1321160

The Right to Privacy
Author(s): Samuel D. Warren and Louis D. Brandeis

Source: Harvard Law Review, Vol. 4, No. 5 (Dec. 15, 1890), pp. 193-220
Published by: The Harvard Law Review Association
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HARVYARD
LAW REVIEW.
VOL. IV. DECEMBER I5, 1890. NO. 5.
THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY.
"It could be done only on principles of private justice, moral fitness,

and public convenience, which, when applied to a new subject, make
common law without a precedent; much more when rece:ved and
approved by usage."
WILLES, J., in Millar v. Taylor, 4 Burr. 2303, 2312.
THAT the individual shall have full protection in person and

in property is a principle as old as the common law; but
it has been found necessary from time to time to define anew the
exact nature and extent of such protection. Political, social, and
economic changes entail the recognition of new rights, and the
common law, in its eternal youth, grows to meet the demands of
society. Thus, in very early times, the law gave a remedy only
for physical interference with life and property, for trespasses vi
et arrmis. Then the "right to life" served only to protect the
subject from battery in its various forms; liberty meant freedom
from actual restraint ; and the right to property secured to the in-
dividual his lands and his cattle. Later,there came a recognition of
man's spiritual nature, of his feelings and his intellect. Gradually
the scope of these legal rights broadened; and now the right to
life has come to mean the right to enjoy life,-the right to be let
alone ; the right to liberty secures the exercise of extensive civil
privilegces; and the term " property " has grown to comprise every
form of lpossession -intangible, as well as tangible.
Thus, with the recognition of the legal value of sensations, the
protection against actual bodily injury was extended to prohibit
mere attempts to do such injury; that is, the putting another in

194 HARD HAR LA WVRE VIE W.
fear of such injury. From the action of battery grew that of as-
sault.1 Much later there came a qualified protection of the indi-
vidual against offensive noises and odors, against dust and smoke,
and excessive vibration. The law of nuisance was developed.2 So
regard for human emotions soon extended the scope of personal
immunity beyond the body of the individual. His reputation, the
standing among his fellow-men, was considered, and the law of
slander and libel arose.3 Man's family relations became a part of
the legal conception of his life, and -the alienation of a wife's affec-
tions was held remediable.4 Occasionally the law halted,- as in
its refusal to recognize the intrusion by seduction upon the honor of
the family. But even here the demands of society were met. A
mean fiction, the action per quod servitium amisit, was resorted to,
and by allowing damages for inj ury to the parents' feelings, an ade-
quate remedy was ordinarily afforded.5 Similar to the expansion
of the rigrht to life was the growth of the legal conception of
property. From corporeal property arose the incorporeal rights
issuing out of it; and then there opened the wide realm of
intangible property, in the products and processes of the mind,6
'Year Book, Lib. Ass., folio 99, pl. 6b (1348 or I349), appears to be the firstreported
case where damages were recovered for a civil assault.
2 These nuisances are technically injuries to property; but the recognition of the
right to have property free from interference by such nuisances involves also a recogni-
tion of the value of human sensations.
8 YearBook, Lib. Ass., folio I77, pL I9 (1356), (2 Finl. Reeves Eng. Law, 395)
seems to be the earliest reported case of an action for slander.
4 Winsmore v. Greenbank, Willes, 577 (I 745).
6 Loss of service is the gist of the action; but it has been said that " we are not aware
of any reported case brought by a parent where the value of such services was held to be
the measure of damages." Cassoday, J., in Lavery v. Crooke, 52 Wis. 612, 623 (188I).
First the fiction of constructive service was invented; Martin v. Payne, 9 John. 387
(I8I2). Then the feelings of the parent, the dishonor to himself and his family, were
accepted as the most important element of damage. Bedford v. McKowl, 3 Esp. I I9
(i8oo); Aiidrews v. Askey, 8C. & P. 7 (I837); Phillips v. Hoyle, 4 Gray, 568 (i855);
Phelin v. Kenderdine, 20 Pa. St. 354 (1853). The allowance of these damages would
seem to be a recognition that the invasion upon the honor of the family is an injury to
the parent's person, for ordinarily mere injury to parental feelings is not an element of
damage, e. 9 , the suffering of the parent in case of physical injury to the child. Fleming-
ton v. Smithers, 2 C. & P. 292 (1827); Black v. Carrolton R. R. Co., IO La. Ann. 33
(I835); Covington Street Ry. Co. v. Packer, 9 Bush, 455 (1872).
6 "The notion of Mr. Justice Yates that nothing is property which cannot be ear-
marked and recovered in detinue or trover, may be true in an early stage of society, when
property is in its simple form, and the remedies for violation of it also simple, but is not
true in a more civilized state, when the relations of life and the interests arising there.
from are complicated." Erle, J., in Jefferys v. Boosey, 4 H. L. C. 8I 5 869 (I854).

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY. I95
as works of literature and art, goodwill, 2 trade secrets, and trade-

marks. 3
This development of the law was inevitable. The intense in-
tellectual and emotional life, and the heightening of sensations
which came with the advance of civilization, made it clear to men
that only a part of the pain, pleasure, and profit of life lay in phys-
ical things. Thoug-hts, emotions, and sensations demanded legal
recognition, and the beautiful capacity for growth which character-
izes the common law enabled the judges to afford the requisite
protection, without the interposition of the legislature.
Recent inventions and business methods call attention to the
next step which must be taken for the protection of the person,
and for securing to the individual what Judge Cooley calls the
right "to be let alone. " 4 Instantaneous photographs and news-
paper enterprise have invaded the sacred precincts of private and
domestic life; and numerous mechanical devices threaten to make
good the prediction that " what is whispered in the closet shall be
proclaimed from the house-tops." For years there has been a
feeling that the law must afford some remedy for the unauthorized
circulation of portraits of private persons ; and the evil of the
invasion of privacy by the newspapers, long keenly felt, has been
but recently discussed by an able writer.6 The alleged facts of a
somewhat notorious case brought before an inferior tribunal in
New York a few months ago, i directly involved the consideration
Copyright appears to have been first recognized as a species of private property in
England in I558. Drone on Copyright, 54, 6i.
2 Gibblett v. Read, 9 Mod. 459 ( I 743 ), is probably the first recognition of goodwill
as property.
3 Hlogg v. Kirby, 8 Ves. 2I5 (I803). As late as I742 Lord Hardwicke refused to
treat a trade-mark as property for infringement upon which an injunction could be
granted. Blanchard v. Hill, 2 Atk. 484.
4 Cooley on Torts, 2d ed., p. 29.
5 8 Amer. Law Reg. N. S. I ( I869); I2 Wash. Law Rep. 353 ( I884); 24 Sol. J. &
Rep. 4(1879).
6Scribner's Magazine, July, I890. "The Rights of the Citizen: To his Reputa-
tion," by E. L. Godkin, Esq., pp. 65, 67.
7 Marion Manola v. Stevens &Myers, N. Y. Supreme Court "New York Times " of June
15, I8, 2 I, I 890. There the complainant alleged that while she was playing in the Broad-
way Theatre, in a r6le which required her appearancein tights, she was, by means of a flash
light, photographed surreptitiously and without her consent, from one of the boxes by
defendant Stevens, the manager of the " Castle in the Air " company, and defendant
Myers, a photographer, and prayed that the defendants might be restrained from making
use of the photograph taken. A preliminary injunction issued exparte, and a time was
set for argument of the motion that the injunction should be made permanent, but no
one then appeared in opposition.

I96 HAR VARD LA WVRE VIE W.
of the right of circulating portraits; and the question whether our

law will recognize and protect the right to privacy in this and in
other respects must soon come before our courts for consideration.
Of the desirability - indeed of the necessity - of some such
protection, there can, it is believed, be no doubt. The press is
overstepping in every direction the obvious bounds of propriety
and of decency. Gossip is no longer the resource of the idle
and of the vicious, but has become a trade, which is pursued
with industry as well as effrontery. To satisfy a prurient taste the
details of sexual relations are spread broadcast in the columns of
the daily papers. To occupy the indolent, column upon column
is filled with idle gossip, which can only be procured by intrusion
upon the domestic circle. The intensity and complexity of life,
attendant upon advancing civilization, have rendered necessary
some retreat from the world, and man, under the refining influence
of culture, has become more sensitive to publicity, so that solitude
and privacy have become more essential to the individual; but
modern enterprise and invention have, through invasions upon his
privacy, subjected him to mental pain and distress, far greater
than could be inflicted by mere bodily injury. Nor is the harm
wrought by such invasions confined to the suffering of those who
may be made the subjects of journalistic or other enterprise. In
this, as in other branches of commerce, the supply creates the
demand. Each crop of unseemly gossip, thus harvested, becomes
the seed of more, and, in direct proportion to its circulation, re-
sults in a lowering of social standards and of morality. Even
gossip apparently harmless, when widely and persistently circu-
lated, is potent for evil. It both belittles and perverts. It belittles
by inverting the relative importance of things, thus dwarfing
the thoughts and aspirations of a people. When personal gossip
attains the dignity of print, and crowds the space available for
matters of real interest to the community, what wonder that the
ignorant and thoughtless mistake its relative importance. Easy of
comprehension, appealing to that weak side of human nature
which is never wholly cast down by the misfortunes and frailties
of our neighbors, no one can be surprised that it usurps the place
of interest in brains capable of other things. Triviality destroys
at once robustness of thought and delicacy of feeling. No enthu-
siasm can flourish, no generous impulse can survive under its
blighting influence.

