Name Muhammad Mujtaba

Regist.No 18PLH01871

Tutor Name Miss Samina Atta

Program M.A (Special Education)

Course Code 3606

Course Education of Mentally Retarded Children-II

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

 ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 Explain instructional objectives. Describe different types of objectives.

What tips are helpful to the teacher for writing instructional objectives?
 

Instructional objectives

An instructional objective is a statement that will describe what the learner will
be able to do after completing the instruction. According to Dick and Carey
(1990), a performance objective is a detailed description of what students will
be able to do when they complete a unit of instruction. It is also referred to as a
behavioral objective or an instructional objective.

Robert Mager (1984), in his book Preparing Instructional Objectives, describes

an objective as "a collection of words and/or pictures and diagrams intended to
let others know what you intend for your students to achieve" An objective
does not describe what the instructor will be doing, but instead the skills,
knowledge, and attitudes that the instructor will be attempting to produce in
learners.

 Instructional objectives are specific, measurable, short-term, observable

student behaviors. They indicate the desirable knowledge, skills, or
attitudes to be gained.
 An instructional objective is the focal point of a lesson plan. Objectives
are the foundation upon which you can build lessons and assessments and
instruction that you can prove meet your overall course or lesson goals.
 Think of objectives as tools you use to make sure you reach your goals.
They are the arrows you shoot towards your target (goal).
 Begin with an understanding of the particular content to which the
objectives will relate.
 The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the
vision of education in the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused
clearly enough that both students and teacher know what is going on, and
so learning can be objectively measured. Different archers have different
styles, so do different teachers. Thus, you can shoot your arrows
(objectives) many ways. The important thing is that they reach your target
(goals) and score that bullseye!
The purpose of a behavioral objective is to communicate . Therefore, a well-
constructed behavioral objective should leave little room for doubt about what
is intended.

 Objectives communicate and guide development of assessment,

instructional methods, and content materials.
 Objectives communicate the focus of learning that enables instructors and
students to work toward a common goal.

o The teacher can use objectives to make sure goals are reached.
o Students will understand expectations. Any skill is learned more
effectively if the learner understands the reason for learning and
practicing it.

 Objectives communicate the a ssessment and grading. Objectives provide

a means of measuring whether the students have succeeded in acquiring
skills and knowledge.
 Objectives communicate and allow students the opportunity for self-
evaluation .

How?

Instructional objectives must be written to

communicate realistic, measurable, and learner centered outcomes.

 Realistic objectives can be achieved by the learners within your time

frame and in your given environment.
 Measurable objectives enable you to observe and determine how well
learners have acquired skills and knowledge.
 Learner centered objectives state what the learner can do at the end of
training. They always start with action verbs.
 Specify intended results or outcomes, and not the process Teaching and
lecturing is part of the process of instruction, but it isn't the purpose of the
instruction. The purpose is to facilitate learning.

Instructional objectives contain four components: the Audience, the Behavior,

the Condition, and the Degree. (Section 4 of this tutorial fully describes these
components.)

When?

Objectives should be developed:

 Before a lesson or course is developed (by designer).

  Before a lesson or course is taught (by instructor).
 Objectives should be reviewed with students at the beginning of the
course/module/lesson.

Types of Objectives

Objectives can be classified into three domains of learning:

1. Cognitive

2. Psychomotor

3. Attitudes

Common types of learning objectives

COGNITIVE LEARNING DOMAIN OBJECTIVES

 deal with what a student should know, understand or comprehend.

 emphasize remembering or reproducing something which has presumably
been learned.
 solving some intellective task for which the individual has to determine
the essential problem.
 reorder given material or combine it with ideas, methods, or procedures
previously learned.
 vary from simple recall of material learned to highly original and creative
ways of combining and synthesizing new ideas and materials.
 should encourage higher order thinking using Bloom’s Taxonomy as a
guide (See section 5 for further information.)

