Communication Skills Scheme of Work: English 158 First Year, Second Semester

ENGLISH 158; FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER
COMMUNICATION SKILLS SCHEME OF WORK

A. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
i. What is communication
ii. Types of communication
 Verbal /non verbal form
iii. The role of communication in human existence (why we communicate)
iv. Barriers to communication
B. COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATION S
i. Communication downwards
ii. Upward communication
iii. Horizontal communication
iv. Diagonal communication
C. COMMUNICATIO N FORMATS
i. Letters: Informal ;semi- formal ; formal
ii. Minutes
iii. Reports
iv. Memorandum
v. The resume (CV)
vi. Curriculum Vitae (C.V)
D. COMMUNICATION SKILLS (DEVELOPMENT)

i. Listening skills
ii. Reading skills
iii. Productive or Presentation style
E. PARAGRAPH
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What is communication?
The term communication refers to the process of receiving and giving information for the
purpose of enhancing one‟s life and of others around him or her. Communication is bipolar
involving a speaker (source) and a listener (destination or interlocutor) and for it to be
effective, it must end in the achievement of desired goals. Hence the speakers should be able
to use the correct sound and speak intelligibly in order to facilitate the understanding of the
message and to give back the appropriate or desired response.
Communication is very crucial to existence so when we communicate it is an attempt to solve

a problem or need of survival. Here we should not see survival as mere existence, but rather
meaningful existence. It is difficult to imagine how life would be if we were not receiving
and giving information. Man and even animals involved in communication in very complex
way.
 A twitch in the tummy communicates to us that we are hungry and that we need
food.
 The physical world also communicates to us. A darkening of the sky and with the
movement of clouds and other signs communicate to use that it is about to rain.
 The horns of cars, road signs – zebra crossing, road topography and vehicle
behavior signs also communicate.
 We listen and read from people around us. Our children tell us they are hungry,
they need this or that, and our parents call, instruct and advise us.
In all these, we are involved in communication because we receive some information to

which we respond.
It must be noted that we don‟t only receive information; we also send information to others.
As children, we communicate to our parents our wishes and expectations. We also tell people
how we feel about them, about other things and also about ourselves. In these actions,
whether in speech of in writing, we expect a response, reply or feedback. There is the need
for exchange (a give and take Exercise).
Communication can thus, be understood as a process (of transmitting and receiving

information). It is the organization and transmission or transfer of information. As a process
communication involves a combination of different activities. This is evident in the changing
roles of people (as speaker or listener) and the movement from the beginning to the end of the
communication interaction. As a process also, communication is influenced by various
factors such as the nature of the participants, the place, goals of interaction and the nature of
the subject.
Communication may be seen as a system because it may not only be the simple activity of
speaking and listening. It could involve a number of persons, resources and activities which
are organized and harnessed in order to make the transferring and receiving of information
possible for the fulfillment of the desired goals or intention or response of the speaker(s)
(effective communication)

The interplay of the component elements for effective communication is demonstrated below:
Channel
Source Message / Information

STAGE I Destination
(receiver)
(Sender)
Channel
Destination Message/ information

STAGE II Source
(Sender)
(Receiver)
NOTE
The diagram represents the general and simplest form of communication, we may have more
than one source or destination, and the message and the channel involved can be dynamic and
complex. Note also that in conversation and question-and- answer coverts, that questioner,
who is the source in Stage one, becomes the receiver in Stage two when the answerer also
speaks.

Types of communication – (Verbal communication)
Communication may be distinguished by looking at the number of people involved in the
transfer and processing of ideas or information as well as the relationship between them upon
such consideration, communication may be viewed in three groups or types:
1. The intra- personal communication:-

This could be described as communication within oneself. It may be the mental
response to external or internal stimuli or data. Non- linguistic such as sound, heat,
light, may be interpreted. For example:
 If by applying one‟s mind, one comes to the realization that the twitch in one‟s
tummy means hunger, then one has engaged in intra- personal communication.
 If one interprets the dark atmosphere as the approach of night. (one has engaged in
intra-personal communication)
The intra- personal communication may also involve interpreting linguistic data such as
getting information through reading or listening and reaction (or feedback).
Things to note about the intra – personal communication.
 it involves the mental attempts to receive linguistic and non-linguistic stimuli

 It involves a mental activity which one gives meaning to or add value on the data one
has received.
 It embodies assembling the various strands of information one has obtained from
words, interpret or analyze them and give them meaning or value.
 The internal reaction involved in intra-personal communication which includes
planning, applying information to problems, taking decisions and evaluating and
recollecting information.
Note; since individuals have to listen, interpret as well as react internally to the
data/information they receive. It should be understood that intra-personal communication
takes place in individual even during interpersonal and public communication.
2. The inter – personal communication : -

Inter – personal communications refer to the concrete act of transferring or processing
information. It could be between two individuals (one on –one- communications) or
where communication is between a group and an individual (i. e message is
transmitted on behalf of an organization, institution or corporation to its workers).
Interpersonal communication is direct communication between the source (sender)
and the specific receiver(s) with a high potential for feedback and interaction. It
includes: - the specific receiver(s) with a high potential for feedback and interaction.
It includes:
 Monolineal forms (one –way out forms) i.e

i. Giving information
ii. Giving commands

iii. Writing letters
 Bilineal forms (give – and – take forms) i. e

i. Conversation
ii. Question – and – answer
iii. Interviews discussions
iv. Letter and reply
v. Prosecution and defense
 Multilineal forms :-
i. Meetings
ii. Interviews
iii. Conversations
iv. Discussions
3. The impersonal communications:-

In impersonal or mass public communication, the message is directed to a large
diffused audience with no direct contact between the source and the receiver.
Channels that are most suitable for mass or impersonal communications include
television, film, radio, newspapers, magazine, posters, billboards etc. note that the
basic difference between interpersonal and public (impersonal) communication is in
the number of people who are listening or reading. Because of the great number, the
personal or the informal is played down and the social and the formal are heightened.
Public communication thus, tends to be business oriented. Example of such

communications are radio and television speeches and announcements as well as
other forms of public speeches and sermons; teacher –student; teacher-learning
situation; meetings and convocations. In such situation people may speak and may be
spoken to collectively or individual.

Non Verbal Communication
Non – verbal communication is simply anything that conveys a message without using words.
No communicator can ever deny having communicated non-verbally. In fact, the non- verbal
communication complements the verbal one.
Forms of non- verbal communication
1. Proxemics:-
This refers to how SPACE is used to communicate. This is associated primarily with
the particular place or location of communication.
 The church room communicates situations of reverence, quietude, solemnity etc.
 The discotheque communicates an atmosphere of chaos, turbulence, lawlessness,
merriment etc.
2. Chronemics
Here, one may communicate with one‟s perception and use of TIME.
 The point in time at which we communicate. For example, one would interpret a
Phone call that comes at 2 o‟ clock am as having a serious or urgent issue.
 We may also communicate by the way we respond to an appointed time. Lateness
may be communicated as lack of seriousness, disrespect or laziness.
 Slowness and fastness speak to us. We sing slowly to signify a pensive, prayerful
or mournful mood. When people sing very fast, we sometimes interpret it to mean
they are in some kind of trouble.
 People who focus on the past may be viewed as being lazy, unforgiving or
sometimes reflective, those on the present as selfish, unwise and those who focus on
the future as dynamic, or progressive.
3. Oculesics
This is the communication by nature of the EYE contact between people. Eye contact
can communicate interest, attention and at other times, disrespect OR when the people
we talk to fail to look in the face, we sometimes interpret it to mean that they are aloof
or perhaps are telling lies.
4. Haptics
It refers to the way in which TOUCH communicates, i.e. a gentle touch communicates
affection even to the new baby. The place one touches the depth as well as the length
of such contact all communicate. Examples, functional professional touch by a doctor
on duty; hand shake; pecks; walking in arms; embracing; caressing; hugging and
kissing; touching the thigh, breast, buttocks or the region on the sexual organ
functions generally to communicate and to arouse sexual ideas and feelings.

5. Kinesics :
This kind of communication involves MOVEMENT consisting of facial expressions,
general movement of limbs, movement of the head and the body as a whole.
Nose winking, nodding, nudging, curtsying etc.
6. Vocalics
This form of the non- verbal communication is associated with the VOICE or sound,
it manifests in the following:
 The speed , pitch , intonation, stress and volume of one‟s speech
 Laughter, crying, hissing, clearing of the throat , yawning , whistling etc,
 Silence communicates the absence of people or serious business such as
meeting taking place.
7. Objectics
This is in reference to the way ARTIFACTS and the environment speaks to us;
 The personal- things with which we adorn ourselves e.g clothes, hairdo,
perfume, make-up, bag.
 The environment – the condition within which people are found – the nature
of their abode, the furniture, car, decoration, colour , objects etc.
 Aids – the things which actually uses to help one in rhetorical communication.
Examples are the teaching aids, the pen, the pencil, ink or the paper used.

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN HUMAN EXISTENCE
Communication as we have already learnt is the process of finding out information and
receiving information. There are several reasons why we communicate as human beings.
1. To initiate Action by passing on a message/information.

a. By expressing our needs and requirements
b. By persuading and motivating others in order to win them over to our new point. We
can achieve this through conversation, speeches, letters, briefing, instructions,
procedures, manuals etc. Note that we are constantly bombarded with advertisements
by business matters in order to persuade and motivate us to buy or patronize their
products.
2. To import information, ideas, opinions etc. in order to create understanding or

awareness. This is often done through the use of explanations, descriptions, summaries,
analyses anecdotes, illustrations etc. It must be noted that all the above are ways of
communicating information in order to enhance the perception and understanding of
one‟s audience regarding one‟s subject or point of view or product or service.
3. To establish, acknowledge or maintain links or relations with other people. Letters may
be written to open- pals in order to initiate friendship or to sustain friendship. We may
also write and express our feelings to a long –fyo then friend or relative. Non-Verbal
communication forms such as a nod, a smile, a hug, a wink, or a wave of the hand at a
person indicates that we recognize the presence of our listener or the recipient of our
message/ information.
During communication we are most likely to attend to and accept a message if it has
credibility and congeniality.
Credibility
A message or a piece of information is said to be credible when it inspires trust and belief in
the recipient.
For a message to be credible
a. It must come from the right authority on the basis of the senders position or status
Or
b. On the basis of his knowledge, skills, experts or experience.