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY. ' 97
It is our purpose to consider whether the existing law affords a

principle which can properly be invoked to protect the privacy of
the individual; and, if it does, what the nature and extent of such
protection is.
Owing to the nature of the instruments by which privacy is in-

vaded, the injury inflicted bears a superficial resemblance to the
wrongs dealt with by the law of slander and of libel, while a legal
remedy for such injury seems to involve the treatment of mere
wounded feelings, as a substantive cause of action. The principle
on which the law of defamation rests, covers, however, a radically
different class of effects from those for which attention is now asked.
It deals only with damage to reputation, with the injury done to
the individual in his external relations to the community, by lower-
ing him in the estimation of his fellows. The matter published of
him, however widely circulated, and however unsuited to publicity,
must, in order to be actionable, have a direct tendency to injure
him in his intercourse with others, and even if in writingror in print,
must subject him to the hatred, ridicule, or contempt of his fellow-
men,- the effect of the publication upon his estimate of himself
and upon his own feelings not forming an essential element in
the cause of action. In short, the wrongs and correlative rights
recognized by the law of slander and libel are in their nature
material rather than spiritual. That branch of the law simply
extends the protection surrounding physical property to certain
of the conditions necessary or helpful to worldly prosperity. On
the other hand, our law recognizes no principle upon which
compensation can be granted for mere injury to the feelings.
However painful the mental effects upon another of. an act, though
purely wanton or even malicious, yet if the act itself is otherwise
lawful, the suffering inflicted is damnum absque injuria. Injury of
feelings may indeed be taken account of in ascertaining the amount
of damages when attending what is recognized as a legal injury ;
1 Though the legal value of "feelings" is now generally recognized, distinctions
have been drawn between the several classes of cases in which compensation may or
may not be recovered. Thus, the fright occasioned by an assault constitutes a cause of
action, but fright occasioned.by negligence does not. So fright coupled with bodily
injury affords a foulndation for enhanced damages; but, ordinarily,fright unattended by
of
bodily injury cannot be relied upon as an element of damages,even where a valid cause
action exists, as in trespass quare clausum fregit. Wvman v. Leavitt, 7I Me. 227; Can-
ning 7. Williamstown, I Cush.451. The allowance of damages for injury to the parents'

I98 HAR VARD LA W RE VIE W.
but our system, unlike the Roman law, does not afford a remedy
even for mental suffering which results from mere contumely and
insult, from an intentional and unwarranted violation of the
"honor " of another.'
It is not however necessary, in order to sustain the view that
the common law recognizes and upholds a principle applicable
to cases of invasion of privacy, to invoke the analogy, which is
but superficial, to injuries sustained, either by an attack upon
reputation or by what the civilians called a violation of honor;
for the legal doctrines relating to infractions of what is ordinarily
termed the common-law right to intellectual and artistic property
are, it is believed, but instances and applications of a general right
to privacy, which properly understood afford a remedy for the
evils under consideration.
The common law secures to each individual the right of deter-
mining, ordinarily, to what extent his thoughts, sentiments, and
emotions shall be communicated to others.2 Under our system
of government, he can never be compelled to express them
(except when upon the witness-stand); and even if he has
chosen to give them expression, he generally retains the power
to fix the limits of the publicity which shall be giveni them.
The existence of this right does not depend upon the particular
feelings, in case of seduction, abduction of a child (Stowe v. Heywood, 7 All. i I8), or

removal of the corpse of child from a burial-ground (Meagher v. Driscoll, 99 Mass.
28I), are said to be exceptions to a general rule. On the other hand, injury to feelings
is a recognized element of damages in actions of slander and libel, and of malicious
prosecution. These distinctions between the cases, where injury to feelings does and
where it does not constitute a cause of action or legal element of damages, are not logi-
cal, but doubtless serve well as practical rules. It will, it is believed, be found, upon ex-
amination of the authorities, that wherever substantial mental suffering would be the
natural and probable result of the act, there compensation for injury to feelings has been
allowed, and that where no mental suffering would ordinarily result, or if resulting, would
naturally be but trifling,and,being unaccompanied by visible signs of injury,would afford
a wide scope for imaginative ills, there damages have been disallowed. The decisions on
this subject illustrate well the subjection in our law of logic to common-sense.
1" Injuria, in the narrower sense, is every intentional and illegal violation of
honour, i.e., the whole personality of another." " Now an outrage is committed not
only when a man shall be struck with the fist, say, or with a club, or even flogged, but
also if abusive language has been used to one." Salkowski, Roman Law, p. 668
and p. 669, n. 2.
261 It is certain every man has a right to keep his own sentiments, if he pleases.
He has certainly a right to judge whether he will make them public, or commit them
only to the sight of his friends." Yates, J., in Millar v. Taylor, 4 Burr. 2303, 2379
(1769).

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY. I99
method of expression adopted. It is immaterial whether it be by

word 1 or by signs,2 in painting,3 by sculpture, or in music.4
Neither does the existence of the right depend upon the nature or
value of the thought or emotion, nor upon the excellence of the
means of expression.5 The same protection is accorded to a
casual letter or an entry in a diary and to the most valuable poem
or essay, to a botch or daub and to a masterpiece. In every
such case the individual is entitled to decide whether that which
is his slhall be given to the public.6 No other has the right to
publish his productions in any form, without his consent. This
right is wholly independent of the material on which, or the
means by which, the thought, sentiment, or emotion is expressed.
It may exist independently of any corporeal being, as in words
spoken, a song sung-, a drama acted. Or if expressed on any
material, as a poem in writing, the author may have parted with
the paper, without forfeiting any proprietary right in the com-
position itself. The right is lost only when the author himself
communicates his production to the public,-in other words,
l Nicols v. Pitman, 26 Ch. D. 374 (1884).

2 Lee v. Simpson, 3 C. B. 871, 88I; Daly v. Palmer, 6 Blatchf. 256.
8 Turner v. Robinson, IO Ir. Ch. 12I; s. c. ib. 510.
4 Drone on Copyright, 102.
5 " Assuming the law to be so, what is its foundation in this respect ? It is not, I
conceive, referable to any consideration peculiarly literary. Those with whom our com-
mon law originated had not probablyamong their many merits that of being patrons of
letters; but they knew the duty and necessity of protecting property, and with that gen-
eral object laid down rules providently expansive,- rules capable of adapting them-
selves to the various forms and modes of property which peace and cultivation might
discover and introduce.
"The produce of mental labor, thoughts and sentiments, recorded and preserved by
writing, became, as knowledge went onward and spread, and the culture of man's ulnder-
standing advanced, a kind of property impossible to disregard, and the interference of
modern legislation upon the subject, by the stat. 8 Anne, professing by its title to be
' For the encouragement of learning,' and using the words 'taken the liberty,' in the
preamble, whether it operated in augmentation or diminution of the private rights of
authors, having left them to some extent untouched, it was found that the co-nmon law,
in providing for the protection of property, provided for their security, at least before
general pub)licationby the writer's consent." Knight Bruce, V. C., in Prince Albert v.
Strange, 2 DeGcx & Sm. 652, 695 (I849).
6 "The question, however, does not turn upon the form or amount of mischief or ad-
vantage, loss or gain. The author of manuscripts, whether he is famous or obscure,
low or high, has a right to say of them, if innocent, that whether interesting or dull,
light or heavy, saleable or uinsaleable, they shall not, without his consent, be pub-
lished." Knight Bruce, V. C., in Prince Albert v. Strange, 2 DeGex & Sm. 652, 694.

