CHAPTER 2

CRAFTING THE CURRICULUM

Module 3: The Teacher as a Curriculum Designer

Lesson 1: Fundamentals of Curriculum Designing

Building on Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum designing

Before a teacher designs a curriculum, it would be important to connect to the
fundamental concepts and ideas about the curriculum mentioned in Module 1 and 2.
Every curriculum designer, implementor, or evaluator should consider the following
general axioms as a guide in curriculum development (Oliva, 2003).

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable. Earlier it was

stated that one of the characteristics of a curriculum is being dynamic. Because
of this, teachers should respond to the changes that occur in schools and their
contexts. Societal development and knowledge revolution come so fast that
addressing the changing condition requires new curriculum designs.

2. The curriculum reflects as a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should

respond to current social forces, philosophical positions, psychological
principles, new knowledge, and educational reforms. It is also called timeliness.

3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer

curriculum changes. A revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. The
curriculum is often gradually phased in and phased out; thus, the change that
occurs can coexist and frequently overlaps for long periods.

4. Curriculum change depends on the people who will implement the change.
Teachers who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its
development, hence should know how to design a curriculum. Because the
teachers are the implementers of the curriculum, they should design and own
the changes. It will assure an effective and long-lasting change.

5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in

some aspects of curriculum development are suggested. Consultations with
stakeholders when possible will add to a sense of ownership. Even learners
should participate in some aspect of curriculum designing. Any significant
 change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stakeholders to
understand, support, and input.

6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices

of alternatives. A curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents,
teach, philosophy, or point of view to support, how to provide for multicultural
groups, what methods or strategies, and what type of evaluation to use.

7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process. Continuous monitoring,

examination, evaluation, and improvement of curricula are to be considered in
the design of the curriculum. As the needs of learners change, as society
changes, and as new knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must
change.

8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process

rather than a "piecemeal ."A curriculum design should be based on a careful
plan, intended outcomes established, support resources and needed time
available, and teaching staff pedagogically equipped.

9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic

process. A curriculum design comprises desired outcomes, subject matter
content complimented with references, a set of procedures, needed materials
and resources, and an evaluation procedure that can be placed in a matrix.

10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is. Curriculum
planners and designers should begin with the existing curriculum. An existing
design is a good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich
a curriculum.

Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us continue learning how to design a
curriculum by identifying its components. For most curricula, the major components or
elements are answers to the following questions:

1. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning

Outcomes)
2. What content should be included to achieve the learning outcome? (Subject
Matter)
3. What learning experiences and resources shall be employed? (Teaching-
Learning Methods)
4. How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of
Achieved Learning Outcomes)
Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design
There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some would call it a
syllabus or a lesson plan. Some would call it a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is
the name of the common components for all of them are almost the same. However,
some schools, institutions, or departments may add minor parts or trimmings to the
design.

Let us take the Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum. A lesson plan or teaching
guide includes (1) Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome
(DLO) was formerly labeled as behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter or Content, (3)
Teaching and Learning Methods, and (4) Assessment Evaluation. Each of these
components or elements is described below.

I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the
reason for undertaking the learning lesson from the student's point of view. The desired
learning outcome is accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged in by the
learners under the teacher's guidance. As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the
learning journey is the learning outcomes to be achieved. In this way, both the learner
and the teacher are guided by what to accomplish.

The behavioral objectives, intended learning outcomes, or desired learning

outcomes are expressed in action words found in the revised Bloom's Taxonomy of
Objectives (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2003) to develop cognitive skills. For the effective
skills, the taxonomy was made by Krathwohl and the psychomotor domain by Simpson.

The statement should be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-

oriented, and Time-bound. For a beginner, it would help to provide the Condition,
Performance, and Extend or Level of Performance in the statement of the intended
earning outcomes.

For example, a lesson intends the students to identify the parts of a simple flower
or stated in desired learning outcomes should be "must-have identified the parts of a
simple flower.

Sometimes the phrase intended learning outcomes refers to the anticipated

results after completing the planned activity or lesson. In framing learning outcomes, it
is good practice to:

• Express each outcome in terms of what successful students will do. For
example, students will explain why rather than a state. It should be: 'Students
must have explained why...'. It helps students focus on what they have to
achieve as learning. It will also help curricularist devise appropriate
assessment tasks.
 • Include different kinds of outcomes. The most common are cognitive
objectives (learning facts, theories, formulae, principles) and performance
outcomes (learning how to carry out procedures, calculations, and
processes, which typically include gathering information and communicating
results). In some contexts, effective outcomes are important too (developing
attitudes or values, e.g., those required as a person and for a particular
profession.