In a nutshell, we believe the message by virtue of the status or authority of the service /
originator. Credibility could also be obtained if the sender appears honest, objective and
straight- forward so that he does not make his message ambiguous (having a double
meaning).
Congeniality is therefore a state of pleasantness when one‟s tastes are in agreement with the
message. The message becomes acceptable because of its appeal on the values, attitudes,
beliefs and expectation that the receiver holds or finds attractive.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Communication is faced by two main problems and those are:
1. Distortion and
2. Noise
DISTORTION:
Distortion refers to a change in the meaning of a message or information so that it is no

longer true or accurate. This means that the distortion results in the loss of the meaning of a
message utterance during handling or transmission.
Distortion occurs in the following ways:
 At the encoding and decoding stage when exact or precise intention of the sender is
not accurately transmitted or expressed in language and so the wrong meaning of a
message is sent.
 When the language used is either ambiguous or unclear. For example using different
dialects, not being able to articulate the current sound
i. “He had a cup/cap in his traveling bag.”

ii. Those are my eyes; those are my ears;(instead of using these)
iii. That is my mouth (instead of “this”).
 When unfamiliar or unexplained pictures, diagrams etc. are used to communicate.

 When different opinions, attitudes, inattentiveness cause either party(that is the
sender and the receiver ) to decide to deliberately make the message unclear;
a. By either twisting the information or
b. By choosing to understand only what he experts to hear from the message
(perceptual bias or selectivity )
NOISE:
Noise refers to distraction / interferences in the environment in which communication takes

place, thereby obstructing the process of communication by affecting the accuracy, clarity or
even the arriving of the message.

SOURCES OF NOISE:
1. Physical Noise – e. g Other people talking in the place of communication, passing

traffic, clatter of machinery, the cry of basis in the room; the barking of dogs.
2. Social noise – interference created by differences in
a. Personality
b. Culture
c. Religion or outlook if the sender and the recipient e.g. between the rich and the
poor; the literate and the illiterate, male and female, boss and subordinate, student
and teacher.
e.g Father John Do you weed on Tuesday?
Euphemism used in the Akan culture but understood by Father Pascal Goodsman
in Ancestral Sacrifice because of culture differences.
3. Technical noise: this is a failure or breakdown of the medium or channel of

communication while the message is being transmitted of a breakdown of the
computer, printer, mobile phone, bad handwriting etc.
4. Psychological Noise: - sometimes our emotions or the state of our mind can affect the
meaning of the message we receive. E.g. when in excitement or sorrow, in anger or
fear, with prejudice or nervousness we easily interpret or react to the message we
receive differently depending on the mood we are in. the state of the mind also affects
the message from the source (sender).
Others
5. Code of credibility due to poor preparation and presentation.
6. Poor listening or poor reading skills, loss of concentration.
7. Not communicating – deciding to keep quite or remain silent at certain times during
communication.
8. Sending the wrong message - one that is meaning for or irrelevant or unsuitable for
the purpose.
9. Over loading – giving the recipient more than what he can digest in the available time
10. Non- verbal signals such as pictures, facial expressions or appearance, postures or
poise which contradicts the verbal messages are likely to confuse the recipient .

11. Failure to seek or offer feedback or even injuring the feedback often.
12. Choosing an unsuitable channel or medium of communication.

COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION
In organizations, communication flow is mostly downward, upward and horizontal.
1. Communicating downwards :
This kind of communication is carried out from superior to subordinate.

a. It may be delegation of authority involving giving information about instruction or
job schedules.
b. An introduction or orientation about procedures and practices in the organization.
c. It may be an appraisal informing the subordinate about how well or badly he is
performing his duties.
d. Job description – informing the subordinate about what role his job plays in the
realization of the organization‟s objectives.
e. Indoctrination – instilling in the employees, the company‟s culture, goals and
customs.
2. Upward communication:
This is communication from subordinate to superior.
It may be:-
a. A piece of information from a subordinate about his problems, fears, his
performance and prospects.
b. A report from a subordinate on a task he has been assigned to perform.
c. A comment about the organization‟s policies or practice by a subordinate
d. A piece of information about his colleagues – their attitude to work and their
problems.
e. A suggestion about what needs to be done, how it is to be done.
3. Horizontal communication:
In this kind of communication the direction is between people at the same hierarchical
level of the organization. Formally, Horizontal communication allows people to co-
operate and co-ordinate their activities or tasks towards achieving the set goals of the

organization. This could take the form of inter-departmental or inter- sectional
meetings. Informally, it describes and enhances emotional and social support (fellow-
feeling) among colleagues on the same level.
Improving horizontal communication
i. Institute – inter –sectional or inter – departmental work teams or committee and

task them to hold regular meetings to discuss issues or problems as where and
when they crop up.
ii. Rotate jobs: thereby allowing each individual manager / officer to experience the
job of the other.
iii. Encourage peer counseling as a means of resolving conflicts
iv. Appoint a communicator as a sort of liaison officer to promote communication

between departments by issuing newsletters or bulletins relevant to all
departments at appropriate times.
4. Diagonal communication :
Here, a subordinate or a worker at the lower ranges of the ladder may communicate
with someone at a different level of the hierarchy and in a different section or
department. This type of communication is generally discouraged in most
organizations. In every organization, individuals are encouraged to follow the normal
or official channel of communication with its norms and procedures. This means that
communication should follow the line of command- a superior will deal only with his
own immediate subordinates and vice versa.
Improving downward communication
i. Management should institute systems and mechanisms such as holding for,

issuing bulletins, holding meetings/interviews, publishing house journal
newsletter, and running in –service course for the staff.
ii. Management should establish in each organisation a culture of communication.

a. Exchange pleasantries, views and opinions.
b. Have very brief morning prayers together just before work starts every
day.
c. Encourage top level management to be role models by setting examples.
iii. Train and coach managers to communicate more effectively using its
organization‟s house style.

iv. Create opportunities and settings for social interactions in the work place. E.g tea/
coffee breaks, monthly parties, end of year dinner, picnics etc.
v. Insists on good communication skills as recruitment, appraisal of work and

promotion.
vi. Encourage staff to communicate confidently without fear of victimization.
Improving upward communication
i. Organization should have collective Bargaining Agreements to offer their

employees channels for complaints, comments, suggestions etc.
ii. Hold regular meetings with representatives of employees. Discuss issues

related to workers welfare.
iii. Introduce suggestion box where workers can write their suggestions,
comments and complaints on piece of papers and drop them inside the
boxes.
iv. Operate an open door policy where management is accessible to even the
most junior member of staff.

COMMUNICAITON FORMATS
LETTER WRITING
Formal letters:
The term “formal letter” is used to include those classified as “business” or “official.”
Business letters are those concerned with works or employment and the execution of the
activities of an entrepreneur. The official would be those which are coming from or going to
people who are considered to hold some public offices. They include:
a. Letter of application for employment
b. Letters to pressor editors of newspapers or magazines.
c. Letters in answer to advertisement
d. Letters to government departments, councils, corporations, Business firms or public

organizations.
e. Letters to one‟s headmaster or principal
Formal features of formal letters

When writing formal letters you must tackle the following aspects systematically;
1. Writers own address (without name)
Use the indented form of address here, punctuated
2. Date i.e 15th January, 2015
3. Recipient‟s Address
NB: use the block style of address and it must be written in small letters without capital
letters beginning each word. Remember to use the designation or official position/ status of
the recipients. E.g . The personnel manager, the secretary, the permanent secretary, the
managing director.
4. Salutation (or Greeting)

The salutation is basically a call to the recipient for his attention. It is expected to exhibit as
much politeness as possible. Generally, we use dear sir (if the recipient is a man) and dear

Madam (if the recipient is woman). Where the sex of the direct recipient of the letter is not
known, the male from dear Sir is used. Dear sir/Madam is used when the letter is a circular
and thus has a communal recipient, who could be both male and female.
5. The Heading (or Title)

This is always the main topic of the letter. It is always written on the line below the
salutation. It is advisable one writes it in capital letters, and in a telegraphic form and it
should be underlined.
6. Content
The content of the letter may manifest itself in; the following elements (a) introduction
(b) Main Body (i.e. subject matter) and (c) conclusion.
Examples of a complimentary close (for replies)

(a) It would be much appreciated f you could inform me as soon as it may be convenient.
(b) It should be most grateful if you could let me have the information as soon as it may
be convenient.
7. Subscription
End the letter with yours faithfully only. Note that Y begins the Yours and small „I ‟the
faithfully, followed by a mandatory comma.
8. Signature/Name
You are to sign your name (or write your signature) Write your full name below your
signature. You may put this in brackets. In some situations, you may be required to
provide your designation/identification.
LANGUAGE AND STYLE
1. The language of the formal letter should be verified or specialized in

vocabulary.it is precise and has an unflinching preoccupation with the subject and
focus of the interaction.
2. There is high degree of deference/politeness and social distance between the

writer and the recipient.
3. There should be strictness of form. Nothing should be taken for granted. As much
as possible thing are supposed to be stated in their full form. Do not use contracted
forms of words. E.g can‟t ,won‟t. This quality affects the nature of the address, the
name or the complementary close and generally the way in which facts are
represented.