200
o IAR VARD LA W RE VIE W.
publishes it.1 It is entirely independent of the copyright laws,

and their extension into the domain of art. The aim of those
statutes is to secure to the author, composer, or artist the entire
profits arising from publication ; but the common-law protection
enables him to control absolutely the act of publication, and in the
exercise of his own discretion, to decide whether there shall be
any publication at all.2 The statutory right is of no value, unless
there is a publication; the common-law right is lost as soon as
there is a publication.
What is the nature, the basis, of this right to prevent the pub-
lication of manuscripts or works of art ? It is stated to be the
enforcement of a right of property; 3 and no difficulty arises in
accepting this view, so long as we have only to deal with the re-
production of literary and artistic compositions. They certainly
possess many of the attributes of ordinary property: they are
transferable; they have a value; and publication or reproduction
is a use by which that value is realized. But where the value of
the production is found not in the right to take the profits arising
from publication, but in the peace of mind or the relief afforded
by the ability to prevent any publication at all, it is difficult to
regard the rig-ht a!s one of property, in the common acceptation
1 Duke of Queensberry v. Shebbeare, 2 Eden, 329 (I 758); Bartlett v. Crittenden,

5 McLean, 32, 4 1 (I849).
2 Drone on Copyright, pp. 102, 104; Parton v. Prang, 3 Clifford, 537, 548 (1872);
Jefferys v. Boosey, 4 H. L. C. 8i5, 867, 962 (1854).
3 "The question will be whether the bill has stated facts of which the court can take
notice, as a case of civil property, which it is bound to protect. The injunction cannot
be maintained on any principle of this sort, that if a letter has been written in the way
of friendship, either the continuance or the discontinuance of the friendship affordsa rea-
son for the interference of the court." Lord Eldon in Gee v. Pritchard, 2 Swanst. 402,
4I3 (I8I8).
"Upon the principle, therefore, of protecting property, it is that the common law, in
cases not aided or prejudiced by statute, shelters the privacy and seclusion of thought
and sentiments committed to writing, and desired by the author to remain not generally
known." Knight Bruce, V. C., in Prince Albert v. Strange, 2 DeGex & Sm. 652, 695.
" It being conceded that reasons of expediency and public policy can never be made
the sole basis of civil jurisdiction, the question, whether upon any ground the plaintiff
can be entitled to the relief which he claims, remains to be answered; and it appears to
us that there is only one ground upon which his title to claim, and our jurisdiction to
gTant, the relief, can be placed. We must be satisfied, that the publication of private
letters, without the consent of the writer, is an invasion of an exclusive right of prop-
erty which remains in the writer, even when the letters have been sent to, and are still
in the possession of his correspondent." Duer, J., in Woolsey, v. Judd, 4 Duer, 379, 384
(1855).

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY. 20I
of that term. A man records in a letter to his son, or in his

diary, that he did not diine with his wife on a certain day. No
one into whose hands those papers fall could publish them to the
world, even if possession of the documents had been obtained
rightfully; and the prohibition would not be confined to tne
publication of a copy of the letter itself, or of the diary entry;
the restraint extends also to a publication of the contents. What
is the thing which is protected ? Surely, not the intellectual act
of recording the fact that the husband did not dine with his wife,
but that fact itself. It is not the intellectual product, but the
domestic occurrence. A man writes a dozen letters to different
people. No person would be permitted to publish a list of the
letters written. If the letters or the contents of the diary were
protected as literary compositions, the scope of the pro-
tection afforded should be the same secured to a published
writing under the copyright law. But the copyright law would
not prevent an enumeration of the letters, or the publication of
some of the facts contained therein. The copyright of a series
of paintings or etchings would prevent a reproduction of the
paintings as pictures; but it would not prevent a publication of a
list or even a description of them.1 Yet in the famous case of
1 " A work lawfully published, in the populai sense of the term, stands in this respect,
I conceive, differently from a work which has never been in that situation. The former
may be liable to be translated, abridged, analyzed, exhibited in morsels, complimented,
and otherwise treated, in a manner that the latter is not.
" Suppose, however,- instead of a translation, an abridgment, or a review,- the case
of a catalogue,- suppose a man to have composed a variety of literary works (' inno-
cent,' to use Lord Eldon's expression), which he has never printed or published, or lost
the right to prohibit from being published,- suppose a knowledge of them unduly ob-
tained by some unscrupulousperson, who prints with a view to circulation a descriptive
catalogue, or even a mere list of the manuscripts, without authority or consent, does the
law Sallowthis? I hope and believe not. The same principles that prevent more candid
piracy must, I conceive, govern such a case also.
' By publishing of a man that he has written to particular persons, or on particular
subjects, he may be exposed, not merely to sarcasm, he may be ruined. There may be
in his possession returned letters that he had written to former correspondents, with
whom to have had relations, however harmlessly, may not in after life be a recommen-
dation; or his writings may be otherwise of a kind squaring in no sort with his outward
habits and worldlypusition. There are callings even now in which to be convicted of
literature, is dangerous, though the danger is sometimes escaped.
" Again, the manuscripts may be those of a man on account of whose name alone a
mere list would be matter of general curiosity. Ilow many persons could be men-
tioned, a catalogue of whose unpublished writings would, during their lives or after-
wards, command a ready sale !" Knight Bruce, V. C., in Prince Albert v. Strange, 2 De
Gex & Sm. 652, 693.

202 HAR VARD LA W. RE VIE W.
Prince Albert v. Strange, the court held that the common-law

rule prohibited not merely the reproduction of the etchings which
the plaintiff and Queen Victoria had made for their own pleasure,
but also " the publishing (at least by printing- or writing), though
not by copy or resemblance, a description of them, whether more
or less limited or summary, whether in the form of a catalogue
or otherwise." ' Likewise, an unpublished collection of news pos-
sessing no element of a literary nature is protected from piracy.2
That this protection cannot rest upon the right to literary or
artistic property in any exact sense, appears the more clearly'
' "A copy or impression of the etchings would only be a means of communicating
knowledge and information of the original, and does not a list and description of the
same? The means are different, but the object and effect are similar; for in both, the
object and effect is to make known to the public more or less of the unpublished work
and composition of the author, which he is entitled to keep wholly for his private use
and pleasure, and to withhold altogether, or so far as he may please, from the knowledge
of others. Cases upon abridgments, translations, extracts, and criticisms of published
works have no reference whatever to the present question; they all depend upon the
extent of right under the acts respecting copyright, and have no analogy to the exclusive
rights in the author of unpublished compositions which depend entirely upon the com-
mon-law right of property." Lord Cottenham in Prince Albert v. Strange,,IMcN.& G.
23, 43 (i 849). "Mr. Justice Yates, in Millar v. Taylor, said, that an auLhor'scase was
exactly similar to that of an inventor of a new mechanical macLine; that both original
inventions stood upon the same footing in point of property, whether the case were
mechanical or literary, whether an epic poemnor an orrery; that the immorality of pirating
anotherman's invention was as great as that of purloining his ideas. Propertyin mechanical
works or works of art, executed by a man for his own amusement, instruction, or use, is
allowed to subsist, certainly, and may, before publication by him, be invaded, not merely
by copying, but by description or by catalogue, as it appears to me. A catalogue of such
works may in itself be valuable. It may also as effectually show the bent and turn of the
mind, the feelings and taste of the artist,especially if not professional, as a list of his papers.
The portfolio or the studio may declare as much as the writing-table. A man may employ
himself in priNate in a manner very harmless, but which, disclosed to society, may destroy
the comfort of his life, or even his success in it. Every one, however, has a right, I appre-
'hend, to say that the produce of his private hours is not more liable to publication with-
out his consent, because the publication must be creditable or advantageous to him, than
it would be in opposite circumstances."
"I think therefore, not only that the defendant here is unlawfully invading the plain-
tiff's rights, but also that the invasion is of such a kind and affects such property as to
entitle the plaintiff to the preventive remedy of an injunction; and if not the more, yet,
certainly, not the less, because it is an intrusion,- an unbecoming and unseemly intru-
sion, -an intrusion not alone in breachbofconventional rules, but offensive to that inbred
sense of propriety natural to every man,- if intrusion, indeed, fitly describes a sordid
spying into the privacy of domestic life,- into the home (a word hitherto sacred among
us), the home of a family whose life and conduct form an acknowledged title, though not
their only unquestionable title, to the most marked respect in this country." Knight
Bruce, V. C., in Prince Albert v. Strange, 2 DeGex & Sm. 652, 696, 697.
2 Kiernan v. Manhattan Quotation Co., S0 How. Pr. I94 (1876).