II. Content/Subject Matter

The content of the lesson or unit is the topics or subject matter that will be
covered. In selecting content, you should bear in mind the following principles in
addition to those mentioned about the content in previous lessons.

• Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An

effective curriculum is purposively focused on the planned learning
outcomes.

• Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit. An

effective curriculum is progressive, leading students towards building on
previous lessons. Contents that are too basic or too advanced for the
development levels of learners make students either bored or baffled and
affect their motivation to learn.

• Subject matter should be up to date and, if possible, should reflect current

knowledge and concepts.

III. References
The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has
been taken. The reference may be a book, a module, or any publication. It must bear
the author of the material and, if possible, the publications. Some examples are given
below.

1. Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary

Conservation, and Environmental Education Program. Council of
Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD

2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al. (2009). An introduction to Physical

Science.Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston MA

3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture and Exploratory Course.Lorimar

Publishing Inc. Quezon City
 4. Bilbao, Purita P. And Corpuz, Brenda B. et al (2012).The Teaching Profession
2nd Ed. Lorimar Publishing Inc. Quezon City

IV. Teaching and Learning Methods

These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good
to keep in mind the teaching strategies students will experience (lectures, laboratory
classes, fieldwork) and make them learn. The teaching-learning methods should allow
cooperation, competition, and individualism or independent learning among the
students. For example:
• Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are
guided to learn their own to find solutions to their problems. The role of the
teachers is to guide the learners. The democratic process is encouraged, and
each contributes to the success of learning. Students learn from each other
in ways. Group projects and activities enhance the curriculum.

• Independent learning activities allow learners to develop personal

responsibility. The degree of independence to learn how to learn is
enhanced. This strategy is more appropriate for fast learners.

• Competitive activities, where students test their competencies against

another healthy manner, allow learners to perform to their maximum. Most
successful individuals in their adult life are competitive, even in early
schooling. They mostly become the survivors in a very competitive world.

• The use of various delivery modes to provide learning experiences is

recommended. Online learning and similar modes are increasingly important
in many curricula. However, these need to be planned carefully to be
effective.

VI. Assessment/Evaluation
Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e., when they
receive information on what they have (and have not) already learned. The process by
which this information is generated is assessment. It has three main forms:

• Self-assessment, through which student learns to monitor and evaluate their

learning. It should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim
to produce appropriately reflective and self-critical graduates.

• Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other's

learning. It can be viewed as an extension of self-assessment and
presupposes trust and mutual respect. Research suggests that students can
judge each other's work as reliably as staff.
 • Teacher assessment: The teacher prepares and administers tests and gives
feedback on the student's performance.

Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student

learn more) or summative (expressing a judgment on the student's achievement
by referencing stated criteria). Many assessment tasks involve an element of
both, e.g., an assignment marked and returned to the student with detailed
comments.

Summative assessment usually involves the allocation of marks or grades.

It helps the teacher make decisions about the progress or performance of the
students.

Students usually learn more by understanding the strengths and

weaknesses of their work than by knowing the mark or grade given to it. For this
reason, summative assessment tasks (including unseen examinations) should
include an element of formative feedback, if possible.

Application of the Fundamental Components in Other Curriculum Designs.

While our example refers only to designing a lesson plan which is a mini
curriculum, similar components will also be used in making a syllabus for teaching in
higher education courses or other curricular projects. Based on the curriculum models
we have learned, the fundamental components include the following:

Major components of a Course Design or Syllabus

1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)

2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

All other additional components are trimmings that each designer may place.
This additional part may be an institutional template suggested by other curriculum
experts. As required by educational agencies like the Department of Education,
Commission on Higher Education, Accrediting Agencies, and Professional Organization
would serve the purposes they intend to achieve.
Lesson 2: Approaches to Curriculum Designing

Types of Curriculum Design Models

There are many ways of looking at a curriculum and designing one. For our
purposes, let us focus on the most widely used examples.