SAMPLE COGNITIVE OBJECTIVE

A. The junior high school student, in section II,

B. will label clouds as being cirrus, stratus, cumulus, or nimbus,

C. when shown actual clouds or pictures of them

D. with 80 percent accuracy.

Since being able to identify different kinds of clouds requires the student to
understand or comprehend the categories indicated, this is a cognitive objective.
PSYCHOMOTOR LEARNING DOMAIN OBJECTIVES

 are concerned with how a student controls or moves his body.

 emphasize some muscular or motor skill such as use of precision
instruments or tools,
 encourage actions which evidence gross motor skills such as the use of
the body in dance or athletic performance .
 Include examples like typing 25 words per minute, printing letters
correctly, painting a picture, or dribbling a basketball.

SAMPLE PSYCHOMOTOR OBJECTIVE

A. Third grade students, beginning a unit on handwriting,

B. will write

C. the letters d, b, g, and p using cursive style handwriting

D. forming each letter correctly and with a single smooth stroke.

Since being able to write cursive style requires the student to manipulate an
object, a pencil or pen, to produce a product, the written letters, this is a
psychomotor objective.

3. AFFECTIVE LEARNING DOMAIN OBJECTIVES

 deal with how a student should feel about something

 emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion, a degree of acceptance or rejection,
attitudes, appreciations, or relationships .
 vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but
internally consistent qualities of character and conscience.
 include examples like listening attentively, enjoying music, or
appreciating literature.

SAMPLE AFFECTIVE OBJECTIVE

C. Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different

races,

A. the student

B. will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of

race,

D. as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.

The objective suggests that a student will come to feel more positive about
working with diverse populations. Because increased interest and attitude and
not knowledge of the subject is the behavior involved, this is an affective
objective.

In summary,

 Cognitive objectives emphasize THINKING,
 Affective objectives emphasize FEELING and
 Psychomotor objectives emphasize ACTING.

Q.2 Elaborate classroom assessment assumptions. Evaluate your

competencies in the light fulfilling these assumptions.

Formative evaluation is a process of ongoing feedback on performance. The

purposes are to identify aspects of performance that need to improve and to
offer corrective suggestions. Feedback given as part of formative assessment
helps learners become aware of any gaps that exist between their desired goal
and their current knowledge, understanding, or skill and guides them through
actions necessary to obtain the goal give a good overview of formative
evaluation with their 7 basic assumptions of classroom assessment:

1. Quality of student learning is directly related to quality of teaching,

2. The first step in getting useful feedback about course goals is to make
these goals explicit,
3. Students need focused feedback early and often, and they should be
taught how to assess their own learning,
4. The most effective assessment addresses problem-directed questions that
faculty ask themselves,
5. Course assessment is an intellectual challenge and therefore motivating
for the faculty,
6. Assessment does not require special training,
7. Collaboration with colleagues and students improves learning and is
satisfying.

Research Findings:

There is evidence that high quality formative assessment has a powerful impact
on student learning. Black and William report that studies of formative
assessment show an effect size on standardized tests of between 0.4 and 0.7,
larger than most known educational interventions. Formative assessment is
particularly effective for students who have not done well in school, thus
narrowing the gap between low and high achievers while raising overall
achievement.

The most helpful type of feedback on tests and homework provides specific
comments about errors and specific suggestions for improvement and
encourages students to focus their attention thoughtfully on the task rather than
on simply getting .This type of feedback may be particularly helpful to lower
achieving students because it emphasizes that students can improve as a result
of effort rather than be doomed to low achievement due to some presumed lack
of innate ability. Formative assessment helps support the expectation that all
children can learn to high levels and counteracts the cycle in which students
attribute poor performance to lack of ability and therefore become discouraged
and unwilling to invest in further learning

The Collaborative for Social Emotional Learning, known as CASEL, is the

leading organization advancing the promotion of integrated academic, social,
and emotional learning for all children in preschool through high school. We
use CASEL’s five core competencies of social emotional learning.
Self-Awareness

Understanding your emotions and thoughts and how they influence your
behavior.
Skills include: identifying emotions, self-perception, recognizing strengths, self-
confidence, and self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy is the belief in your ability to succeed in specific situations or

accomplishment of a task. 

Self-Management

The ability to regulate your emotions and behaviors in different situations and to
set and work toward goals.
Skills include: executive function and self-regulation, stress-management, and
self-discipline.