4. Never use verbose sentences like; bye for now or participle phases such as
Thanking you in advance; Hoping to hear from you etc.
5. Do not “beg” or sound very religious in your business or application letter. Use
words such as plead or implore instead of “beg”
6. Avoid artificial elegance. The tendency is for writers to use language in order to
merely create artistic beauty.
7. It is important to remember that strict adherence to object of communication and

precision of communication are features of the language and style of the formal
letter.
ABOUT THE MAIN BODY

What one does in a letter is one‟s intent of the purpose of the letter, which is generally stated
in the introduction. We are using the writing or letter as medium to achieve or arrive at our
ultimate aim (i.e. to be given appointment, compensation or supply at the time and manner
we want). So we should know as writers what one wants to do in a letter and what one
wants to so with a letter.
The main body of the formal letter thus is seen to contain information facts and details, which
will make it possible for the writer to achieve his objectives.
1. In an application for employment, the main body answer the following creation :
What information will produce to make the employer give me the job?
(a) My education
(b) My experience
(c) My abilities
(d) Reference.
2. If you are writing an invitation to make someone come and deliver a keynote address
or any talk, you need to tell him the following :
a. The topic:
b. Why you chose the topic

c. Why he was chosen to deliver it
d. The date, time and place
e. The duration
f. The nature of participants
3. In a letter of requisition the following elements must be included;

a. The items and quantities
b. Where they are to be delivered
c. When to be delivered
4. A letter of appreciation which intends at making the recipient see how we value his
gift or service should contain such things as;
a. What has been contributed and perhaps time and place
b. How useful the contribution has been
5. A petition has should make the recipient see the unacceptability of the existing
situation and perhaps the usefulness of the alternatives we are proposing. We
therefore need to talk about:
a. Why the present situation is wrong or unacceptable
b. Why we claim is right
c. What we think should be done

MEETING
The meaning is an important medium of face to face communication. A well organized, well-
focused and well – conducted meeting can be extremely important in several ways: -
1. To make or take decisions
2. To relay decisions or instructions (downward briefings)
3. To provide information and advice for management to come to a decision (upward

briefings)
4. To initiate participatory problem solving through consultation with colleagues and

staff in different department or fields
5. To transform with a view to generate new approaches and ideas for the purpose of
progress of the organization, society, association or family.
Basically, there are 2 kinds of meetings and there are formal meetings and informal
meetings
a. Formal meetings are either required by government legislation or by the Articles of

the company or organization or they are formed by rules and regulations or
conventions laid down in that organization or company‟s formal constitution (which
may specify when meetings could be held- once a year, once every month, twice a
year, beginning of school term, middle of the year and end of term meetings in
schools.
b. Informal meetings or everyday meetings on the other hand can be held at any time if
it is deemed expedient to do so. They are held for the purpose of exchanging views
and opinion in the view to forestall a problem or to take an immediate decision on a
pressing issue.
Conduct of Formal meetings
Formal meetings by their nature are formed by laid down rules, regulations and conventions.
There will have to be;
 A notice of meeting or an announcement or an invitation to the meeting
 An agenda – i.e a list of business to be discussed and

 Minutes – the written records of the proceeding of a meeting, approved by those
present.
The agenda – the agenda is a clear ordering of steps to be followed in the conduct of a
meeting. It shows the clear order in which various issues are to be discussed or handled at a
meeting. Usually the agenda is prepared as part of a letter summoning the members of an
organization, club or society to a meeting and is normally sent out well in advance of the time
of the meeting depending on how widely scattered the member of the society or club
members.
The Invitation letter

A notice of meeting will be normally prepared and circulated by the secretary and laid down
resolutions in writing in this letter of invitation, the secretary has to provide in the letter of
invitation, the date, venue and a full agenda of the meeting. This is a circular and therefore
is formal or official letter. If it is a mere meeting, the invitation could be posted on the notice
board or in the newspapers. If it is for a special committee, personal letters could be sent. It
might also be necessary to internal meeting.
Consider the circumstances below:
“Of late, there has been in a start of increase in the rate of indiscipline among the students of
late. The vice chancellor of the university has directed the disciplinary committee to address
the issue and make recommendations on how to arrest the sad situation.”
Let us examine the following of what the secretary of the disciplinary committee may write.

KWAME NKRUMAK UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
P.O. BOX
Kumasi – Ashanti
15th January, 2015.
Dear Sir/Madam,
INVITATION TO A MEETING
I Have been directed to make all members of the disciplinary committee to a very important
meeting in the S.R.C office on Friday, January 16, 2015 starting at 3:30 pm prompt.
AGENDA
 Opening prayer
 Chairman‟s Opening Remarks
 Reading and Adoption of Previous Minutes
 Matters arising from the minutes
 Main Business for the Day; disciplinary Problems and suggestions for solving
problems
 Any other Business (other problem )
 Chairman‟s Closing Remarks
 Closing Prayer
All members of the committee are kindly requested to attend the meeting and promptly too.
Yours faithfully,
(CECELIA FLECTHER)
Secretary
DISTRIBUTION
All members of the Disciplinary committee
Cc: The Vice – Chancellor,

KNSUT ,
P.O.BOX, KNUST
Kumasi .

WRITING MINUTES
Minutes are basically an account of the various issues raised and discussed at a meeting and
the decisions taken on such issues. Minutes are therefore records and points of reference for
the dissection and most importantly, the decisions which are made to guide the activities of
an organization. Minutes also constitute a reflection of consensus. Generally, decisions are
arrived at after open and thorough discussions. Hence, when minutes are read, they represent
not individual decisions but what the group in total has decided. Such atmosphere promotes a
sense of responsibility and belonging.
The writing of minutes passes through TWO stages. The first stage is when the secretary
make notes for taken down notes during the actual meeting. As the discussion proceeds very
fast, all that the secretary does is to make rough notes of the salient points.
STRUCTURE OF MINUTES
1. Name of the organization or committee
2. Kind of meeting e.g 33rd PTA Executive meeting, Academic Board meeting, Board of
Governor meeting etc.
3. Such details as time, date , place of meeting
4. Members present /absent and apologies received
5. Opening
6. a. reading of previous minutes / acceptance

b.matters arising
7. Main discussion/ main Business for the day.
Details of resolutions adopted, decisions arrived at, motions and counter motions tabled,
voting and results as well as ad-hoc committee appointed and what assignments.
8. Any other Business (other matters)
9. a. Chairman‟s Closing Remark

b.Closing Prayer
10. Endorsement

The second stage of minutes writing is when the Secretary in his own spare time after the
meeting sits down and re – writes the information notes taken during the meeting into a
comprehensive record of matters as they transpired at the meeting.
In writing up the minutes, the secretary be sure that language mistake are avoided as far as
possible. Since the minutes will be read out at a follow up meeting and he will lose face if the
House should detected many errors and point them out to him for correction.
The secretary must also ensure that he records the facts and not his own personal opinion so
that the minutes can pass as truly representing business as it was carried out at the meeting
under renew.
FURTHER EXPANATION
1. TITLE
The title of minutes contains the following element
a. Name of organization
b. Nature of meeting
c. Place, time, date
Example; Minutes of English Department board Meeting held in the Department‟s
General Office on Wednesday, 18th July, 2015 at 1:00pm.
2. ROLL CALL : members present / in Attendance / Absentee
3. OPENING : items here generally include the following
a. Time and opening (if not stated in the title)

b. Method of opening – prayer and / or introductory remarks by the chairman
4. PREVIOUS MINUTES
Minutes of previous meeting are read in order to acquaint members with the house‟s
previous discussions and decisions and to evaluate the organization and individuals on
this basis. These minutes are also important because they provoke further discussions
which help the house or organization. Items recorded are based on the deliberations
that ensue and these include
Corrections – corrections are generally not recorded except where they produce some
discussions or agitation.

Moving for Acceptance - the one expected to move for the acceptance of such
minutes depends on the organization‟s regulations. Important items to record in
minutes are
a. Who moved for acceptance of minutes

b. Who seconded it?
Mattes arising from previous minutes
These usually comprise
a. Reports and questions on implementation of decisions taken.

b. Items deferred to a nest meeting or the current meeting precisely
Questions asked here as well as the people who asked them are generally not recorded in
details.
Reports on matters arising are generally given by the Chairman or anyone called upon by him
to do so. Such reports may be documented or not. Documented reports are recorded in
summary in the minutes. The undocumented ones are however, recorded in some detail for
record purposes.
5. MAIN BUSINESS
The various topics that constitute the main business are usually provided on the
agenda. The chairman generally introduces these. He ensures also that discussions are
orderly and exhaustive so that a good decision could be arrived at. He regulates
discussions and prevents one member from talking too much. The main business
deliberations can be put into two a. Discussions and b. Briefings
a. Discussions
e.g issues and their discussions, decisions taken on these issues. Issues and
decision is generally stated or written in sub-heading. This is to make it explicit
and unmistakable in the minutes. Not that contributions and discussions are
usually not recorded individually and in detail in resolution and action minutes,
however, the various contributions of members are recorded.
6. ANY OTHER BUSINESS (O.A.B )
This is also referred to as other Matters. Here, we record discussions that do not
form part of the agenda drawn from the meeting. The issues are pertinent items raised
by members and may generally be in the form of announcements, remarks,

complaints, suggestions and enquiries. These are also recorded under sub headings, as
in the main business.
7. CLOSING
In minutes, the closing generally covers the following details as applicable:
a. Final or concluding remarks made by the chairman
b. Motion for Closing and seconding
c. Prayer
For example, the chairman thanked the members for their co-operation and charged them to
be always alive to their duties. In the absence of any further discussions, a motion to close the
meeting was moved by Mr. Twum and seconded by Rev. Nsia. The meeting finally ended at
5:00pm with short prayer by Mr. Siaw
8. ENDORSEMENT
After the closing comes the endorsement. This comprises the names and signatures of the
person who recorded the minutes (the Secretary and the Chairman respectively e.g
Recorded by: ……………… Endorsed by :…………………
(JOHN OPOKU) (HURBERT OFOSU)
SECRETARY CHAIRMAN
THE LANGUAGE OF MINUTES
Minutes are a formal document. The language is the fore formal. Features such as colloquial
language such as contractions, slang expressions, figurative expressions are not advisable in
minutes.
The tense for minutes is generally the simple Past : the is because minutes are a record of
past speeches and decisions. Sometimes however, the present tense or the future tense is uses
for decisions and directions to give them force and alive.
Reported Speech: (Indirect ) instead of Direct Speech is used in minutes. This facilitate
summary and helps to remove untidy and irrelevant parts of contributions.