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY. 203
when the subject-matter for which protection is invoked is not

even in the form of intellectual property, but has the attributes
of ordinary tangible property. Suppose a man has a col-
lection of gems or curiosities which he keeps private: it would
hardly be contended that any person could publish a catalogue
of them, and yet the articles enumerated are certainly not intei-
lectual property in the legal sense, any more than a collection
of stoves or of chairs.1
The belief that the idea of property in its narrow sense was
the basis of the protection of unpublished manuscripts led an
able court to refuse, in several cases, injunctions against the
publication of private letters, on the ground that "letters not
possessing the attributes of literary compositions are not property
entitled to protection;" and that it was "evident the plaintiff could
not have considered the letters as of any value whatever as literary
productions, for a letter cannot be considered of value to the
author which he never would consent to have published."2 But
1 "The defendants' counsel say, that a man acquiring a knowledge of another's prop-
erty without his consent is not by any rule or principle which a court of justice can
apply (however secretly he may have kept or endeavored to keep it) forbidden without
his consent to communicate and publish that knowledge to the world, to inform the
world what the property is, or to describe it publicly, whether orally, or in print or
writing.
" I claim, however, leave to doubt whether, as to property of a private nature, which
the owner, without infringing on the right of any other, may and does retain in a state of
privacy, it is certain that a person who, without the owner's consent, express or implied,
acquires a knowledge of it, can lawfully avail himself of the knowledge so acquired to
publish without his consent a description of the property.
" It is probably true that such a publication may be in a manner or relate to property
of a kind rendering a question concerning the lawfulness of the act too slight to deserve
attention. I can conceive cases, however, ir which an act of the sort may be so circuln-
stanced or relate to property such, that the matter may weightily affect the owner's
interest or feelings, or both. For instance, the nature and intention of an unfinishedwork
of an artist, prematurelymade known to the world, may be painful and deeply prejudicial
against him; nor would it be difficult to suggest other examples.
" It was suggested that, to publish a catalogue of a collector's gems, coins, antiquities,
or other such curiosities, for instance, without his consent, would be to make use of his
property without his consent; and it is true, certainly, that a proceeding of that kind may
not only as much embitter one collector's life as it would flatter another, -may be not
only an ideal calamity, - but may do the owner damage in the most vulgar sense. Such
catalogues, even when not descriptive, are often sought after, and sometimes obtain very
substantial prices. These, therefore, and the like instances, are not necessarily examples
merely of pain inflicted in point of sentiment or imagination; they may be that, and
something else beside." Knight Bruce, V. C., in Prince Albert v. Strange, 2 DeGex &
Sm. 652, 689, 690.
2 Hoyt v. Mackenzie, 3 Barb. Ch. 320i 324 (I848); Wetmore v. Scovell, 3 Edw. Ch.
5I5 (842). See Sir Thomas Plumer in 2 Ves. & B. I9 (I813).

204 HAR VARD LA W RE VIE W.
these decisions have not been followed,l and it may now be con-
sidered settled that the protection afforded by the common law
to the author of any writing is entirely independent of its
pecuniary value, its intrinsic merits, or of any intention to publish
the same, and, of course, also, wholly independent of the material,
if any, upon which, or the mode in which, the thought or sentiment
was expressed.
Although the courts have asserted that they rested their
decisions on the narrow grounds of protection to property,
yet there are recognitions of a more liberal doctrine. Thus
in the case of Prince Albert v. Strange, already referred to, the
opinions both of the Vice-Chancellor and of the Lord Chancellor,
on appeal, show a more or less clearly defined perception of a
principle broader than those which were mainly discussed, and
on which they both placed their chief reliance. Vice-Chancellor
Knight Bruce referred to publishing of a man that he had
"written to particular persons or on particular subjects" as an
instance of possibly injurious disclosures as to private matters, that
the courts would in a proper case prevent; yet it is difficult to
perceive how, in such a case, any right of property, in the narrow
sense, would be drawn in question, or why, if such a publication
would be restrained when it threatened to expose the victim
not merely to sarcasm, but to ruin, it should not equally be
enjoined, if it threatened to embitter his life. To deprive a man
of the potential profits to be realized by publishing a catalogue of
his gems cannot per se be a wrong to him. The possibility of
future profits is not a right of property which the law ordinarily
recognizes; it must, therefore, be an infraction of other rights
which constitutes the wrongful act, and that infraction is equally
wrongful, whether its results are to forestall the profits that the
individual himself might secure by giving the matter a publicity
obnoxious to him, or to gain an advantage at the expense of
his mental pain and suffering. If the fiction of property in a nar-
row sense must be preserved, it is still true that the end accom-
plished by the gossip-monger is attained by the use of that which
1 Woolsey v. Judd, 4 Duer, 379, 404 (I855). "It has been decided, fortunately for
the welfare of society, that the writer of letters, though written without any purpose of
profit, or any idea of literary property, possesses such a right of property in them, that
they cannot be published without his consent, unless the purposes of justice, civil or
criminal, require the publication." Sir Samuel Romilly, arg., in Gee v. Pritchard,
2 Swanst. 402, 418 (i8I8). But see High on Injunctions, 3d ed., ? 1012, contra.

is another's, the facts relating to his private life, which he has

seen fit to keep private. Lord Cottenham stated that a inan "is
entitled to be protected in the exclusive use and enjoyment of
that which is exclusively his," and cited with approval the
opinion of Lord Eldon, as reported in a manuscript note of the
case of Wyatt v. Wilson, in I820, respecting an engraving of
George the Third during his illness, to the effect that "if one of
the late king's physicians had kept a diary of what he heard and
saw, the court would not, in the king's lifetime, have permitted him
to print and publish it;" and Lord Cottenham declared, in respect
to the acts of the defendants in the case before him, that " privacy
is the right invaded." But if privacy is once recognized as a
right entitled to legal protection, the interposition of the courts
cannot depend on the particular nature of the injuries resulting.
These considerations lead to the conclusion that the protection
afforded to thoughts, sentiments, and emotions, expressed through
the medium of writing or of the arts, so far as it consists in pre-
venting publication, is merely an instance of the enforcenment
of the more general right of the individual to be let alone. It is
like the right not to be assaulted or beaten, the right not to be
imprisoned, the right not to be maliciously prosecuted, the right
not to be defamed. In each of these rights, as indeed in all other
rights recognized by the law, there inheres the quality of being
owned or possessed - and (as that is the distinguishing attribute
of property) there may be some propriety in speaking of those
rights as property. But, obviously, they bear little resemblance
to what is ordinarily comprehended under that term. The prin-
ciple which protects personal writings and all other personal
productions, not against theft and physical appropriation, but
against publication in any form, is in reality not the principle of
private property, but that of an inviolate personality.'
1 " But a doubt has been suggested, whether mere private letters, not intended as
literary compositions, are entitled to the protection of an injunction in the same manner
as compositions of a literary character. This doubt has probably arisen from the habit
of niot discriminating between the different rights of property which belong to an un-
published manuscript, and those which belong to a published book. The latter, as I
have intimated in another connection, is a right to take the profits of publication. The
former is a right to control the act of publication, and to decide whether there shall be
any publication at all. It has been called a right of property; an expression perhaps not
quite satisfactory, but on the other hand sufficiently descriptive of a right which, however
incorporeal, involves many of the essential elements of property, and is at least positive
and definite. This expression can leave us in no doubt as to the meaning of the learned

206 HARVARD LAW REVIEW.
If we are correct in this conclusion, the existing law affords a

principle which may be invoked to protect the privacy of the
individual from invasion either by the too enterprising press, the
photographer, or the possessor of any other modern device for
recording or reproducing scenes or sounds. For the protection
afforded is not confined by the authorities to those cases where
any particular medium or form of expression has been adopted,
nor to products of the intellect. The same protection is afforded
to emotions and sensations expressed in a musical composition or
other work of art as to a literary composition; and words spoken,
a pantomime acted, a sonata performed, is no less entitled to
protection than if each had been reduced to writing. The cir-
cumstance that a thought or emotion has been recorded in a
permanent form renders its identification easier, and hence may
be important from the point of view of evidence, but it has no
significance as a matter of substantive right. If, then, the deci-
sions indicate a general right to privacy for thoughts, emotions,
and sensations, these should receive the same protection, whether
expressed in writing, or in conduct, in conversation, in attitudes, or
in facial expression.
It may be urged that a distinction should be taken between the
judges who have used it, when they have applied it to cases of unpublished manuscripts.
They obviously intended to use it in no other sense, than in contradistinction to the
nmereinterests of feeling, and to describe a substantial right of legal interest." Curtis
on Copyright, pp. 93, 94.
The resemblance of the right to prevent publication of an unpublished manuscript
to the well-recognized rights of personal immunity is found in the treatment of it in
connection with the rights of creditors. The right to prevent such publication and the
right of action for its infringement, like the cause of action for an assault, battery, defa-
mation, or malicious prosecution, are not assets available to creditors.
" There is no law which can compel an author to publish. No one can determine
this essential matter of publication but the author. His manuscripts, however valuable,
cannot, without his consent, be seized by his creditors as property.." McLean, J., in
Bartlett v. Crittenden, 5 McLean, 32, 37 (I849).
It has also been held that even where the sender's rights are not asserted, the re-
ceiver of a letter has not such property in it as passes to his executor or admin'strator as
a salable asset. Eyre v. Higbee, 22 How. Pr. (N. Y.) I98 (i86i).
" The very meaning of the word' property' in its legal sense is ' that which is pecu-
liar or proper to any person that which belongs exclusively to one.' The first mean-
ing of the word from which it is derived - pJo5rius - is 'one's own.'" Drone on
Copyright, p. 6.
It is clear that a thing must be capable of identification in order to be the subject of
exclusive ownership. But when its identity can be determined so that individual owner
ship may be asserted, it matters not whether it be corporeal or incorporeal.