Executive function and self-regulation are the mental processes that enable us to
plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and juggle multiple tasks
successfully. Our brains need this skill set to filter distractions, prioritize tasks,
set and achieve goals, and control impulses. 

Responsible Decision-Making

The ability to make positive choices and take responsibility for positive and
negative outcomes.
Skills include: identifying problems, analyzing situations, solving problems, and
reflection.

Social Awareness

The ability to take the perspective of and empathize with others.

Skills include: empathy, appreciating differences, and respect.

Relationship Skills

The ability to establish and maintain healthy and meaningful relationships with
others.
Skills include: communicating clearly, listening, cooperation, resisting negative
pressure, resolving conflicts, and supporting one another.

Q.3 Compare the role of psychiatrist and psychologist in preparing a child

with intellectual disability to cope with challenges of community living.

Intellectual disability1 involves problems with general mental abilities that

affect functioning in two areas:

 Intellectual functioning (such as learning, problem solving, judgement).

 Adaptive functioning (activities of daily life such as communication and
independent living).

Additionally, the intellectual and adaptive deficit begin early in the

developmental period.

Intellectual disability affects about 1% of the population, and of those about

85% have mild intellectual disability. Males are more likely than females to be
diagnosed with intellectual disability.

Diagnosing Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability is identified by problems in both intellectual and adaptive

functioning.

Intellectual functioning is measured with individually administered and

psychometrically valid, comprehensive, culturally appropriate, psychometrically
sound tests of intelligence. While a specific full-scale IQ test score is no longer
required for diagnosis, standardized testing is used as part of diagnosing the
condition. A full-scale IQ score of around 70 to 75 indicates a significant
limitation in intellectual functioning.2 However, the IQ score must be
interpreted in the context of the person’s difficulties in general mental abilities.
Moreover, scores on subtests can vary considerably so that the full-scale IQ
score may not accurately reflect overall intellectual functioning. Therefore,
clinical judgment is needed in interpreting the results of IQ tests.

Three areas of adaptive functioning are considered:3

 1. Conceptual – language, reading, writing, math, reasoning, knowledge,
memory.
2. Social – empathy, social judgment, communication skills, the ability to
follow rules and the ability to make and keep friendships.
3. Practical – independence in areas such as personal care, job
responsibilities, managing money, recreation, and organizing school and
work tasks.

Adaptive functioning is assessed through standardized measures with the

individual and interviews with others, such as family members, teachers and
caregivers.

Intellectual disability is identified as mild (most people with intellectual

disability are in this category), moderate or severe. The symptoms of
intellectual disability begin during childhood. Delays in language or motor
skills may be seen by age two. However, mild levels of intellectual disability
may not be identified until school age when a child has difficulty with
academics.

Causes

There are many different causes of intellectual disability. It can be associated

with a genetic syndrome, such as Down syndrome or Fragile X syndrome. It
may develop following an illness such as meningitis, whooping cough or
measles; may result from head trauma during childhood; or may result from
exposure to toxins such as lead or mercury. Other factors that may contribute to
intellectual disability include brain malformation, maternal disease and
environmental influences (alcohol, drugs or other toxins). A variety of labor-
and delivery-related events, infection during pregnancy and problems at birth,
such as not getting enough oxygen, can also contribute.

Treatment

Intellectual disability is a life-long condition. However, early and ongoing

intervention may improve functioning and enable the person to thrive
throughout their lifetime. Underlying medical or genetic conditions and co-
occurring conditions frequently add to the complex lives of people with
intellectual disability.

Once a diagnosis is made, help for individuals with intellectual disability is

focused on looking at the individual’s strengths and needs, and the supports he
or she needs to function at home, in school/work and in the community.
Services for people with intellectual disabilities and their families can provide
support to allow full inclusion in the community. Many different types of
supports and services can help, such as:

 Early intervention (infants and toddlers).

 Special education.
 Family support (for example, respite care support groups for families).
 Transition services from childhood to adulthood.
 Vocational programs.
 Day programs for adults.
 Housing and residential options.
 Case management.