1. Subject-Centered Design
It is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum. The
subject-centered design corresponds mostly to the textbook because textbooks are
usually written on a specific subject or course. Henry Morrison and William Harris are
the few curricularists who firmly believe in this design. As practiced, school hours are
allocated to subjects such as Science, Mathematics, Language, Social Studies,
Physical Education, and others. It is also practiced in the Philippines because a school
day is divided into the class period, a school year into quarters or semesters. Most
schools using this kind of structure and curriculum design aim for excellence in the
specific subject discipline content.

Subject-centered curriculum design also has some variations focused on the

individual subject, specific discipline, and a combination of subjects or disciplines
that are broad field or interdisciplinary.

1.1. Subject Design - What subject are you teaching? What subject are you taking?
These are two sample questions that the teacher and the learner can easily answer.
It is because they are familiar with the subject design curriculum.

Subject design curriculum is the oldest and the most familiar design for
teachers, parents, and other laypeople. According to the advocates, subject design
has an advantage because it is easy to deliver. Textbooks are written, and support
instructional materials are commercially available. Teachers are familiar with the
format because they were also educated using the design. In the Philippine
educational system, the number of subjects in elementary education is fewer than in
the secondary level. The number of subjects also differs according to the degree
programs being pursued in college. For each subject, a curriculum is being
designed.

However, the drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is so

compartmentalized. It stresses so much the content and forgets about students'
natural tendencies, interests, and experiences. The teacher becomes the dispenser
of knowledge, and the learners are simply the empty vessel to receive the
information or content from the teacher. It is a traditional approach to teaching and
learning.

1.2 Discipline design - This curriculum design model is related to the subject
design. However, while subject design centers only on the cluster of the content,
discipline design focuses on academic disciplines. Discipline refers to specific
 knowledge learned through a method the scholars use to study a specific content of
their fields. Students in history should learn the subject matter like historians,
students in biology should learn how biologists learn, and students in mathematics
should learn how mathematicians learn. Similarly, teachers should teach how the
scholars in the discipline will convey the particular knowledge.

1.3 Correlation design - Coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links
separate subject designs to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one
another and still maintain the subject's identity. For example, English literature and
social studies correlate well at the elementary level. In the two subjects, while
history is being studied, different literary pieces during the historical period are being
studied. The same is true when science becomes the core. Mathematics is related
to it, as they are taken in chemistry, physics, and biology. Another example is
literature as the core, and art, music, history, geography will be related. To use
correlated design. Teachers should come together and plan their lessons
cooperatively.

1.4 Broad field design/Interdisciplinary - Broadfields or interdisciplinary variation

of the subject-centered design. This design was made to cure the
compartmentalization of the separate subject and integrate the contents that are
related to each other. Thus subjects such as geography, economics, political
science, anthropology, sociology, and history are fused into one subject called
social studies. Language arts include grammar, literature, linguistics, spelling, and
composition.

Sometimes called holistic curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and
integration. Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic design, where a specific
theme is identified, and all other subjects areas revolve around the theme.

2. Learner-Centered Design
The learner is the center of the educative process among progressive
educational psychologists. This emphasis is very strong at the elementary level;
however, more concern has been placed on the secondary and tertiary levels. Although
in high school, the subject or content has become the focus, and at the college level,
the discipline is the center, both levels still recognize the importance of the learner in the
curriculum.

Here are some examples of the curriculum design which are learner-centered.

2.1 Child-centered design - this design is often attributed to the influence of John
Dewey, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Frobel. The curriculum design is anchored on
the needs and interests of the child. The learner is not considered a passive
individual but engages with his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners
actively create construct meanings and understanding as viewed by the
constructivists. In the child-centered design, learners interact with the teachers and
 the environment; thus, both sides have a collaborative effort to plan lessons, select
content, and do activities together. Learning is a product of the child's interaction
with the environment.

2.2 Experience-centered design - This design is similar to child-centered design.

Although the focus remains to be the child, experience-centered design believes
that the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-planned. Instead, the
learners' experience becomes the starting point of the curriculum; thus, the school
environment is left open and free. Learners are made to choose from various
activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their
learning from the different opportunities given by the teacher. Different learning
centers are found in a school where an experience-centered curriculum is provided,
time is flexible, and children are free to make options. Activities revolve around
different emphasis such as touching, feeling, imagining, constructing, relating, and
others. The emergence of multiple intelligence theory blends well with an
experience-centered design curriculum.