The passive Voice : is frequently used. This stems from the fact that what is said and the
decisions made are considered more important than the persons who said them. Passive
constructions are a way of highlighting the information and the decisions and pushing the
speakers to the background. E.g We prefer, “It was pointed out to” “Mr. Mensah pointed out
that , ” “it was agreed that” NOT “we agreed that.”
This practice highlights the group interest and plays down the individual.
Since the resolution and action minutes concentrated on consensus or group decisions rather
than an individual contributions general terms such as “the meeting ”, “the committee”,
Members and used frequently in order to efface the actual speaker or officer. Where it is only
one person the indefinite forms “a” or “an” or “one” are used as in “a member”.
TYPES OF MINUTES
Minutes could be differentiated according to their information and focus (or weighting
given). However, there is no clear – cut distinction between one type and another since
minutes seem to address these aspects identified at the same time. The idea hereis on focus or
concentration of issues raised and discussed at a meeting. Thus we have;
1. Narrative Minutes
This kind of minutes seeks to describe the various contributions which precede
decisions as well as vetoes in detail. In this way, it becomes quite easy for one to see
how thorough discussions were (what happened or what was said at the meeting).
Detail could be how the meeting was begun and conducted, who initiated issues and
what he actually said; contributions made in support or in dissension; motions and
counter-motions, decisions made; how decisions were arrived at by voting, unanimity
etc.
2. Resolution Minutes
Resolution minutes concentrate in responding to what decisions were taken at a

meeting. The minutes why record the decisions reached, whether they were
unanimous or whether there was dissent and also other details which are essential to
the description and implementation of the decisions. Hence, they are more concise
and easier to read.
3. Action Minutes
These are closer to resolution minutes. In fact, it can be seen as a kind of resolution
minutes in which further emphasis is placed on the person and the strategies by which

the decisions are implemented. Though the action minutes are said to be in answer to
the question of who executes the decisions, it is difficult to talk about who is to do
something without reference to what he is expected to do and how that fulfills the
goals and decisions of the organization.
Action minutes usually contain the following information
a. Executing officer(s)
b. Time frame for Execution
c. Equipment / Methodology / Procedure to be used for the execution
d. Supervising Officers

REPORT WRITING
A report is an and interpretation of observation or information which is presented to another

to enable him understands issues at stake, so that he can make a decisions. A report
looks at the past or the present situation in order that one makes a decision for the
future. A report is thus an intervention between the present and the future. It is
based on an objective position that we cannot make good decision for the future
unless we are adequately informed about the detail of how things are , have been
or were. Based on this information we make decisions.
THE STRUCTURE OF A REPORT
(A) TITLE
Subject of the report, name of authorizer, name of reporter.
(B) THE INTRODUCTION
The introductory part of a report serves to prepare the mind of the reader for the findings and
conclusions, which constitute the main subject of the report. It does this by informing the
reader about problem at hand. This may include knowledge about the background of the
report. i.e. event which prompt the authorization of the investigation, the nature of
authorization or the terms of reference, the identity of the authorizer and the purpose and
scope of the investigation.it also comprises several information of the research, interpretation
and presentation of the report.
(C) THE MAIN BODY:-
This is the part of the report which formally follows the introduction. It is here that the date
collected is related to the problem. The body of the data collected is demarcated into parts.
These demarcations are made according to the scope of the problem itself as given by the
authorizer or the divisions as preserve by the investigator. The demarcation helps to group
data and findings. It helps the investigator to present his data coherently and this prevents him
for jumbling his presentation. He also presents each part of the report as a report on its own,
and makes the report easily understandable. It helps the reader to also follow the report since
he is guided by the report- headings and the summarizes and conclusions of the various parts
of the report. The investigator is to prove as much information as would make his findings and
conclusions justifiable. These is thus the need for specific references to facts, maps, charts and other
kinds of figures which necessary to direct and convince the reader about our findings.
(D) THE ENDING OF THE REPORT:-
The ending of the report at least answers one of these question:
(a)What information have I gathered from the research?

(b) What meaning do I make from this information
(c) What decision can be made from this data and analysis?
Answers to these questions may correspond to the following:-
i. Findings/ conclusions:-
When arriving conclusions we attempt to analyze the implications the information has for the
problem under review. Conclusions are conscious attempts to discover causes and effects
relationships and relationships of comprising or to evaluate some phenomena. For clarity and
conciseness conclusion are usually tabulated.
ii. Recommendations:-
Recommendations are decisions or some course of actions which the investigator suggests to
the authorizing body. Such decisions or actions are expected to resolve or minimize the
problems which necessitated the research. This aims at helping the authorizing body to
change things for the better.
LETTER OF SUBMISSION
This is a document which finally transmitted the report to the recipient. It is also called letter
of transmittal. It has all the features of a formal letter. It may refer to the problem and the
authorization. Basically, it serves to hand over the report and this is its main business. It
sometimes carries a summary of the findings or recommendation and also provides
information which explains the presentation, nature and use of the report. It usually ends on a
note of hope that the report will be useful. Also, the investigator sometimes promises that he
would be available in case of any future work. It may also open acknowledgements. Consider
a sample of a letter of submission below:

The Research Committee
C/o KNUST Snr. Sec. Sch.,
P.O.Box 26.
KNUST , KUMASI
The Headmaster
KNUST Snr. Sec. Sch.,
P.O.BOX 26,
KNUST, KUMASI.
Dear Sir,
SUBMISSION OF RESEARCH REPORT
We are pleased to submit the report on the sharp increase in the rate of indiscipline among
students of the school, undertaken between January and March 2015.
We are grateful to have been given the opportunity to investigate an issue of concern to
teaching – learning situation and to the proper upbringing of our students. Based on our
findings we have made recommendations for combating the sad state of affairs.
It is our hope that this report would be found informative enough and that we would tackle its
recommendations and any others with the needed objectivity, good will and will power.
Yours faithfully,
(1. )
(Yaw Amoako )
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR
(2. )
(Kwasi Asiedu Addo )
COLLABORATIVE INVESTIGATOR
(3. )
(Kwabena Amoah)
COLLABORATIVE INVESTIGATOR

SAMPLE QUESTION AND ANSWER ON REPORT WRITING
QUESTION
Write a report in about 1000 words on a fire outbreak in a factory canteen riding of
employees who have often complained about the unsanitary conditions in the canteen. Make
special recommendations.
ANSWER
A REPORT ON THE FIRE OUTBREAK IN THE KNUST JUNIOR STAFF

CANTEEN PRESENTED BY MR. KAKARI TWUM
INTRODUCTION/ FORMS OF REFERENCE
This report is prepared at the request of management on the causes of the recent fire outbreak
in the Junior Staff Canteen of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi. It also deals with possible remedies to present reoccurrence of the incident.
PROCEDURE / METHOD
All the members of the canteen staff, leaders of the workers‟ Union and the Personnel
Managers were interviewed. A visit was also made to the canteen. Individuals who had vital
information towards the realization of the reporter‟s objectives were duly invited and their
contributions were kept with efficiency, open – mindedness untiring diligence and a high
sense of confidentiality.
FINDINGS
Information gathered during investigations revealed that in the morning of 18th January,
2015,there was a workers‟ forum to discuss the outcome of requests presented to
management for action. The issues included sanitation at the canteen.
On the hearing her name mentioned at the forum the domestic bursar telephoned the leaders
of the workers and challenged their power to discuss her in public. This infuriated the
workers and they attempted to march against the Domestic bursar at the canteen. Sensing the
danger ahead, she fled from the canteen together with her staff, leaving the cookers still
burning. The cookers eventually over-heated and caught fire burning stock of food and
furniture there.
CONCLUSION
The fire was caused by the negligence and gross disrespect for authority demonstrated by the
domestic bursar.

RECOMMENDAITON
1. The Domestic Bursar should be summarily dismissed and her entitlement used to
defray the cost of maintaining the canteen.
2. There should be the formation of canteen committee with representative of workers‟

views and interest on it.

THE MOMORANDUM
The memorandum is a kind of formal communication which usually operates within an

organization. It may be sent from one individual to another from one department or another;
from one individual to a departmental or section. It may be used for brief messages,
providing a confirmation and record of the different plans, decisions and activities of the
organization. Hence, the memorandum is usually used for the day-to -day running of the
organization.
Memorandum is considered less formal than formal letters. They bridge the distance between
communicators who believe that they share common interest as a result of a common
organization (which has brought them closer together)
THE FORM OF THE MEMORANDUM
i. The corresponding Heading : -

This heading which appears at the top usually in bold print seeks to identify the
nature of the correspondence. For most organizations, this heading comprises the
work memorandum of memo.
ii. Specific Headings :-

These headings come below the corresponding heading. They serve to identify the
people and the subject or focus of communication. It is important in every written
communication that the people in the communication even are all identified.
MEMORANDUM
TO: …………………………………
FROM: …………………………
DATE: ………………………..
SUBJECT: ……………………..