Under federal law (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, IDEA, 1990),
early intervention services work to identify and help infants and toddlers with
disabilities. Federal law also requires that special education and related services
are available free to every eligible child with a disability, including intellectual
disability.

In addition, supports can come from family, friends, co-workers, community

members, school, a physician team, or from a service system. Job coaching is
one example of a support that can be provided by a service system. With proper
support, people with intellectual disabilities are capable of successful,
productive roles in society.

A diagnosis often determines eligibility for services and protection of rights,

such as special education services and home and community services. The
American Association of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD)
stresses that the main reason for evaluating individuals with intellectual
disabilities is to be able to identify and put in place the supports and services
that will help them thrive in the community throughout their lives.

Co-occurring Conditions

Some mental health, neurodevelopmental, medical and physical conditions

frequently co-occur in individuals with intellectual disability, including autism
spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder, impulse control disorder, and depression and anxiety disorders.
Identifying and diagnosing co-occurring conditions can be challenging, for
example recognizing depression in an individual with limited verbal ability.
Family caregivers are very important in identifying subtle changes. An accurate
diagnosis and treatment are important for a healthy and fulfilling life for any
individual.
  Autism spectrum disorder
 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
 Impulse control disorder
 Depression
 Anxiety disorders.

Tips for Parents

 Ask for help, learn about your child’s disability.

 Connect with other parents of children with disabilities.
 Be patient; learning may come slower for your child.
 Encourage independence and responsibility.
 Educate yourself on the educational services your child deserves.
 Learn the laws that are written to help your child live their best life.
 Look for opportunities in your community for social, recreational and
sports activities (such as Best Buddies or Special Olympics).

Q.4 Explain the process of applying positive reinforcement in classroom.

What common mistakes are observed while using this technique?
Classroom management is essential for creating an environment that is
conducive to learning. There is nothing worse than having a student’s behavior
throw a wrench in your entire lesson plan. It might be tempting to address
disruptive behaviors directly with consequences and reprimands.

Unfortunately, this draws unnecessary attention to the undesired behavior. It can

also lead to further disruptions and discourage trust and respect among
your students. Positive reinforcement is a superior technique for maintaining
order and establishing a conducive learning environment.
Here’s why it works and five ways to use it in your classroom management
strategies.

Why Positive Reinforcement Works

The first studies on positive reinforcement date back to the 1940s. American
psychologist B.F. Skinner examined different conditioning strategies on rats. He
recorded the animals’ responses to positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, and punishment.
Skinner found positive reinforcement was the most effective way to mold
actions into desired behaviors. For years, principles have been successfully
applied in the classroom as well. Studies have found, students are more likely to
repeat a rewarded behavior than they are to stop a punished behavior.
Five Positive Reinforcement Classroom Management Strategies

Positive reinforcement is a great tool when it comes to behavior management,

but you have to know how and when to wield it.

1. Be Intentional and Diverse

A verbal “good job” is encouraging, but being more specific and intentional will

go a lot farther. Even young students are very perceptive. They will recognize
the difference between sincere and generalized praise.
Be specific about what is you find pleasing and leave them no room for doubt.
Consider varying your methods of positive reinforcement to avoid students
becoming desensitized. Use a combination of the following positive
reinforcement styles to keep your class engaged and interested:

 Nonverbal cues (thumbs up, jazz hands, clapping)

 Verbal praise (“thank you for participating,” “excellent question”)
 Tangible rewards (bite-sized candies for class participation)
 Activity rewards (five minutes of free time for those who stay on
task)
 Group rewards (end of the month pizza party for no tardies)
Students will respond in varying degrees to different types of positive
reinforcement. Don’t be discouraged if it takes some trial and error to figure
out which methods work best.

2. Practice Timely Positive Reinforcement

Another key component is timely positive reinforcement. Waiting to comment

on a student’s good behavior is less effective as the association becomes
diminished over time.
Sometimes it’s not possible to acknowledge behavior in the moment, say in the
middle of a lecture or an assembly. Remember to follow up with the student as
soon as you can, to maximize the impact of the positive reinforcement.

