin right at the
idea-conception stage. Before the advent of Construction 4.0, the analog model of reality
was predominantly used in design decision support systems and construction monitoring
and control. The analog model was disadvantaged in terms of its time-consuming and cost-
intensive characteristics, and its non-flexibility in function adaptation, among other factors.
However, the advent of Construction 4.0 resulted in enhanced model output. For instance,
in the Construction 4.0 era, sensor-based 3D systems are in use in construction product
modeling. The advent of computer-aided design (CAD) in the construction industry has
enabled quality assurance in the design process. CAD enables designers to visualize the
drawing outlook or how the drawing appears. This allows for on-time adjustment and
manipulation. According to [11,23], calibrated applications have gained interest in the
construction industry. In Construction 4.0, quality management and quantitative tools that
capture function and forms are being used in decision support systems in the formulation
and development of quality parameters. Furthermore, in the Construction 4.0 era, virtual
reality and augmented reality applications help to visualize how the effect on quality
could be quantified in the construction process. Therefore, opportunities abound in the
application of I 4.0 in the quality management of construction. In [8,50], the authors alluded
to the fact that high-tech applications enable the easy application of quality appliances
in the construction field. Artificial intelligence-based applications equipped with 4D and
5D capabilities have been of immense help in quality monitoring and assurance in the
construction process, maintenance, and facility post-occupancy management. 2D and 3D
printing applications have had an immense contribution to automated printing applications.
This has reduced the lead printing time in the documentation of quality documents in the
construction industry. These facts are supported by [7,23,50].
Moreover, issues of quality are of utmost importance in the construction industry and
the creation of construction products. In the current era, the production and marketing
of construction products have quality management parameters embedded in most of the
concurrent applications. In contemporary quality management systems in the construction
industry, there are expert-based and intelligence-based quality management applications,
as presented in [28]. Some of the identified applications, as alluded to in the text, assist
in the digitalization of quality management of the construction process, additive quality
manufacturing, intelligent manufacturing, the automation of construction processes, and
robotics applications [50–53].
In this study, a quality management framework was developed for quality manage-
ment applications in residential building projects. There are related frameworks that have
been used in quality management in building works. Some of the frameworks that are com-
parable to the one developed in this study include hedonic models, artificial intelligence
models (AI), total quality management (TQM), case-based models, and Lean thinking
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 22 of 26

models. The structure, function, similarities, and differences are outlined in previous
research [54–56].
Hedonic models are types of models that provide space for continual updating and
they are mathematically based. They could be referred to as one type of a stochastic model.
The Hedonic model, which is stochastic, differs from the framework developed in this
study, which is deterministic in structure. Similarly, total quality management models, Lean
thinking models, and case-based models are deterministic in structure. The deterministic
model has the capability of engaging multiple variables, which can be updated continually.
The advantage of this lies in the fact that the model has all the variables required to predict
the outcomes of models with certainty [56–60].
However, in a nutshell, Industry 4.0 was described in [60] as a framework that incor-
porates individual production, cyber-physical systems, and digital computing technology
to provide basic industrial and manufacturing production. In [60,61], the components
of Construction 4.0 were described to include mixed-reality applications, additive manu-
facturing, BIM application, data analytics, and domain knowledge endowment, among
others. Similarly, [61,62] mentioned additive manufacturing as one of the major fulcrum
for enabling digital configuration in Construction 4.0, which toes the line of submissions
in [60,62,63] and Supplementary Materials.
Moreover, regarding drawing a comparison between the framework and model de-
veloped in this study and other relevant frameworks, the current model appeared to be
one step ahead of some models, while the current model has many variables. There are
areas of similarity and dissimilarities between the current model and other related models.
However, the uniqueness of the current model lies in the incorporation of Industry 4.0 tools
and Lean tools. Areas of dissimilarity include the incorporation of certain elements such as
the Internet of Things components, Lean construction components, and positive attributes
of Industry 4.0 [55,57–61,63,64].
The model is deterministic considering the background of multiple variables involved,
which can be used to predict the future of other variables for consistency. Therefore, the
quality management framework presented in this study, which is based on Construction 4.0
and uses Industry 4.0 tools and Lean concept parameters, creates a system that is unique
from the stochastic models available in the construction industry.

6. Conclusions
High-quality management eliminates waste and increases productivity at the mini-
mum cost. It is against this background, therefore, that this research work has demonstrated
how the Lean concept could be deployed to create a regression model that could help in
creating a quality model for construction work applications to prevent poor-quality man-
agement onsite.
In the context of this study, the following objectives were articulated for study: The
influence of Construction 4.0 parameters on the quality management of building projects,
the impact of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Industry 4.0 tools in the quality manage-
ment process of a construction project, Critical success influencers of construction quality
management using the Lean construction concept, and developing a Lean–based quality
management framework for residential projects. In the outcomes of the research, the study
identified the challenges involved in the integration of technology domains such as Lean
and Industry 4.0 in the framework, including a reduction in flexibility to react to new con-
ditions during the execution of the project, the process of management becoming expensive
and cost-intensive, and the fact that the application of Lean principles provides little or no
space for changes in the construction process, among other factors. Similarly, the developed
model has practical applications in quality management in terms of the input process and
the product, as presented in this study [60–64].
The parameters of the developed model could be used to monitor the quality process
to be able to achieve high-quality decisions in projects. Finally, the limitation of the study
lies in the applicability to the life cycle process of a building, which covers the input stage,
Buildings 2022, 12, 1557 23 of 26

process stage, and modeling of the final construction product. The model could also be
applied to industrial production processes and manufacturing that entail processing the
input and output in the form of the product.
The Lean tools need to be communicated to the stakeholders for implementation.
According to the outcomes of this study, it is necessary to take the following factors into
consideration in the initial part of the project: Integrating waste and error reduction prac-
tices, identifying waste types, waste analysis, questionnaire and work sampling assessment,
SWOT analysis for Lean supply, a Lean transformation plan, and documenting the current
state gap. Similarly, the following procedure is necessary for the implementation of a
Lean framework in the residential building construction quality process: Expanding Lean
practice, organizing and training employees, standardizing the Lean practice, Lean imple-
mentation documentation, and pilot project implementation. Comparing the developed
model with other types of models mentioned earlier, the model accommodates multiple
variables that are easy to interpret and update. The model is deterministic as compared to
similar models such as total quality management, the case-based reasoning model, and the
hedonic model, among others [65].
Moreover, issues of quality are of the utmost importance in the construction industry
and the production of construction products. In recent times, the production and marketing
of construction products have quality management parameters embedded in most of their
concurrent applications [28,51,52].

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://
www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/buildings12101557/s1.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.L. and E.S.; methodology, A.L.; software, E.M.; valida-
tion, A.C.; formal analysis, A.L.; investigation, E.S. & O.B. resources, A.C.; data curation, O.B. & A.C.;
writing—original draft preparation, E.M.; writing—review and editing, all authors; visualization,
A.C.; supervision, A.L.; project administration, E.M.; funding acquisition, A.L. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by The Covenant University Centre for Research Innovation
and Discovery (CUCRID) and the Cidb Center of Excellence, Faculty of Engineering and Built
Environment, University of Johannesburg, Doorfotein Campus Johannesburg, South Africa. The
authors appreciate the sponsorship of this research publication.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent of respondent was included on the questionaire
used for the study before individual respondent filled the questionaire.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors appreciate the Cidb Center of Excellence, Faculty of Engineering
and Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Doorfotein Campus Johannesburg, South Africa
for the administrative and technical support of this research endeavor.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.

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