THE BODY OF THE MEMO: -
A. INTRODUCTION
The introduction of the memorandum usually uses the direct delivery form. With this form
you reiterate your focus as identified in your subject heading and expand it into a sentence
whose verb is what you actually want to do or what to do or what you want to be done about
the subject. This expansion may also include any information you think can help define your
subject as well as what you want to be done about it.
B. THE MAIN BODY
Here, you state the details of what to do or want to be done about your subject if the
introduction, for instance, does not identify this. The main body is not always structured
separate from the introduction as a different paragraph or paragraphs.
Sometimes, it is separated from the introduction only by a column, which indicates the main
body or expands the idea in the introduction.
The memo aims at addressing issues concerning the day-to-day running of a organization. It
therefore aims at clarity of expression. Ideas should be made as distinct as possible. In the
main body one can number or tabulate the message one wants to present. Such itemization
makes the message specific and distinct. Where the ideas are similar, the use of parallel
structure gives order and beauty to the message.
C. CONCLUSION
The conclusion of the memorandum reiterates and emphasizes the fact that the
correspondence is done in the interest and furtherance of the organization‟s goal and success.
Any of the following elements are therefore very likely to appear in the conclusion of the
memo.
 Goodwill among members in furtherance of organization‟s goals.
 Promise or desire for co-operation
 Expression of opt that the activity suggested or executed in the main body would be
successful.

QUESTION
Write a memorandum to another member of staff to whom you are instructed to hand over
prior to your departure to attend a two-week course in the personnel management at GIMPA.
Outline your duties as a personnel assistant in the Training department and include matters
requiring special attention during your absence.
ANSWER :
LIVING GOD INUSTRIES LIMITED
MEMORANDUM
TO: Simon Aggrey
FROM: Micheal Brown
SUBJECT: temporary Handing Over of Duties
REFERENCE: letter No IRG2/Vol 2 dated 20/1/2015
DATE: 12th January, 2015
Reference is made to the quoted subject and please find below an outline of duties to be
performed under the Personnel Assistant schedule. The schedule is directly under the
supervision of and in collaboration with the Personnel Manager. It involves the following:-
 Forecasting for the various departments the categories of staff who need training.
 Collaborating with departments to convict inductive training to newly employed
persons.
 Arranging with institutions and resource persons for the provision of staff
development and in-service training courses to junior staff to upgrade themselves to
enhance their efficiency on the job.
 Organizing in –service courses for both new and old supervisors in their duties and in
the control and training of staff.
 Liaising with staff trainers for reports on trained staff for subsequent revision of their
records.
 Organizing in-service courses for management and executive staff to enhance their
capabilities on the job.

The following actions are due and they need urgent attention.
 Writing to remind the Resource personnel for the proposed in-service training for
Accounts Clerks. The programme comes on early February.
 Compilation of quarterly report on the activities of the section on behalf of the

Personnel manager for the information of Board of Directors. The first draft must
reach the Personnel manager by next weekend.

THE RESUME (CURRICULM VITAE)
The resume, personal data and curriculum vitae are different names for a single document
which shows qualities and experience of a person. It is a document of personal advertisement
and its direct aim is to sell a person out to a prospective employer. It is an advertisement of a
person in the world of work. It is also a job-seeking or promotion seeking document. It is
sometimes used to help one gain admission into a course.
ASPECTS OF THE RESUME (CONTENT)
A. Personal Detail
B. Education
C. Experience
D. Reference
A. PERSONAL DETAILS
Details important here include:
Name : Sex:
Address: Marital Status:
Age : Nationality :
Date of Birth: Religious Denomination:
Home town: Language(s) spoken:
These are however not always arranged as listed above. Some of items may be left out.
B. EDUCATION
Indicate schools, colleges, universities attended with dates of attendance in chronological
order (beginning with the most recent; certificates, diplomas and degrees obtained, with their
dates, positions or offices held in the institutions attended). List the courses that have directly
prepared you for your career. State your position in class (i.e first, second class upper or
lower etc.) . For example,

SCHOOLS AND CETFICATES
a. Schools Attended :-
2000 - 2004 : Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
1974 - 1998 : Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
1986 - 1989: Advanced Teacher Training College, Winneba
1975 - 1979: Atebubu Training College
b. Degrees / Certificates Obtained :-
2004 - Master of Arts (comparative Literature)
1998 - Bachelor of Arts (Hons) English (2nd class)
1989 - Diploma in English (2nd Class upper Division)
1979- Tr‟s Certificate “A” 4 years (Distinction in Practice Teaching)
C. WORK EXPERIENCE
Indicate places /organizations/institutions you have worked in and in what capacity
including a brief job description. You must show accomplishments achieved. For
example:-
Served as Senior Marketing officer in charge of Research. Worked for the

establishment of marketing officers at Cape Coast, Asankragua, Oda and Mankessim.
Company sales had 60% growth in terms of general turn-over and 51% in respect of
customers. Proposed the establishment of Donwell Educational Insurance.
D. ACTIVITIES AND MEMBERSHIP

Chairman: PTA, Winneba Secondary School.
Chairman: Board of Directors, Akim Swedro
Member : Association of Marketing Managers
Member: Resurrection Presbyterian Church , Accra
E. SPECIAL INTEREST / HOBBY :-

Carrying out Researches
Engaging in a cause of freedom for all

Reading and listening to music.
F. REFERES
Give the name and address of at least three people who know you well and who can
vouch for your qualification, work experience and character. Ideally, one of them
would be your former lecturer/professor, academic counselor etc. another would be a
reputable person in the community such as a medical or legal practitioner, an
engineer, an educationist, a religious leader (belonging to the orthodox churches) a
banker etc. who knows you well; and a third might be a person or present one). Select
references (referees) who can speak with authority about your ability and character.
They should be people who have agreed to write strong positive assessments of you,
and not ones who know you hazily. Note that a non-committal or mediocre letter of
reference is more damage than no letter at all.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Listening is an active process of learning. It involves paying attention to sound and making
meaning out of the way it has been composed.
There are various reasons why we listen:-
(1) Listening for information

(2) Listening to evaluate
(3) Listening to empathize
(4) Listening for enjoyment
READING
Reading is not merely a physical or visual contact with written symbols. It is rather a way of
decoding interpreting or making from these symbols. There are basically two different kinds
of reading and these are „Reading aloud and Reading for comprehension (silent reading)‟
Reading aloud: emphasizes the ability to:
(a) Identify and pronounce words well.

(b) Read longer structures with correct intonation
(c) Observe punctuations and show its effects on reading
In adult years reading aloud features in such activities as new reading, public reading of
speech, bible lessons etc, and recitation of poetry. Here the emphasis is on pronouncing
words with correctness and clarity, and using stress, intonation and speed effectively are
marks of reading.
Reading for comprehension is the kind of reading which focuses on the direct meaning of
the text. It is a direct relationship between orthography (writing) and meaning. Phonetic
interpretation (as pronunciation) may not come in here at all and that is why we even expect
the deaf and the dump to be able to read and understand.
TECHNIQUES FOR READING
We attack printed or written material with different forms of focus and different level of
attachment. This is determined by what exactly we want from the text. Techniques of reading
refer to the different ways in which we achieve our objective for coming into contact with a
material. The three parts of this scenario corresponds to the three techniques of reading;
scanning, skimming and close reading.

SCANNING
This is an exercise to identify or locate some word/ expressions or figures in a written or

typed material. It is not to give per say but to find out the presence of the language item. In
scanning, one aims oneself in the following information; The spelling of words, the length of
composition of the word or the phrase, the nature and composition of a figure or number.
Scanning operates on the following characteristics;-
(1) The reader has an idea about the items he is looking for.
(2) Reading is a directed activity, which focuses on some specific items.
(3) Reading may not cover all the materials. It may for on certain places in the
alphabetical or numerical arrangement.
Information sought is usually short-words, expressions and figures.
Scanner manifests in such activities as:-
(1) Locating words in a dictionary

(2) Locating words, expressions, figures or names on an index or list.
(3) Identifying particular names, words, figures or expressions from a passage.
(4) Locating a book title form the list of books or catalogue.
(5) Locating a book title form a catalogue.
(6) Locating a book form a shelf using its name.
SKIMMING
Unlike scanning, skimming is a reading technique that aims at understanding or at obtaining

facts. It does not seek to identify words, figures or phrases. Rather, seeks to identify the gist
of a story or a text unlike close reading also, one does not skim a text to get it full meaning
and the details. It seeks to answer such question as what the gist of this story? What is the
gist of this passage or chapter about? What are the various element treated in this
passage/chapter etc.
Skimming is generally a fast reading which is expected to use as little time as possible.
Skimming thus, concentrates on the main or skeletal facts or ideas and not on details.
CLOSE READING
Unlike scanning and skimming, close reading aims at yielding the full meaning of a text. It
does not seek to identify particular structures nor to get the fist of a test. To this end, therefor
e all the various aspects of a text are important. If any close reading exercise is to be
effective. Such aspects of words are punctuation, graphology, paragraphing, style of
presentation, analytical descriptive etc.
Close reading is certainly the technique for the student or the researcher. The student in that
capacity must come into contact with any text in its fullness so as to make a full meaning or
get the details of the information it represent.
Close reading improves vocabulary. It also equips the student with the specialized vocabulary
is what we call meta language. The student of Economics, for instance, gets such
expressions as demand, supply, and scale of preference, utility and their specialized meaning
in the field of economics.
Similarly, does reading offers training in the art of writing. Whether for pleasure or for
academic or business purposes, close reading latently offers training on how best to organize
ones work in the ways listed below;
1. How to introduce or conclude ones easy or presentation.

2. How to introduce new points
3. Linking one paragraph to another Linking points
4. Artistic and effective way of making forceful presentation
THE PARAGRAHY.
A paragraph is described as a sections or sub-division of a chapter, letter etc. usually dealing

with a particular point. It is always begun on a new line and it other indented. Paragraphing
then involves creating a unit discourse. This unit and other should fit within the framework
and larger units, and can together be constitute a single unit of communication which could
be letter, article, chapter etc. paragraphing is not mere assemblage of facts and sentence but a
system of putting two or more sentences together to present a single a idea or focus. Here, a
long discourse especially in writing is divided up according to the various points or issues
that it is made up of. Then each such point or issue is introduced and developed in order to
make it contribute to the overall picture which is given by the letter, chapter or passage.
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
Paragraphs are often differentiated by their position and functions in a discourse. Under this
focus we may have mainstream and structural paragraphs.
Structural paragraphs
The introductory and concluding paragraphs as well as the transitional paragraph which links
different parts of an essay or letter are called structural paragraph. They are so called
because they do not actually discuss any particular point or issue. They function rather than
bringing out the structure or form of the essay.