2.3 Humanistic Design - the key influence in this curriculum design are Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow's theory of self-actualization explains that a
person who achieves this level accepts self, others, and natures; is simple,
spontaneous, and natural; is open to different experiences; possesses empathy and
sympathy towards the less fortunate; among the many others. The person can
achieve this state of self-actualization later in life but has to start the process while
still in school. On the other hand, Carl Rogers believed that a person could enhance
self-directed learning by improving self-understanding basic attitudes to guide
behavior.

In humanistic curriculum design, self-development is the ultimate objective of

learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling, and
doing. It considers the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains
interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum. It stresses the
development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.

3. Problem-Centered Design

Generally, the problem-centered design draws on the learners' social problems,

needs, interests, and abilities. Various problems are given emphasis. Those center on
life situations, contemporary life problems, areas of living, and many others. In this
curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the students'
needs, concerns, and abilities. Two examples are given for the problem-centered
design curriculum.

3.1 Life-situation design - What makes the design unique is that the contents
are organized to allow students to view problem areas. It uses the past and the
present experiences of learners to analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting
point, the pressing immediate problems of society and the students' existing
 concerns are utilized. Based on Herbert Spencer's curriculum writing, his
emphases were activities that sustain life, enhance life, aid in rearing, and
enhance leisure, tasks, and feelings. The connection of subject matter to real
situations increases the relevance of the curriculum.

3.2 Core Problem Design - Another example of problem-centered design is core

design. It centers on general education, and the problems are based on common
human activities. The central focus of the core design includes common needs,
problems, concerns of the learners. Popularized by Faunce and Bossing in 1959,
they presented ways to proceed using the core design of a curriculum. These are
the steps.

Step 1. Make group consensus on important problems.

Step 2. Develop criteria for the selection of important problems.
Step 3. State and define the problem.
Step 4. Decide on the areas of study, including class groupings.
Step 5. List the needed information for resources.
Step 6. Obtain and organize information.
Step 7. Analyze and interpret the information.
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 9. Present a report to the class individually or by the group.
Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions.
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further problem-solving.

These are some examples of curriculum designs. There are much more
emerging and those that have evolved in the past. The example given may be limited.
However, for our purposes, they can very well represent curriculum designs.

Approaches to Curriculum Design

How will the teacher approach a particular design? After writing a curriculum
based on the specific design, let us see how a teacher will approach this. We will find
out the utilization of the example design.

Child or Learner-Centered Approach- This approach to curriculum design is

based on the underlying philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of
the educational process. It means that the curriculum is constructed based on the
learners' needs, interests, purposes, and abilities. The curriculum is also built
upon the learners' knowledge, skills, previous learnings, and potential.
 From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be approached?
Let us consider these principles.

Principles for Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.

2. All activities shall revolve around the overall development of the learner.
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
4. Consider using differentiated instruction or teaching
5. Provide a motivating, supportive learning environment for all learners.

The subject-Centered Approach is anchored on a curriculum design that

prescribes separate, distinct subjects for every educational level: basic
education, higher education, or vocational-technical education. This approach
considers the following principles:

1. The primary focus is the subject matter

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be
detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulations of content or knowledge.
5. Teacher’s role is to dispense the content.

Problem-Centered Approach- This approach is based on a design that

assumes that in the process of living, children experience problems. Thus,
problem-solving enables the learners to become increasingly able to achieve
complete or total development as individuals.

The following views and beliefs characterize this approach:

1. The learners can direct and guide themselves in resolving

problems, thus developing every learner to be independent.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through
direct participation in different activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners to recognize concerns and
problems in seeking solutions. Learners are problem solvers themselves.
Lesson 3: Curriculum Mapping
A curriculum design is reflected in a written curriculum either as a lesson plan,
syllabus, unit plan, or a bigger curriculum like K to 12. Before a teacher puts this plan or
design into action, one must do a curriculum map.

Have you ever wondered how to pace your lesson so that it will cover a period of
time like hours, weeks, quarters, semester, or the whole year? This lesson will teach us
curricularists an important process and tool in curriculum development: Curriculum
Mapping and Curriculum Maps.

Curriculum Mapping
Curriculum mapping is a process or procedure that follows curriculum designing.
It is done before curriculum implementation or the operationalization of the written
curriculum. Heidi Hayes Jacobs introduced this process in 2004 in her book Getting
Results with Curriculum Mapping (ASCD, 2004). This approach is an ongoing process
or "work-in-progress." It is not a one-time initiative but a continuing action, which
involves the teacher and other stakeholders who have common concerns. Curriculum
mapping can be done by teachers alone, a group of teachers teaching the same
subject, the department, the whole school or district, or the whole educational system.