3. Curb Your Expectations

Many teachers are prone to highlighting the behavior of a model student in the

hope that others will follow suit. Although this works in theory, it doesn’t
always work in practice.
It can create animosity and jealousy between students, resulting in additional
behavioral issues and disruption. In addition, it leads teachers to
develop unrealistic expectations for their students. Instead of viewing small
gains as the marks of success, teachers withholding praise while they wait for
greater results.
Don’t fall into this trap. Acknowledge where your students are in their journey
to improvement and focus on incremental encouragement. Here’s an example:

Instead of holding out in hopes of a twenty-minute miracle, highlight and

reward their progress. If they read for eight minutes, they get five minutes of
tablet time. The next day, make it ten, then fifteen, until they reach the full
twenty, at which point offer additional praise to reinforce the behavior.

4. Understand How Your Students Receive Praise

Some students don’t always respond well to positive reinforcement. A shy or

socially uncomfortable student might feel embarrassed when singled out in front
of the class. This use of positive reinforcement has the potential to backfire,
leaving the student less inclined to repeat the acknowledged behavior.
Get to know the unique personalities of your students. Some of them might
prefer being thanked quietly at the end of class. Others may respond better
to phone calls or kind notes to share with their parents.
This is especially true when teaching students with special needs, who are often
hypersensitive. As a director of special education, it’s important to have
procedures in place to help your teachers navigate the unique difficulties they
face. Schedule a personal demo and learn how we can help you create a legally
defensible behavior intervention plan in under an hour.
5. Develop a Reward System

Reward systems are one of the most motivational behavior management

strategies you can implement. Tangible prizes provide an opportunity for
individual growth, encourage teamwork, and foster cooperation.

Avoid limited prizes:

Focus your prizes on effort, not accomplishment. Such as, everyone
who remained on task for thirty minutes gets five minutes of free time at the end
of class.

Focus on most improved:

Although it is important to reinforce the behavior of your top students, make
sure you have rewards geared towards the most improved behavior as well. This
maintains a balanced class dynamic, giving students at every level something to
strive for.
Create competition with group rewards:
Intentionally divide your students into teams and set up a reward for the team
that works the best together. This allows your students to build off of each
other’s strengths and practice cooperative behaviors.
Encourage long-term behavioral improvement:
Having a big prize, such as a pizza party or movie day, is a great way to
foster motivation and group effort. You might even notice your students holding
each other accountable as they work to achieve their common goal.

In response to the growing complexity of technology, in recent years I've been

conducting technology review engagements for my clients that are designed to
ferret out serious technology problems and issues, with recommended solutions.
My specialized brand of technology review engagement employs procedures
based on several dozen workplans, questionnaires, and checklists, each focusing
on approximately 30 specific aspects of a company's technology (such as
hardware, accounting software, printers, internet, security, backup procedures,
training, smartphones, cloud policies, password policies, file-sharing tools, etc.).
In conducting these types of engagements, I've identified 12 common
technology mistakes made by many of my clients; this article describes those
common mistakes and offers recommendations for avoiding them.

1. Email messages are unencrypted

Perhaps the top security risk many companies routinely ignore is the failure to
encrypt their emails. Some companies forgo email encryption because it can be
costly and complicated, while others simply dismiss the threat as insignificant.
This is a mistake. You should assume that every email message you send could
be intercepted by unscrupulous people and bad actors. Without encryption, all
your email messages are vulnerable.

Solution: Set up an email encryption system to protect all your email messages

and attachments. One relatively easy approach is to use a free Google Gmail or
Microsoft Outlook.com account, as these accounts automatically encrypt your
email messages — but only when sent to other Gmail or Outlook.com users.
Another approach is to purchase and install an email encryption system such
as Trend Micro Hosted Email Security (starting at $27 per user per year)
or Enlocked (prices range from free for 10 messages sent each month, to $29.99
per month for 10,000 messages).

2. Old computers are still used

It is common to find old computers lurking around most companies. This can be
problematic because these older devices almost always lack new features, freeze
up more often, and are slower at performing common tasks such as booting up,
launching applications, printing, and surfing the internet. In addition, as we
found with the WannaCry and Petya ransomware attacks of 2017, older
computer systems can be more vulnerable to cyberattacks. Issues related to
older computers can rob employees of productivity and put your data at
greater risk.