(A) The introductory paragraph (or introduction)-General.
The introductory and concluding paragraphs of an essay generally constitute the

introduction. Three possible parts are seen in the introduction.
(1) The general introduction which introduces the focus and arrests readers‟ interest
(2) The focus which states the intentions or subject of the essay
The plan-which outlines the various points to be discussed in the paragraphs
Ways in which the general introduction is written.
a. With an interesting story/event

b. With a historical account
c. Form general to particular
d. With definition of important concept
e. With quotations
f. With rhetorical questions
g. With an opposite view
(B) The mainstream paragraph:-
The mainstream paragraph contains the topic or issue which is part of the Concern of the
topic as a whole. It selves to provide information that is germane to the discussion of the
topic or focus of the essay as a whole. It is these paragraph – the mainstream – which
generally have topic sentence.
The good mainstream paragraph should have three qualities and these are:-
(1) UNITY
(2) COHERENCE
(3) ADEQUACY OF DEVELOPMENT
UNITY:-
The unity of a paragraph is associated with its purpose, that is, what single message it is
intended to present to its readers or listeners. Thus the unity of a paragraph is a response to
the question. What part of the whole message do I want to present in this paragraph? Or what
is the purpose of this paragraph?
That a paragraph has unity means that all the sentence, ideas and image single purpose or
focus. Writers violate the principle of unity if he brings in any idea which does not contribute
this purpose or focus. The focus is usually expressed in the early part of the paragraph in the
topic sentence. It can also be discerned from ending the whole of the paragraph.

Unity is certainly not to be understood Just as unity of subject- which means that the
paragraph should talk about a single object, incident or person. No, it is rather a unity of
focus. This means that there could be different subjects but all this would be towards a single
aim or focus.
COHERENCE
Coherence refers to the ordered or logical arrangement of sentences and ideas in a paragraph.
A paragraph may have a single focus and thus exhibit unity, but it is still not considered a
good paragraph if these ideas are hoe haphazardly arranged.
If the paragraph has a coherence it means the ideas are arranged in a way as to ensure some
order. This order makes the reader be able to follow the train of thought of the writer and also
get vividly the relevant mental picture. A paragraph which exhibits the above character is
said to be chronologically coherent.
ADEQUACY
By adequacy, we me mean simply that the paragraph should not be short that is cannot
sufficiently prosecute the ideas of which it was written. At the same time, it should not be too
long, for more than necessary. For instance, a paragraph on the arms of government cannot be
adequately discussed if the legislature and the judiciary are discussed living the executive.
One may achieve adequacy with examples and illustration, explanation, definition and
especially details.
(C) The concluding paragraph:
The concluding paragraph may contain writer‟s impression of the essay he has written. It may
also help the writer to link his work to the larger world of experiences as he suggests
solutions. One may use the summary form of conclusion which in the reiteration of the thesis
of the essay.
Other ways through which we may write the conclusion part of a paragraph are:
(1) Referring to the cause of the issue discussed.
When the effect of the social issue is not concentrated only on the concluding part of the
essay, it may highlight them. This is the effective way of linking one‟s subject to the world
around it.

(2) Suggestive solutions:
Where the essay concentrates on the problems associated with a phenomenon, the confusion
could be used to suggest a number of ways in which the problem could be solved or
forestalled.
(3) Projecting into the future:
Such conclusions are usually used for trips that discuss an issue or phenomenon. One projects
into the future of the phenomenon by trying to foresee success or failure nor problems. One
also for sees the effect of the activities of individual or organization on the phenomenon. In
the real world, such conclusions give hope; create alertness and direct attention to pertinent
issues.
(4) Making deductions:
These deductions are the writer‟s personal judgment of the issue under consideration. They
are the conclusion he arrives at, through an in-depth appraised of the various factors at work,
and the nature of the issue as a whole.
The conclusion itself states generally with a summary of the main points raised in the main
body on the paper. The use „if……then‟ structure and the signpost “therefore” and “so” is
quite notable of deductive conclusions to link the facts and one‟s deductions.
(5) Taking a stand/ reiterating one’s stand:-
This generally occurs in argumentative topic or in topics in which one raised both the pros
and the cons of an issue. This kind of conclusion also involves some summary or a reiteration
of some pertinent facts on which one‟s stand is based. It could be an acceptance of a point or
a position or middle- way stand which seek to declare that the issue cannot be won by any of
the sides.
(6) Stating other areas of research
Max weber was clear to state that research must generate another research. This is done as a
result of arguments and the discussions one‟s research provokes, or the suggestions we make
at the end of our work. When we states other areas of research we are only drawing attention
to other areas would complement the claims, coverage and usefulness of one‟s own research.
THE TRANSITIONAL PARAGRAPH
Coherence is not needed only in the paragraph. The essay as a whole also needs to have co-
coherence so that the various things discussed in the paragraph are linked up in the sequence
and topic. The one of transitional words and phrase is one such device for coherence.
Sometimes also a paragraph is used for this purpose and that is the transitional paragraph.
Unlike the mainstream paragraph, the transitional is not used to state any point or facts about

the subject. It only serves as a link between parts of an essay. Its main business is to show the
change in focus and to show what discussions follow. Sometime it does this by referring back
to the preceding discussion.
The transitional paragraph is normally used when the essay is made up of distinct parts which
are cohered into a single argument or discussions. It seems to say „we have finish with this
part and what follows is another part of the discussion.‟ Transitional paragraphs helps to
prepare the reader for the succeeding parts of the discourse. Again, they help the reader to
follow the moment of the writer‟s discussions so that he could understand the writer‟s
argument better.
In a way the transitional paragraph is normally can be seen as the introductory paragraph of
the succeeding part of the essay. It contains the focus of the part of the essay. It contains the
focus of that part of the essay sometimes, by listing the various aspects to the discussed in the
subsequent paragraphs.
THE TOPIC SENTENCE
The Topic with its support sentence has been most explicit and effective way of ensuring the
unity, reference and development of paragraph. It is a sentence usually placed at the
beginning of a paragraph.
NOTE:
(1) Any sentence which states the focus of any paragraph- no matter its place in the
paragraph- can be described as the focus sentence or the theme sentence or topic
sentence
(2) Topic sentence usually occurs at the beginning part of the paragraphs, but they can
occur in the middle and the concluding part of the paragraph also.
(3) The topic sentence is the controlling idea of the paragraph. Each sentence or idea
must be directed towards this focus. The topic sentence is then a unifying force in the
paragraph. It is a restricting idea because that can be admitted into the paragraph.
There are two kinds‟ topic sentences. These are the simple and the complex. The simple
topic sentence just states the focus or subject of the paragraph without adding the form in
which the rest of the paragraph is giving to take. The complex one on the other hand goes
beyond this. It states in the additions of the subject, the skeleton on which the succeeding
part of the sentence would be based.
(a) THE INTERVIEW
An interview is a medium one-to-one or one-to –many interpersonal communications.
It is a planned interaction characterized by specific objectives.

Interviews involve an interaction between the interviewer (that is the person or persons
conducting the interview) and an interviewee (that is the person being interviewed).
TYPES:
Selection interview:- They are used to assess an applicant‟s suitability for employment (a
job or an appointment ); for placement; for promotion at office, for admission in an institution
or a training programme.
Information – gathering interviews:- These interviews conduct records or investigation to

ascertain the suitability of a person. They include market survey, audience survey, probes of
committees of enquiry.
Conflict – resolution interviews:- These are conducted to diffuse a potentially explosive

situation in an organization. They may be conducted to resolve grievances of staff or in
situations where there is a potential breakdown in relations between one organization and
another or between an organization and a customer or within the organization.
Hints to the interviewee during interview:
(1) Use your body language effectively

(2) Lister attentively and actively
(3) Put others at ease in order to persuade or smooth order difficult situations. Be
diplomatic.
(4) Read between the lines of a message by recognizing attitudes, dais, prejudice or
deliberate ambiguity.
(5) Construct and present logical views
(6) Recognize how much information and what kind of information the interviewer needs
(7) Convey enthusiasm, support, sympathy, trust and reliability. Be lively.
(8) Ask appropriate questions to elect relevant, complete and accurate information.
(9) Ask questions directly, briefly, and clearly too,
(10) Some interviews may deliberately antagonize you in other to observe your
reactions to stressful or vexatious situations. When it come compose yourself and
answer it in a very calm and polite atmosphere. Do not fill irritated or embarrassed
and consider it as one of the expected situations.
NOTE:
The follow – up for a selection interview may be for a successful interviewee you will
receive.
(a) Phone – call or a letter of appointment or admission. Most often you will be required
to write a:-

(b) Letter of acceptance – meaning that you accept the offer, the terms and condition of
appointment or admission. Respond immediately or at least before the end of the
expiry date on your letter offer.
(c) Job description. Job description spell out what schedule or task you will be
performing sometimes, they are included in the advertisement of a vacancy which
appears in the dailies. Otherwise you should be officially informed following your
appointment. This s done through the written medium.
The content of a job description includes the following:-
(i) The title of the job, department, section and job code number (if any); the person
to whom the job is responsible to etc.
(ii) Job summary – the main function or duty tools, machinery, and equipment needed
for the job.
(iii) Job sequence – list of the sequence of operation needed for the job i.e itemize
duties of the employee.
(iv) Working condition – structure and benefits opportunities for further training or
study, transfer, promotions, health matters, education etc.
(v) Objective and job expectations – what the employer expects the employee to
achieve at the end of the day. This is a criterion for appraisal of the employee‟s
performance (i.e. monthly or yearly assessment)
(vi) The name(s) and position(s) of a person(s) who has/have prepared and agreed to
the job description as well as the presentation of such description.
(d) Letter of refusal. A prompt and cordial letter of refusal should be written to the
organization or the institution which a job/admission, and which you may find
yourself unable to accept. Explain your reasons for not accepting the offer and
apologize for the inconvenience cause by your action, leaving the door open for future
possibilities.