Some curricularists would describe curriculum mapping as making a map to

success. There are common questions that different stakeholders ask, like teachers,
colleagues, parents, school officials, and the community. These questions may include:

1. What do my students learn?

2. What do they study in the first quarter?
3. What are they studying in the school throughout the year?
4. Do my co-teachers who handle the same subject cover the same content?
Achieve the same outcomes? Use similar strategies?
5. How do I help my students understand the connections between my subjects and
other subjects within the year? Next year?

Curriculum Mapping Process

According to what outcome one needs to produce, there are many ways of doing
things. It is also true with curriculum mapping. However, whatever outcome (map) will
be made, there are suggested steps to follow.

Example A.
1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.
2. Place a timeline that you need to cover. (one quarter, one semester, one
year). It should be dependent on the time frame of a particular curriculum that
was written.
 3. Enter the intended learning outcomes skills needed to be taught or achieved
at the end of the teaching.
4. Enter the same matrix of the content areas/subject areas to be covered.
5. Align and name each resource available such as textbooks, workbooks,
modules next to subject areas.
6. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to achieve the outcomes.
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the intended learning
outcomes, content areas, and resources.
8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their inputs.
9. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and distribute to all concerned.

Example A as a component of an OBE-inspired syllabus for higher education.

However, as you will see in some maps, this can be modified for basic education to
serve a specific purpose.

Example B (For a degree program in college)*

1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.

2. Identify the degree or program outcomes (ex. BEEd, or BSED)
3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree (Gen.Ed, Prof.Ed, and Major
for BSEd)
4. List the subjects along with the vertical cells of the matrix in a logical or
chronological order,
5. List the degree program outcomes along with the horizontal cell (use code as
PO1, PO2... if outcomes are too long to fit in the cell) PO mean Program
Outcomes
6. Cross the Subject and the Outcome, and determine if such subject accomplishes
the outcomes as either learned (L), Performed (P), or given Opportunity (O).
Place the code in the corresponding cell.
7. All cells should be filled up.
8. After accomplishing the map, this will serve as a guide for all teachers teaching
the course for students to complete the degree in four years.

The Curriculum Map

Curriculum maps are visual timelines that outline desired learning outcomes to
be achieved, content, skills, and values taught, instructional time, assessment to be
used, and the overall student movement towards the attainment of the intended
outcomes. Curricular maps may be simple or elaborate that can be used by an
individual teacher, a department, the whole school, or the educational system. A map is
geared to a school calendar.
Curriculum maps provide quality control of what schools teach to maintain
excellence, efficiency, and effectiveness. It is intended to improve instruction and
maintain the quality of education that all stakeholders need to be assured.
 Sometimes, parents and teachers would ask questions like: "Why is my friend's
son studying decimals in Mr. Bernardos's class and my son is not studying the
same in Miss Julia's class when they are of the same grade level?" or "Why do
some of my students recognize the parts of speech while others are lost?"

Parents, teachers, and the whole educational community can look at the
curriculum map to see that intended outcomes and content are covered. A map can
reassure stakeholders specific information for pacing and alignment of the subject
horizontally or vertically. It will also avoid redundancy, inconsistencies, and
misalignment. Courses that are not correctly aligned will allow teachers to quickly
assess the mastery of the skills in the previous grade to avoid unnecessary reteaching.

Horizontal alignment, sometimes called a "pacing guide," will make all teachers
teaching the same subject at a grade level follow the same timeline and accomplish the
same learning outcomes. It is necessary for state-mandated, standard-based
assessment that we have in schools. The vertical alignment will see that concept
development in a hierarchy or spiral form does not overlap but builds from simple to
complicated concepts and skills. Whether vertical or horizontal, alignment will also
develop interdisciplinary connections among teachers and students, between and
among courses. Teachers can verify that skills and content are addressed in other
courses or higher levels, thus making learning more relevant.

A curriculum map is always a work in progress that enables the teacher pr the
curriculum review team to create and recreate the curriculum. It provides good
information for modifying curriculum changing of standards and competencies to find
ways to build connections in the elements of the curricula.

Reference

Bilbao, P.B., Corpuz, B.B. & Dayagbil, F.T. (2014). Curriculum development for
teachers. Lorimar Publishing, INC. Quezon City, Metro Manila.