deliberate expression of thoughts and emotions in literary or ar-

tistic compositions and the casual and often involuntary expression
given to them in the ordinary conduct of life. In other words,
it may be contended that the protection afforded is granted to
the conscious products of labor, perhaps as an encouragement
to effort.1 This contention, however plausible, has, in fact, little
to recommend it. If the amount of labor involved be adopted
as the test, we might well find that the effort to conduct one's
self properly in business and in domestic relations had been far
greater than that involved in painting a picture or writing a book;
one would find that it was far easier to express lofty sentiments in
a diary than in the conduct of a noble life. If the test of delib-
erateness of the act be adopted, much casual correspondence
which is now accorded full protection would be excluded from
the beneficent operation of existing- rules. After the decisions
denying the distinction attempted to be made between those
literary productions which it was intended to publish and those
which it was not, all considerations of the amount of labor in-
volved, the degree of deliberation, the value of the product, and
the intention of publishing must be abandoned, and no basis is dis-
cerned upon which the right to restrain publication and reproduc-
tion of such so-called literary and artistic works can be rested,
except the right to privacy, as a part of the more general right to
the immunity of the person, -the right to one's personality.
It should be stated that, in some instances where protection

has been afforded against wrongful publication, the jurisdiction
has been asserted, not on the ground of property, or at
least not wholly on that ground, but upon the ground of an
alleged breach of an implied contract or of a trust or con-
fidence.
Thus, in Abernethy v. Hutchinson, 3 L. J. Ch. 209 (I825),
where the plaintiff, a distinguished surgeon, sought to restrain the
publication in the " Lancet " of unpublished lectures which he had
delivered at St. Batholomew's Hospital in London, Lord Eldon
I " Such then being, as I believe, the nature and the foundation of the common law
as to manuscripts independently of Parliamentaryadditions and subtractions, its opera-
tion cannot of necessity be confined to literary subjects. rhat would be to limit the
rule by the example. Wherever the produce of labor is liable to invasion in an anal-
ogous manner, there must, I suppose, be a title to analogous protection or redress.'
Knight Bruce, V, C., in Prince Albert v. Strange, 2 DeGex & Sin1.652, 696.

208 HARVARD LAW REVIEW.
doubted whether there could be property in lectures which had

not been reduced to writing, but granted the injunction on the
ground of breach of confidence, holding "that when persons were
admitted as pupils or otherwise, to hear these lectures, although
they were orally delivered, and although the parties might go to
the extent, if they were able to do so, of putting down the whole
by means of short-hand, yet they could do that only for the
purposes of their own information, and could not publish, for
profit, that which they had not obtained the right of seliing."
In Prince Albert v. Strange, i McN. & G. 25 (1849), Lord
Cottenham, on appeal, while recognizing a right of property in
the etchings which of itself would justify the issuance of the
injunction, stated, after discussing the evidence, that he was
bound to assume that the possession of the etchings by the
defendant had "its foundation in a breach of trust, confidence,
or contract," and that upon such ground also the plaintiff's title
to the injunction was fully sustained.
In Tuck v. Priester, ig Q. B. D. 639 (I887), the plaintiffs were
owners of a picture, and employed the defendant to make a
certain number of copies. He did so, and made also a number
of other copies for himself, and offered them for sale in England
at a lower price. Subsequently, the plaintiffs registered their
copyright in the picture, and then brought suit for an injunction
and damages. The Lords Justices differed as to the application
of the copyrigrht acts to the case, but held unanimously that
independently of those acts, the plaintiffs were entitled to an
injunction and damages for breach of contract.
In Pollard v. Photographic Co., 40 Ch. Div. 345 (i888),
a photographer who had taken a lady's photograph under the
ordinary circumstances was restrained from exhibiting it, and
also from selling copies of it, on the ground that it was a breach
of an implied term in the contract, and also that it was a breach
of confidence. Mr. Justice North interjected in the argument of
the plaintiff's counsel the inquiry: "Do you dispute that if the
negative likeness were taken on the sly, the person who took it
might exhibit copies? " and counsel for the plaintiff answered:
" In that case there would be no trust or consideration to
support a contract." Later, the defendant's counsel argued that
'a person has no property in his own features; short of doing
what is libellous or otherwise illegal, there is no restriction on the

photographer's using his negative." But the court, while ex-

pressly finding a breach of contract and of trust sufficient to
justify its interposition, still seems to have felt the necessity of
resting the decision also upon a right of property, I in order to
1 "The question, therefore, is whether a photographer who has been employed by a

customer to take his or her portrait is justified in striking off copies of such photograph
for his own use, and selling and disposing of them, or publicly exhibiting them by way
of advertisement or otherwise, without the authority of such customer, either express or
implied. I say 'express or implied,' because a photographer is frequently allowed, on
his own request, to take a photograph of a person under circumstances in which a sub-
sequent sale by him must have been in the contemplation of both parties, though not
actually mentioned. To the question thus put, my answer is in the negative, that the
photographer is not justified in so doing. Where a person obtains information in
the course of a confidential employment, the law does not permit him to make any im-
proper use of the information so obtained; and an injunction is granted, if necessary, to
restrain such use; as, for instance, to restrain a clerk from disclosing his master's
accounts, or an attorney from making known his client's affairs, learned in the course
of such employment. Again, the law is clear that a breach of contract, whether ex-
press or implied, can be restrained by injunction. In my opinion the case of the pho-
tographer comes within the principles upon which both these classes of cases depend.
The object for which he is employed and paid is to supply his customer with the
required number of printed photographs of a given subject. For this purpose the nega-
tive is taken by the photographer on glass; and from this negative copies can be printed
in much larger numbers than are generally required by the customer. The customer
who sits for the negative thus puts the power of reproducing the object in the hands of the
photographer; and in my opinion the photographer who uses the negative to produce
other copiesforhis own use, without authority, is abusingthe power confidentially placed
in his hands merely for the purpose of supplying the customer; and further, I hold that
the bargain between the customer and the photographer includes, by implication, an
agreement that the prints taken from the negative are to be appropriated to the use of
the customer only. " Referring to the opinions delivered in Tuck v. Priester, I9 Q. B. D.
639, the learned justice continued: "Then Lord Justice Lindley says: 'I will deal first with
the injunction, which stands, ormaystand,on atotally differentfootingfrom either the
penalties or the damages. It appears to me that the relation between the plaintiffs and
the defendant xmassuch that, whether the plaintiffs had any copyright or not, the de-
fendant has done that which renders him liable to an injunction. Hewas employed by
the plaintiffs to make a certain number of copies of the picture, and that employment
carried with it the necessary implication that the defendant was not to make more
copies for himself, or to sell the additional copies in this country in competition with
his employer. Such conduct on his part is a gross breach of contract and a gross breach
of faith, and, in my judgment, clearly entitles the plaintiffs to an injunction. whetherthey
have a copyright in the picture or not. ' That case is the more noticeable, as the con-
tract was in writing; and yet it was held to be an implied condition that the defendant
should not make any copies for himself. The phrase 'agross breach of faith 'used by
Lord Justice Lindley in that case applies with equal force to the present, when a
lady's feelings are shocked by finding that the photographer she has employed to take
her likeness for her own use is publicly exhibiting and selling copies thereof. " North, J.,
in Pollard v. Photographic Co., 40 Ch. D. 345, 349-352 ( I888).
"It may be said also that the cases to which I have referred are all cases in which
there was some right of property infringed, based upon the recognition by the law of pro-