SECTION A
Answer ONE question from section.
Write your answer in the answer booklet provided.
Q. 1. With a concise Memo of transmittal, write an investigative report on a theft case

that took place in your department. The report should be written for the Vice-
Chancellor of KNUST.
Q. 2 (a) clearly distinguish between the following pairs of documents.
(i) Solicited and unsolicited proposals
(ii) External and internal proposals
(iii) Invitation for Bid and Request or Application for Proposals.
(b) Write out CONCISELY the following
(i) The Cover or Title Page of a Proposal on the need for improvement in the service
delivery aspect of your department for the Chief Executive Officer.
(ii) Consequence(s) of the proposed action.
Q.3 (a) A reputable organization had placed an advert in one of the national dailies for
a HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER. With a carefully prepared resume, write to
apply for the job.
OR
(b) You have noticed that many organizations, including the West African
Examination Council continue to use some archaic forms in the formal letter format.
Write to the Chief Examiner of English pointing out the archaic forms and suggest a
modern format to improve the situation.
Q.4 As the secretary of a corporate body, write to invite members of the Executive
Committee to an emergency meeting assuming the said meeting has taken place, write
RESOLUTION MINUTES to record the proceedings.

Q.5The crowded section of a typical Third World city. Write to discuss any five barriers
to effect the communication that you are likely to meet, and how these affect your
life.
SECTION B
Answer all Questions in this section on the scan able sheet provided.
1. Minutes may take the following forms except

A. Narrative
B. Resolution
C. Action
D. Descriptive
2. The major purpose of curriculum vitae is to

A. Manipulate the would-be employer
B. Exhibit one‟s scholarship
C. Show all that one has done
D. Market an applicant‟s suitability for a job.
3. Which of the following statements is TRUE about the grapevine form of

communication
A. It is a gossip
B. It is communication within a person
C. It is a conscious spread of non-verbal cues
D. It has no actual sender nor receiver
4. Which of the following factors account for social noise?

A. Cultural, religious and political background
B. Cultural, religious and geographical location
C. Population, education and governance
D. Education, bad handwriting and governance
5. To brush over a text is known as

A. Glossing
B. Skimming
C. Scanning
D. Surveying
6. Intra personal communication

A. Involves an exchange between two parties
B. Takes place within an individual

C. It is an unorthodox approach to get a feedback
D. Takes place after giving a feedback
7. During meetings under which of the following titles would you expect reports by
committees and sub-committees and briefings by delegations who were assigned
duties previously.
A. Chairman‟s opening remarks
B. Matters Arising out of Minutes
C. Main Business of the Day
D. Any other business.
8. Communication becomes effective only when

A. Appositive feedback is given
B. An appropriate feedback is given
C. Interlocutors‟ voices are audible
D. The intention to communicate is nursed
9. One way of improving upward communication in an organization is by

A. Leading exemplary life.
B. Providing “Suggestion Boxes”
C. Organizing games among subordinates
D. Offering scholarship to workers‟ wards
10. Which of the following situations does not require a formal letter?
A. Application for employment
B. Invitation to a meeting
C. A petition to family members
D. A request for a leave of absence
11. All the following are the purposes of holding meetings except one
A. To take decisions
B. To relay information or instructions
C. To initiate participatory problem solving
D. To attend to individual needs of workers.
12. A message achieves “Congeniality” when it

A. Is in tune with our expectation
B. Builds hope in recipients
C. Observes confidentiality
D. Is relayed in a serene atmosphere
13. Which of these tasks does a secretary NOT perform in his club?

A. Convene meetings
B. Writing annual reports
C. Presiding over meetings
D. Prepares accounts.
14. Why would a speaker give a preview of the main points of his speech in his
introduction?
A. To establish the right to speak
B. To stimulate the interest of the audience
C. To display his scholarship
D. To secure the prompt response of the audience.
15. Identify the most authoritative communication channel from among the following.
A. Down ward channel
B. Upward channel
C. Horizontal channel
D. The grapevine
16. The difference between listening and hearing is that the former.
A. Involves a conscious effort
B. Requires a positive feedback.
C. Depends on productive skills
D. Needs occasional prompting
17. At which stage(s) does messages distortion largely occur?

A. Nursing the intention
B. Encoding and decoding
C. Interpretation of the messages
D. Nursing the intention and encoding
18. Which of the following complementary closes is conventionally paired with the
salutation. “Dear Sir.”
A. Yours truly
B. Yours‟ faithfully
C. Yours faithfully
D. Your‟s faithfully
19. Feedback in the communication process does all the following except that
A. It enables the source to know why the message was received
B. It enables the sender to ascertain if the receiver understood the messages
C. It enables the source to know the next line of action to take
D. It allows the sender to know if the messages got to its destination.
20. Ethnocentrism is an example of
A. Technical noise

B. Psychological noise
C. Physical noise
D. Social noise
21. The casting vote can only be used at a meeting when

A. There is an issue to the voted on
B. There is a tie in the voting process
C. Someone is absent and another person has to vote for him
D. Members have to vote two times on the same issue.
22. Which of the following parts feature in the long special report but not resist in the
short formal report?
A. Terms of reference, findings, bibliography, appendix
B. Title fly, title page, letter of transmittal, letter of authority
C. Title fly, letter of submission, bibliography, appendix
D. Title page, title fly, conclusion, bibliography
23. The relevance of methodology, bibliography, and appendix in the long special report
is
A. To make the report formal
B. To lend credibility to the methodology used
C. To lend credibility to the findings made in the report
D. To distinguish the long report from the short formal report
24. Which of the following is not true about grapevine form of communication?
A. It can be eradicated as a form of communication
B. Its source cannot be determined
C. It contains half truths
D. It spreads information in all direction
25. Which of the following features in letters but does not reflect in memos?
A. Signature
B. Name of the sender of the letter
C. Reference Number
D. Subscription
26. Which of the following forms of minutes are most suitable for court proceedings?
A. Narrative minutes
B. Action minutes

C. Verbatim minutes
D. Resolution minutes
27. An agenda can best be described as a list of

A. Issues to be transacted at a meeting
B. Item, in order of preference, to be followed at a meeting
C. Issues, in order of preference, to be discussed at a meeting
D. Items, to be discussed at the meeting.
28. The relevance of the job selection interview covers all the following, except that it
A. Enables the interviewer to select the best qualified applicants
B. Enables the employer to assess the intelligence of the interviewer
C. Gives the employer the opportunity to confirm his impressions about the applicant
D. Enables the interviewer to assess the intelligence of the interviewer.
29. The title of the minutes normally contains

A. The name of the organization, the day and date of meeting, the value and time of the
meeting
B. The title minutes, name of the organization, the date, venue, and the time of the
meeting
C. The title minutes, the name of the organization, the type of meeting, the day and date
Of the meeting, the venue and time of the meeting.
D. The name of the organization, the type of meeting, the date of the meeting, the venue
and time of the meeting.
30. The signature of authentication of the memo is written

A. At the end of the memo
B. Beside the name of the recipient
C. After the name of the writer
D. Anywhere the writer deems convenient
31. Pick the odd one out of the following

A. Impersonal communication
B. Interpersonal communication
C. Introspective communication
D. Interpersonal communication
32. When we go to class for lectures what type of listening do we do most?

A. Appreciative listing
B. Empathic listening
C. Informational listening
D. Evaluative listening

33. Which of the following true about listening?
A. We need to train ourselves to listen well
B. Listening and hearing are the same
C. Listening is primarily a passive activity
D. Listening means agreement and obedience.
34. Look me in the face and tell me again that you are coming from a board meeting at
this house. This statement is likely to come from a(n)
A. Adult
B. Daughter
C. Superior
D. Associate.
35. It is imperative for a good leader to

a. Exude confidence
b. Be a problem solver
c. Have a vision
d. Be self-serving and upright
36. Mr. Akoto is the General Manager of Kaiser Goldfields Limited, he is humble and
honest. What makes him exhibit these qualities?
a. He wants people to respect his views
b. All great leaders are humble
c. To enable his subordinates to approach him without fear
d. The mere thought of the possibility of failing his subordinates is humbling
37. The GEO of Nsorhwe Safety Wears and Boots Company, Kumasi has employed fifty workers
at his company. How can he ensure the rational co- ordination of the activities of the workers
in order to achieve the goals for which Nsorhwe Safety wears and Boots Company was
established?
a. Through the division of labour and function as well as through a hierarchy of authority
b. Through assigning functions to qualified personnel
c. By delegating authority to members of staff and monitoring their activities
d. By organizing in- service training for staff
38. The administrator of Jack and Jill School was directed by his boss to find out why enrolment
has dwindled and submit a survey report. we have here an example of
a. Downward communication
b. Upward communication
c. Vertical communication
d. Horizontal communication
39. Which one of these is not essential on a notice of a General Meeting?