2IO HAR VARD LAW REVIEW.
bring it within the line of those cases which were relied upon as
precedents. 1
This process of implying a term in a contract, or of im-
plying a trust (particularly where the contract is written, and
where there is no established usage or custom ), is nothing more
nor less than a judicial declaration that public morality, private
justice, and general convenience demand the recognition of such a
rule, and that the publication under similar circumstances would
be considered an intolerable abuse. So long as these circum-
stances happen to present a contract upon which such a term can
be engrafted by the judicial mind, or to supply relations upon
which a trust or confidence can be erected, there may be no
objection to working out the desired protection through the
doctrines of contract or of trust. But the court can hardly stop
there. The narrower doctrine may have satisfied the demands of
society at a time when the abuse to be guarded against could
rarely have arisen without violating a contract or a special
tection being due for the products of a man's own skIll or mental labor; whereas in the
present case the person photographed has done nothing to merit such protection, which
is meant to prevent legal wrongs, and not mere sentimental grievances. But a person
whose photograph is taken by a photographer is not thus deserted by the law; for the
Act of 25 and 26 Vict., c. 68, s. I, provides that when the negative of any photograph is
made or executed for or on behalf of another person for a good or valuable considera-
tion, the person making or executing the same shall not retain the copyright thereof,
unless it is expressly reserved to him by agreement in writing signed by the person for or
on whose behalf the same is so made or executed; but the copyright shall belong to the
person for or on whose behalf the same shall have been made or executed.
" The result is that in the present case the copyright in the photograph is in one of the
plaintiffs. It is true, no doubt, that sect. 4 of the same act provides that no proprietor
of copyright shall be entitled to the benefit of the act until registration, and no action
shall be sustained in respect of anything done before registration; and it was, I presume,
because the photograph of the female plaintiff has not been registered that this act
was not referred to by counsel in the course of the argument. But, although the protec-
tion against the world in general conferred by the act cannot be enforced until aftet
registration, this does not deprive the plaintiffs of their common-law right of action
against the defendant for his breach of contract and breach of faith. This is quite
clear from the cases of Morison v. Moat [ g Hare, 24I ] and Tuck v. Priester [ I9 Q. B.
D. 629] already referred to, in which latter case the same act of Parliament was in
question. " Per North, J., ibid. p. 352.
This language suggests that the property right in photographs or portraits may be one
created by statute, which would not exist in the absence of registration; but it is sub-
mitted that it must eventually be held here, as it has been in the similar cases, that the
statute provision becomes applicable only when there is a publication, and that before
the act of registering there is property in the thing upon which the statute is to operate.
I Dlke of Queensberry v. Shebbeare, 2 Eden, 329; Murray v. Heath, I B. & Ad. 804;
Tuck v. Priester, i9 Q. B. D. 629.

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY. 2II
confidence; but now that modern devices afford abundant op-

portunities for the perpetration of such wrongs without any
participation by the injured party, the protection granted by
the law must be placed upon a broader foundation. While, for
instance, the state of the photographic art was such that one's
picture could seldom be taken without his consciously " sitting"
for the purpose, the law of contract or of trust might afford the
prudent man sufficient safeguards against the improper circulation
of his portrait; but since the latest advances in photographic art
have rendered it possible to take pictures surreptitiously, the
doctrines of contract and of trust are inadequate to support the
required protection, and the law of tort must be resorted to. The
right of property in its widest sense, including all possession,
ilncluding all rights and privileges, and hence embracing the right
to an inviolate personality, affords alone that broad basis upon
which the protection which the individual demands can be rested.
Thus, the courts, in searching for some principle upon which
the publication of private letters could be enjoined, naturally
came upon the ideas of a breach of confidence, and of an implied
contract ; but it required little consideration to discern that this
doctrine could not afford all the protection required, since it
would not support the court in granting a remedy against a
stranger ; and so the theory of property in the contents of letters
was adopted.' Indeed, it is difficult to conceive on what theory
of the law the casual recipient of a letter, who proceeds to publish
it, is guilty of a breach of contract, express or implied, or of any
breach of trust, in the ordinary acceptation of that term. Suppose
a letter has been addressed to him without his solicitation. He
opens it, and reads. Surely, he has not made any contract ; he
has not accepted any trust. He cannot, by opening and reading
'See Mr. Justice Story in Folsom v. Marsh, 2 Story, ioo, iii (1841):-
" Tf he [the recipient of a letter] attempt to publish such letter or letters on other
occasions, not justifiable, a court of equity will prevent the publication by an injunction,
as a breach of private confidence or contract, or of the rights of the author; and a for-
tiori, if he attempt to publish them for profit; for then it is not a mere breach of confidence
or contract, but it is a violation of the exclusive copyright of the writer. . .. The general
property, and the general rights incident to property, belong to the writer, whether the
letters are literary compositions, or familiar letters, or details of facts, or letters of
business. The general property in the manuscripts remains in the writer and his repre-
sentatives, as well as the general copyright. Afortiori, third persons, standing in no
privity with either party, are not entitled to publish them, to subserve their own private
purposes of interest, or curiosity, or passion."

2I2 HAR VARD LAW REVIEW.
the letter, have come under any obligation save what the law
declares; and, however expressed, that obligation is simply to
observe the legal right of the sender, whatever it may be, and
whether it be called his right of property in the contents of the
letter, or his right to privacy.1
A similar groping for the principle upon which a wrongful pub-
lication can be enjoined is found in the law of trade secrets.
There, injunctions have generally been granted on the theory of
a breach of contract, or of an abuse of confidence.2 It would, of
course, rarely happen that any one would be in the possession of a
secret unless confidence had been reposed in him. But can it be
supposed that the court would hesitate to grant relief against one
who had obtained his knowledge by an ordinary trespass,- for
instance, by wrongfully looking into a book in which the secret
was recorded, or by eavesdropping ? Indeed, in Yovatt v. Win-
yard, I J. & W. 394 (1820), where an injunction was granted
against making any use of or communicating certain recipes for
veterinary medicine, it appeared that the defendant, while in the
plaintiff's employ, had surreptitiously got access to his book of
recipes, and copied them. Lord Eldon "granted the injunction,
upon the ground of there having been a breach of trust and con-
fidence;" but it would seem to be difficult to draw any sound
legal distinction between such a case and one where a mere stran-
ger wrongfully obtained access to the book.
1 "The receiver of a letter is not a bailee, nor does he stand in a characteranalogous to

that of a bailee. There is no right to possession, present or future, in the writer. The
only right to be enforced against the holder is a right to prevent publication, not to re-
quire the manuscriptfrom the holder in order to a publication of himself." Per Hon. Joel
Parker, quoted in Grigsby v. Breckenridge, 2 Bush. 480, 489 (1857).
2 In Morison v. Moat, 9 Hare, 241, 255 (185i), a suit for an injunction to restrain
the use of a secret medical compound, Sir George James Turner, V. C., said: "That the
court has exercised jurisdiction in cases of this nature does not, I think, admit of any
question. Different grounds have indeed been assigned for the exercise of that jurisdic-
tion. In some cases it has been referred to property, in others to contract, and in others,
again, it has been treated as founded upon trust or confidence,-meaning, asl conceive,
that the court fastens the obligation on the conscience of the party, and enforces it
against him in the same manner as it enforces against a party to whom a benefit is given,
the obligation of performing a promise on the faith of which the benefit has been con-
ferred; but upon whatever grounds the jurisdiction is founded, the authorities leave no
doubt as to the exercise of it."
8 A similar growth of the law showing the development of contractual rights into
rights of property is found in the law of goodwill. There are indications, as early as
the Year Books, of traders endeavoring to secure to themselves by contract the advantages
now designated by the term "'goodwill," but it was not until I743 that goodwill received

We must therefore conclude that the rights, so protected, what-

ever their exact nature, are not rights arising from contract or
from special trust, but are rights as against the world; and, as
above stated, the principle which has been applied to protect
these rights is in reality not the principle of private property, un-
less that word be used in an extended and unusual sense. The
principle which protects personal writings and any other produc-
tions of the intellect or of the emotions, is the right to privacy,
and the law has no new principle to formulate when it extends this
protection to the personal appearance, sayings, acts, and to per-
sonal relation, domestic or otherwise.'
If the invasion of privacy constitutes a legal injfirica, the elements
for demanding redress exist, since already the value of mental
suffering, caused by an act wrongful in itself, is recognized as a
basis for compensation.
The right of one who has remained a private individual, to pre-
vent his public portraiture, presents the simplest -case for such ex-
tension; the right to protect one's self from pen portraiture, from
a discussion by the press of one's private affairs, would be a more
important and far-reaching one. If casual and unimportant state-
legal recognition as property apart from the personal covenants of the traders. See
Allan on Goodwill, pp. 2, 3.
'The application of an existing principle to a new state of facts is not judicial legis-
lation. To call it such is to assert that the existing body of law consists practically
of the statutes and decided cases, and to deny that the principles (of which these cases
are ordinarily said to be evidence) exist at all. It is not the application of an existing
principle to new cases, but t-he introduction of a new principle, which is properly
termed judicial legislation.
But even the fact that a certain decision would involve judicial legislation should
not be taken as conclusive against the propriety of making it. This power has been
constantly exercised by our judges, when applying to a new subject principles of private
justice, moral fitness, and public convenience. Indeed, the elasticity of our law, its
adaptability to new conditions, the capacity for growth, which has enabled it to meet the
wants of an ever changing society and to apply immediate relief for every recognized
wrong,have been its greatest boast.
" I cannot understand how any person who has considered the subject can suppose that
society could possibly have gone on if judges had not legislated, or' that there is any
danger whatever in allowing them that power which they have in fact exercised, to make
up for the negligence or the incapacity of the avowed legislator. That part of the law of
every country which was made by judges has been far better made than that part which
consists of statutes enacted by the legislature." I Austin's Jurisprudence, p. 224.
The cases referred to above show that the common law has for a century and a half
protected privacy in certain cases, and to grant the further protection now suggested
would be merely another application of an existing rule.