a. Address of organization holding the meeting
b. A.O.B

c. Agenda of meeting
d. Signature of chairman
40. Mr. Ntiamoah, the CEO of Ntiamoah and Ntiamoah Company has introduced
suggestion boxes into the company, so that staff can submit suggestions. This desire is
to
a. Encourage the harnessed use of diagonal communication
b. Improve horizontal communication
c. Improve upward communication
d. Improve downward communication
41. One of the characteristics of an official document is that……

a. It is written by professionals
b. It is bereft of personal references
c. It is read only by company secretaries
d. It is written in response to an earlier communication
42. All these are ways in which self- concept affect communication except in terms of
a. Self – fulfilling prophecy
b. The selection of messages
c. Attitude towards communication situations
d. Social and psychological history
43. Pick the odd one out

a. Feeling equal to other persons
b. Over- responsive to praise
c. Sensitivity to criticism
d. Hypercritical attitude
44. People are assessed not only on the subject they speak on, or what fact they have but
also for how the mass of information has been
a. Illustrated
b. Selected
c. Organized
d. Analyzed
45. Another name for the initiator of a communication process is

a. Source
b. Receiver
c. public speaker
d. commentator
46. the element of communication called „the channel‟ is made up of

a. packaging and transmission of information

b. giving and receiving information
c. listening and talking of information
d. observing and analyzing information
47. in communication, you must show all the following but

a. adequate knowledge of the subject
b. observe interpersonal expectations
c. conform to rules of language
d. be prepared to assess the initiator
48. Under chronemic non- verbal communication is

a. relation with appointed time
b. eye contact with people
c. friendly and warm touch
d. facial expression
49. types of interviews include ………………………… interviews

a. probing
b. leading
c. employment
d. mirror
50. The stages of effective listening are, choosing what to hear, concentrating,
understanding, feedback and …………………….
a. Recall
b. Education
c. Differentiation
d. Referral
51. Intensive listening is associated with

a. Knowledge
b. Instructions
c. Conversation
d. Information
52. Pick the odd one out

a. Gives access to information
b. Enables us to crosscheck information
c. Helps us to do revision
d. Helps us think aloud
53. Class reading refers to ……………. and ………….. paying attention to ……………
a. Active, enjoyable, reading
b. Skimming, scanning, books

c. Thorough, detailed , text
d. Locating, familiarization, books
54. Some reading faults result from

a. Reading under psychological stress
b. Memorizing of vocabulary
c. Retention of read passage
d. Enhancement of left to right eye movement
55. Normally the nature of relationship between people and also one‟s attitude to conduct
of things around one, therefore the levels of formality are
a. Colloquial
b. Familiar
c. Informal
d. Formal
56. A feature of the formal level of communication is

a. Strict grammar
b. A picture square imagery
c. Emotional attachment
d. Profuse use of adjective adverbs
57. In order to communicate effectively in the written mode one must do all the following
but
a. Prepare well
b. Outline one‟s message carefully
c. Think personally
d. Practice one‟s speech
58. One way to improve self-concept is to

a. Invent theories about one
b. Drop all false masks
c. Be with people
d. Create room for gossip
59. The VC has been asked recommend a group of students for scholarship. Which of the
following is not one of the things he will include?
a. The duration of the course
b. How much money is involved
c. What courses the students will study
d. The beauty of the university campus
60. Which of the under listed is recommended as the language of a report?

a. Connotative

b. Denotative
c. Emotive
d. Informal
61. In writing a formal letter, we have to be careful with the format. Identify the
most……… of the structure below
a. Indentation
b. Full block
c. Half block
d. Quarter block
62. The main objective of a confrontational interview is to

a. Select the best person for a job
b. Embarrass the interviews
c. Show how a person reacts under pressure
d. Help screen candidates when they are too many
63. Handouts have the following disadvantages except

a. It helps the audience to be inattentive
b. People may even absent themselves
c. It eliminates the need for note taking
d. It serves as a permanent reference
64. The letter that accompanies a report is known as

a. Terms of reference
b. Letter of transmittal
c. Hierarchy of authority
d. Memorandum of understanding
65. All the following refer to the arrangement of power structures in an organization
except
a. Hierarchy of authority
b. Lines of authority
c. Chain of command
d. Participatory structures
61. The letters that accompanies a report is known as

a. Terms of reference
b. Letter of transmittal
d. Memorandum of understanding
62. Which is the first step in the communication process?

a. The impulse to communicate
b. Encoding the message

c. Transmitting the message
d. Planning the message
63. This type of communication in an organization when the middle man is by-passed is
called?
a. Horizontal communication
b. Vertical communication
c. Diagonal communication
d. Downward communication
64. One of most critical illiteracies of the 21st century is

a. Media literacy
b. Information literacy
c. Technological literacy
d. Functional literacy
65. One disadvantage of non-verbal communication is

a. Its diagonal nature
b. The humour it creates
c. Its potential ambiguity
d. Its comic and interesting nature
66. The following are all problems of reading except

a. Lack of comprehension
b. The death of the reading culture
c. Ineffective reading instruction
d. Sentence reversals in reading
67. Minutes which record detail the proceedings at a meeting is

a. Narrative minutes
b. Action minutes
c. Resolution minutes
d. A combination of C and B
68. The basic skills of communication most used in life is

a. Reading
b. Listening
c. Writing
d. Speaking
69. Most advertisements appeal to our

a. Senses
b. Emotions
c. Reason

d. Sentiments
70. One of the greatest barriers to listening is

a. Specialization
b. Division of labour
d. Division of function
71. If a reader wants an idea as to the contents of an article he does so through

a. Browsing
b. Editing
c. Scanning
d. Skimming
72. Conversation, letters, speeches, manuals are avenues through which

a. Needs are expressed
b. Marketing companies reach out to customers
c. The entrepreneur ensures that his staff is well motivated
d. Appraisals are given to subordinators
73. Konkontiba met Odehye his friend at pool party. He waved at Odehye and moved on
to have a drink. Konkontiba‟s non- verbal communication is meant to
a. ignore Odehyee
b. acknowledge the presence of Odehyee
c. Spite Odehye
d. To forestall a rather long chat with Odehye
74. Identify the option which best illustrates credibility

a. The headmaster of Oguaa Senior High School has announced that members of staff
who do not have their Master‟s Degree would be forced to proceed on voluntary
retirement.
b. The security officer has instructed all students to contribute money towards the
purchase of security dogs.
c. The head Potter has instructed all students to lock their door before leaving for
lectures
d. The managing Director‟s wife instructed all workers to eat at her canteen
75. In order to ensure that his wife‟s canteen is patronized by students, the headmaster
instructed all food vendors at the school to sell only sachet water and biscuits. This
situation illustrates
a. Congeniality
b. Perceived authority
c. Perceived intention
d. Perceived congeniality

76. The lizard that fell from the high iroko tree praised itself for surviving that height. The
lizard here is practicing
a. Interpersonal communication
b. Ultra personal communication
c. Intrapersonal communication
d. Impersonal communication
77. Another name for impersonal communication is

a. Mass communication
b. One-on-one communication
c. Objective communication
d. Large audience communication
78. What interpretation would you give to the behaviour of a listener who narrows his
eyes as he listens to a story from a friend?
a. Mistrust
b. Admiration
c. Amazed
d. Surprised
79. Which one of these is not a pointer to personal problems which can pollute the
atmosphere of work?
a. A worker who comes to work drunk and unkempt
b. A sticker of time to starts playing truant
c. An efficient messenger who demands money from clients
d. A secretary who puts on gloves and eyelashes to work
80. A potent index to one‟s personality is realized through his/her

a. Brisk proven acts
b. Attitude to work
c. Grooming and dress code
d. Curriculum vitae
81. Communication occurs when

a. The sender and the receiver have shared the meaning of the message
b. When the receiver gives feedback to the sender
c. When the sender uses the right channel of communication
d. When the message is congenial to the receiver
82. As professor Tenteh lectured, a black bird flew into the class, perched on his head and
chirped for three minutes before flying away. This constitutes ………………. In
communication.
a. Superstitious noise

b. Technical noise
c. Psychological noise
d. Physical noise
83. Which one of these is a good personal attribute of an office worker?

a. Preparedness to work beyond the official working hours
b. Exercise for thirty minutes after close of work
c. Socializing with friends after work
d. Initiating the lifestyle of the C.E.O

2012 END OF SEMESTER

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ENGLISH 158; FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER

COMMUNICATION SKILLS SCHEME OF WORK

D. COMMUNICATION SKILLS (DEVELOPMENT)

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Communication is very crucial to existence so when we communicate it is an attempt to solve

In all these, we are involved in communication because we receive some information to

Communication can thus, be understood as a process (of transmitting and receiving

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Source Message / Information

Destination Message/ information

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1. The intra- personal communication:-

Things to note about the intra – personal communication.

 it involves the mental attempts to receive linguistic and non-linguistic stimuli

2. The inter – personal communication : -

 Monolineal forms (one –way out forms) i.e

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 Bilineal forms (give – and – take forms) i. e

3. The impersonal communications:-

Public communication thus, tends to be business oriented. Example of such

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Forms of non- verbal communication

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1. To initiate Action by passing on a message/information.

2. To import information, ideas, opinions etc. in order to create understanding or

For a message to be credible

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Distortion refers to a change in the meaning of a message or information so that it is no

Distortion occurs in the following ways:

i. “He had a cup/cap in his traveling bag.”

 When unfamiliar or unexplained pictures, diagrams etc. are used to communicate.

Noise refers to distraction / interferences in the environment in which communication takes

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1. Physical Noise – e. g Other people talking in the place of communication, passing

2. Social noise – interference created by differences in

3. Technical noise: this is a failure or breakdown of the medium or channel of

5. Code of credibility due to poor preparation and presentation.

6. Poor listening or poor reading skills, loss of concentration.

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12. Choosing an unsuitable channel or medium of communication.

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In organizations, communication flow is mostly downward, upward and horizontal.

This kind of communication is carried out from superior to subordinate.

This is communication from subordinate to superior.

b. A report from a subordinate on a task he has been assigned to perform.

c. A comment about the organization‟s policies or practice by a subordinate

e. A suggestion about what needs to be done, how it is to be done.

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i. Institute – inter –sectional or inter – departmental work teams or committee and

iii. Encourage peer counseling as a means of resolving conflicts

iv. Appoint a communicator as a sort of liaison officer to promote communication

Improving downward communication

i. Management should institute systems and mechanisms such as holding for,

ii. Management should establish in each organisation a culture of communication.

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v. Insists on good communication skills as recruitment, appraisal of work and

vi. Encourage staff to communicate confidently without fear of victimization.