214. HARVARD LAW REVIEW.
ments in a letter, if handiwork, however inartistic and valueless,

if possessions of all sorts are protected not only against repro-
duction, but against description and enumeration, how much more
should the acts and sayings of a man in his social and domestic
relations be guarded from ruthless publicity. If you may not re-
produce a woman's face photographically without her consent, how
much less should be tolerated the reproduction of her face, her
form, and her actions, by graphic descriptions colored to suit a
gross and depraved imagination.
The right to privacy, limited as such right must necessarily be,
has already found expression in the law of France.'
It remains to consider what are the limitations of this right to
privacy, and what remedies may be granted for the enforcement
of the right. To determine in advance of experience the exact
line at which the dignity and convenience of the individual must
yield to the demands of the public welfare or of private justice
would be a difficult task; but the more general rules are furnished
by the legal analogies already developed in the law of slander and
libel, and in the law of literary and artistic property.
I. The right to privacy does not prohibit any publication of
matter which is of public or general interest.
In determining the scope of this rule, aid would be afforded by
the analogy, in the law of libel and slander, of cases which deal
with the qualified privilege of comment and criticism on matters
of public and general interest.2 There are of course difficulties
in applying such a rule; but they are inherent in the subject-
matter, and are certainly no greater than those which exist in
many other branches of the law,- for instance, in that large class
of cases in which the reasonableness or unreasonableness of an
act is made the test of liability. The design of the law must be
to protect those persons with whose affairs the community has
no legitimate concern, from being dragged into an undesirable
and undesired publicity and to protect all persons, whatsoever;
their position or station, from having matters which they may
I Loi Relative a la Presse. ii Mai i868.

" Ii. Toute Dublication dans un &critperiodique relative iL un fait de la vie prive6
constitue une contravention punie d'un amende de cinq cent francs.
" La poursuite ne pourra 6tre exercee que sur la plainte de la partie interess6e."
Rivi6re, Codes Francais et Lois Usuelles. App. Code Pen., p. 20.
2 See Campbell v. Spottiswoode, 3 B. & S. 769, 776; Henwood v. Harrison, L. R.
7 C. P. 6o6; Gott v. Pulsifer, 122 Mass. 235.

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY. 2( 5
properly prefer to keep private, made public against their will.

It is the unwarranted invasion of individtual privacy which is
reprehended, and to be, so far as possible, prevented. The dis-
tinction, however, noted in the above statement is obvious and
fundamental. There are persons who may reasonably claim as a
right, protection from the notoriety entailed by being made the
victims of journalistic enterprise. There are others who, in vary-
ing- degrees, have renounced the right to live their lives screened
from public observation. Matters which men of the first class
may justly contend, concern themselves alone, may in those of the
second be the subject of legitimate interest to their fellow-citizens.
Peculiarities of manner and person, which in the ordinary indi-
vidual should be free from comment, may acquire a public
importance, if found in a candidate for political office. Some
further discrimination is necessary, therefore, than to class facts
or deeds as public or private according to a standard to be
applied to the fact or deed per se. To publish of a modest and
retiring individual that he suffers from an impediment in his
speech or that he cannot spell correctly, is an unwarranted, if not
an unexampled, infringement of his rights, while to state and
comment on the same characteristics found in a would-be con-
gressman could not be regarded as beyond the pale of propriety.
The general object in view is to protect the privacy of private
life, and to whatever degree and in whatever connection a man's
life has ceased to be private, before the publication under con-
sideration has been made, to that extent the protection is to be
withdrawn.' Since, then, the propriety of publishing the very
same facts may depend wholly upon the person concerning- whom
they are published, no fixed formula can be used to prohibit
obnoxious publications. Any rule of liability adopted must have
in it an elasticity which shall take account of the varying circum-
stances of each case, -a necessity which unfortunately renders
such a doctrine not only more difficult of application, but also to
"' Nos moeurs n'admettent pas la prdtention d'enlever aux investigations de la pub-
licitd les actes qui rel6vent de la vie publique, et ce dernier mot ne doit pas etre restreint
i la vie officielle ou h celle du fonctionnaire. Tout homme qui appelle sur lui l'atten-
tion ou les regards du publique, soit par une mission qu'il a revue ou qu'il se donne, soit
par le r8le qu'il s'attribue dans l'industrie, les arts, le theatre, etc., ne peut plus invoquer
contre la critique ou l'expos6 de sa conduite d'autre protection que les lois qui repriment
la diffamation et l'injure. " Circ. Mins. Just., 4 Juin, i868. Rivi&reCodes Franqais et
Lois Usuelles, App. Code Pen. 20 n (b).

2I6 HAR VARD LA WVRE VIE WV.
a certain extent uncertain in its operation and easily rendered

abortive. Besides, it is only the more flagrant breaches of decency
and propriety that could in practice be reached, and it is not per-
haps desirable even to attempt to repress everything which the
nicest taste and keenest sense of the respect due to private life
would condemn.
In general, then, the matters of which the publication shouid
be repressed may be described as those which concern the pri-
vate life, habits, acts, and relations of an individual, and have no
legitimate connection with his fitness for a public office which he
seeks or for which he is suggested, or for any public or quasi
public position which he seeks or for which he is suggested, and
have no legitimate relation to or bearing upon any act done by
him in a public or quasi public capacity. The foregoing is not
designed as a wholly accurate or exhaustive definition, since that
which must ultimately in a vast number of cases become a ques-
tion of individual judgment and opinion is incapable of such
definition; but it is an attempt to indicate broadly the class of
matters referred to. Some things all men alike are entitled to
keep from popular curiosity, whether in public life or not, while
others are only private because the persons concerned have not
assumed a position which makes their doings legitimate matters
of public investigation.'
2. The right to privacy does not prohibit the communication
of any matter, though in its nature private, when the publication
is made under circumstances which would render it a privileged
communication according to the law of slander and libel.
Under this rule, the right to privacy is not invaded by any
publication made in a court of justice, in legislative bodies, or the
committees of those bodies; in municipal assemblies, or the com-
mittees of such assemblies, or practically by any communication
made in any other public body, municipal or parochial, or in any
body quasi public, like the large voluntary associations formed
"Celui-la seul a droit au silence absoluqui n'a pas expressdment ou indirectment

provoqu6 ou authoris6 l'attention, l'approbation ou le blame." Circ. Mins. Just., 4 Juin,
i868. Rivi&reCodes Franqais et Lois Usuelles, App. Code Pen. 20 n ( b).
The principle thus expressed evidently is designed to exclude the wholesale investiga-
tions into the past of prominent public men with which the American public is too fa-
miliar, and also, unhappily, too well pleased; while not entitled to the " sil nce absolu "
which less prominent men may claim as their due, they may still demand that all the de-
tails of private life in its most limited sense shall not be laid bare for inspection.

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY. 21 7
for almost every purpose of benevolence, business, or other general

interest ; and (at least in many jurisdictions) reports of any such
proceedings would in some measure be accorded a like privilege.,
Nor would the rule prohibit any publication made by one in the dis-
charge of some public or private duty, whether legal or moral, or
in conduct of one's own affairs, in matters where his own interest
is concerned.2
3. The law would probably not grant any redress for the inva-
sion of privacy by oral publication in the absence of special
damage.
The same reasons exist for distinguishing between oral and
written publications of private matters, as is afforded in the law of
defamation by the restricted liability for slander as compared with
the liability for libel.3 The injury resulting from such oral com-
munications would ordinarily be so trifling that the law might well,
in the interest of free speech, disregard it altogether.4
1 Wason v. Walters, L. R. 4 Q. B. 73; Smith v. Higgins, i6 Gray, 25I; Barrows v.

Bell, 7 Gray,331.
2 This limitation upon the right to prevent the publication of private letters was recog-
nized early: -
" But, consistently with this right [of the writer of letters], the persons to whom they
are addressed may have, nay, must, by implication, possess, the right to publish any letter
or letters addressed to them, upon such occasions, as require, or justify, the publication
or public use of them ; but this right is strictly limited to such occasions. Thus, a person
may justifiably use and publish, in a suit at law or in equity, such letter or letters as are
necessary and proper, to establish his right to maintain the suit, or defend the same. So,
if he be aspersed or misrepresented by the writer, or accused of improper conduct, in a
public manner, he may publish such parts of such letter or letters, but no more, as may
be necessary to vindicate his character and reputation, or free him from unjust obloquy
and reproach." Story, J., in Folsom v. Marsh, 2 Story, I00, ito, i i i (1841).
The existence of any right in the recipient of letters to publish the same has been stren-
uously denied by Mr. Drone; but the reasoning upon which his denial rests does not seem
satisfactory. Drone on Copyright, pp. 136-139.
3Townshend on Slander and Libel, 4th ed., ? i8; Odgers on Libel and Slander,
2d ed., p. 3.
4 " But as long as gossip was oral, it spread, as regards any one individual, over a very
small area, and was confined to the immediate circle of his acquaintances. It did not
reach, or but rarely reached, those who knew nothing of him. It did not make his
name, or his walk, or his conversation familiar to strangers. And what is more to the
purpose, it spared him the pain and mortification of knowing that he was gossipped
about. A man seldom heard of oral gossip about him which simply made him ridiculous,
or trespassed on his lawful privacy, but made no positive attack upon his reputation.
His peace and comfort were, therefore, but slightly affected by it." E. L. Godkin, "The
Rights of the Citizen: To his Reputation." Scribner's Magazine, July, 1890, p. 66.
Vice-Chancellor Knight Bruce suggested in Prince Albert v. Strange, 2 DeGex & Sm.
652, 694, that a distinction would be made as to the right to privacy of works of art
between an oral and a written description or catalogue.

2I8 IiARVARD LA'W REVIEW.
4. The right to privacy ceases upon the publication of the

facts by the individual, or with his consent.
This is but another application of the rule which has become
familiar in the law of literary and artistic property. The cases
there decided establish also what should be deemed a publication,
- the important principle in this connection being that a private
communication of circulation for a restricted purpose is not a pub-
lication within the meaning of the law.1
5. The truth of the matter published does not afford a defence.
Obviously this branch of the law should have no concern with the
truth of falsehood of the matters published. It is not for injury
to the individual's character that redress or prevention is sought,
but for injury to the right of privacy. For the former, the law of
slander and libel provides perhaps a sufficient safeguard. The
latter implies the right not merely to prevent inaccurate portrayal
of private life, but to prevent its being depicted at all.2
6. The absence of " malice" in the publisher does not afford
a defence.
Personal ill-will is not an ingredient of the offence, any more
than in an ordinary case of trespass to person or to property.
Such malice is never necessary to be shown in an action for libel
or slander at common law, except in rebuttal of some defence,
e. g., that the occasion rendered the communication privileged, or,
under the statutes in this State and elsewhere, that the statement
complaiined of was true. The invasion of the privacy that is to
be protected is equally complete and equally injurious, whether
the motives by which the speaker or writer was actuated are,
taken by themselves, culpable or not; just as the damage to char-
acter, and to some extent the tendency to provoke a breach of the
peace, is equally the result of defamation without regard to the
tnotives leading to its publication. Viewed as a wrong to the in-
dividual, this rule is the same pervading the whole law of torts, by
which one is held responsible for his intentional acts, even though
they are committed with no sinister intent; and viewed as a wrong
1 See Drone on Copyright, pp. 121, 289, 290.

2 Compare the French law.
" En prohibant l'envahissement de la vie priv6e, sans qu'il soit n6cessaire d'6tablir l'in'
tention criminelle, la loi a entendue interdire toute discussion de la part de la d6fense sur
la v6ritd des faits. Le rem6de eut 6te pire que le mal, si un ddbat avait pu s'engager sur
ce terrain." Circ. Mins. Just., 4 Juin, i868. Rivi6re Code Franqaiset Lois Usuelles, App.
Code Penn. 20 n(a).

to society, it is the same principle adopted in a large category of

statutory offences.
The remedies for an invasion of the right of privacy are also

suggested by those administered in the law of defamation, and in
the law of literary and artistic property, namely:
i. An action of tort for damages in all cases.' Even in the
absence of special damages, substantial compensation could be
allowed for injury to feelings as in the action of slander and libel.
2. An injunction, in perhaps a very limited class of cases.2
It would doubtless be desirable that the privacy of the individual
should receive the added protection of the criminal law, but for
this, legislation would be required.3 Perhaps it would be deemed
proper to bring the criminal liability for such publication within
narrower limits ; but that the community has an interest in pre-
venting such invasions of privacy, sufficiently strong to justify
the introduction of such a remedy, cannot be doubted. Still, the
protection of society must come mainly through a recognition of
1
Comp. Drone on Copyright, p. I07.
2 Comp. High on Injunctions, 3d ed., ? IOI5; Townshend on Libel and Slander,
4th ed., ?? 4I 7a--417d.
3 The following draft of a bill has been prepared by William H. Dunbar, Esq., of the
Boston bar, as a suggestion for possible legislation: -
"SECTION I. Whoever publishesin aiy newspaper,journal,magazine.or other period-
ical publication any statement concerning the privatelife or affairs of another, after being
requested in writing by such other person not to publish such statement or any statement
concerning him, shall be punished by imprisonment in the State prison not exceeding
five years, or by imprisonment in the jail inotexceeding two years, or by fine not exceed-
ing one thousand dollars; provided, that no statement concerning the conduct of any
person in, or the qualifications of any person for, a public office or position which such
person holds, has held, or is seeking to obtain, or for which such person is at the time of
such publication a candidate, or for which he or she is then suggested as a candidate, and
no statement of or concerning the acts of any person in his or her business, profession,
or calling, and no statement concerning any person in relation to a position, profession,
business, or calling, bringing such person prominently before the public, or in relation
to the qualifications for such a position, business, profession, or calling of any person
prominent or seekingprominence before the public, and no statement relating to any act
done by any person in a public place, nor any other statement of nmatterwhich is of
public and general interest, shall be deemed a statement concerning the private life or
affairs of such person within the meaning of this act.
" SECT. 2. It shall not be a defence to any criminal prosecution brought under section
I of this act that the statement complained of is true,or that such statement was
published without a malicious intention; but no person shall be liable to punishment for
any statement published under such circumstances that if it were defamatory the publica-
tion thereof would be privileged."

220 HARVARD LAW RE VIEW.
the rights of the individual. Each man is responsible for his own
acts and omissions only. If he condones what he reprobates, with
a weapon at hand equal to his defence, he is responsible for the
results. If he resists, public opinion will rally to his support.
Has he then such a weapon ? It is believed that the common law
provides him with one, forged in the slow fire of the centuries,
and to-day fitly tempered to his hand. The common law has
always recognized a man's house as his castle, impregnable, often,
even to its own officers engaged in the execution of its commands.
Shall the courts thus close the front entrance to constituted
authority, and open wide the back door to idle or prurient curi-
osity ?
Samuel D. Warren,
Louis 19. Brandeis.
BOSTON, December, 189o.


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The Right to Privacy

Author(s): Samuel D. Warren and Louis D. Brandeis

This content downloaded from 78.84.245.105 on Sun, 13 Apr 2014 14:50:16 PM

THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY.

"It could be done only on principles of private justice, moral fitness,

THAT the individual shall have full protection in person and

This content downloaded from 78.84.245.105 on Sun, 13 Apr 2014 14:50:16 PM

This content downloaded from 78.84.245.105 on Sun, 13 Apr 2014 14:50:16 PM

as works of literature and art, goodwill, 2 trade secrets, and trade-

This content downloaded from 78.84.245.105 on Sun, 13 Apr 2014 14:50:16 PM

of the right of circulating portraits; and the question whether our

This content downloaded from 78.84.245.105 on Sun, 13 Apr 2014 14:50:16 PM

It is our purpose to consider whether the existing law affords a

Owing to the nature of the instruments by which privacy is in-

1 Though the legal value of "feelings" is now generally recognized, distinctions

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feelings, in case of seduction, abduction of a child (Stowe v. Heywood, 7 All. i I8), or

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method of expression adopted. It is immaterial whether it be by

l Nicols v. Pitman, 26 Ch. D. 374 (1884).

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publishes it.1 It is entirely independent of the copyright laws,

1 Duke of Queensberry v. Shebbeare, 2 Eden, 329 (I 758); Bartlett v. Crittenden,

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of that term. A man records in a letter to his son, or in his

This content downloaded from 78.84.245.105 on Sun, 13 Apr 2014 14:50:16 PM

Prince Albert v. Strange, the court held that the common-law

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when the subject-matter for which protection is invoked is not

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This content downloaded from 78.84.245.105 on Sun, 13 Apr 2014 14:50:16 PM

is another's, the facts relating to his private life, which he has

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If we are correct in this conclusion, the existing law affords a

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deliberate expression of thoughts and emotions in literary or ar-

It should be stated that, in some instances where protection

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doubted whether there could be property in lectures which had

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photographer's using his negative." But the court, while ex-

1 "The question, therefore, is whether a photographer who has been employed by a

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confidence; but now that modern devices afford abundant op-

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1 "The receiver of a letter is not a bailee, nor does he stand in a characteranalogous to

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We must therefore conclude that the rights, so protected, what-

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ments in a letter, if handiwork, however inartistic and valueless,

I Loi Relative a la Presse. ii Mai i868.

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properly prefer to keep private, made public against their will.

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a certain extent uncertain in its operation and easily rendered

"Celui-la seul a droit au silence absoluqui n'a pas expressdment ou indirectment

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for almost every purpose of benevolence, business, or other general

1 Wason v. Walters, L. R. 4 Q. B. 73; Smith v. Higgins, i6 Gray, 25I; Barrows v.