Solution: Computers should be replaced frequently, perhaps as often as every

three years, or within 12 months of each new Windows operating system
release. Why so often? In my opinion, most computers typically have a "power
life" of approximately three years (though the computer's monitors can have a
much longer life span); after three years, newer, more powerful computer
models are generally available. Also, new operating systems are typically
designed to be compatible with the latest motherboard, chips, and video card
technologies. As such, their performance on older computers can be
inconsistent. A few signs that it's time to replace a computer system are:

 The computer is more than 3 years old, and a newer operating system is
available.
 The computer takes more than 30 seconds to boot up.
 Excel or Word take more than five seconds to launch.
 The user complains of significant bugs, issues, or freeze-ups.

3. Employees are not adequately trained

The most common problem revealed by technology reviews is that many

employees are not adequately trained to use their technologies. You can ferret
out these shortcomings rather easily simply by asking employees which features
they use in common products, including Excel, Word, Outlook, Windows, and
their accounting system. Based on questionnaires I've reviewed, many
employees have never used key features such as PivotTables,
the Subtotal command, or Grouping, Querying, or Mapping in
Excel; Tables, Styles, Page Numbering, Columns, or Mail Merge in Word;
default Signatures, Junk Mail Blocking, Meeting Requests, Rules, or
the Convert Email to a Task tool in Outlook; or Indexed Searching, Voice
Recognition, Disk Cleanup, or the Snipping tool in Windows. These examples
are good indicators that those employees are not familiar enough with those
products to leverage them for their highest possible levels of productivity.

Solution: After being initially trained in using the company's products,

employees should receive continual, periodic "update training" on all the
software applications they frequently use. For example, employees might
receive two or three days of update training on Excel, Word, PowerPoint, and
Outlook in one year, followed by two or three additional days of update training
on Windows, smartphones, and the company's accounting system the following
year. Similar training classes should then be repeated every other year to ensure
employees are well-versed in the software programs and hardware they operate.

4. Accounting system features are underutilized

Most reviews find that a company's advanced accounting system features are
underutilized. As examples, invoices may be mailed instead of sent
electronically, inventory needs may be calculated manually instead of being
backflushed by the system, and automated sales price capabilities may be
completely ignored. The result is akin to pushing a self-propelled lawn mower.
This shortcoming is usually attributed to a lack of knowledge about using the
system's more advanced features and functionality.

Solution: To ensure you are fully using your accounting system's capabilities,
assign at least one employee the task of fully mastering your accounting or ERP
system's full set of features and functions, and have this employee regularly
share this knowledge with your team of system users. To bolster his or her
proficiency, the designated accounting system guru should study educational
training videos, YouTube clips, books about your accounting system, blogs,
professional reviews, and the vendor's end-user support pages. In addition, he or
she should attend the vendor's annual conference and annual end-
user training courses.

5. Paperless systems are inadequately implemented

Often, a company's paperless systems are found to have not been fully
implemented, as evidenced by stacks of papers, folders, and file cabinets in
plain view. Paperless systems offer many advantages, such as ease in locating
and sharing data, cost savings in storing data, easier copy and paste capabilities,
and more reliable data backup. But in many cases, it takes a leap of faith for
employees to fully commit the company's data to an electronic format. Some
employees have a difficult time letting go of paper-based methods. As a result,
your paperless system may not result in the paperless environment
you intended.

Q.5 Write short notes on the following:

 Vocational placement options for children with intellectual
disability
There was a time when people thought of special education as a place. But that
really isn’t the case any longer. Special education instead refers to services that
are used to meet the learning needs of students with disabilities.

Special Education Placement Options

Once your child’s Admission, Review, and Dismissal (ARD) committee (which

you are a part of) has developed your child’s Individualized Education Program
(IEP), the next step is to decide on an educational placement.

Placement refers to the amount of time in each school day that a student spends
in the resource or in a general education classroom. The school district is
required to have a range of placements where your child can be taught,
including in the general education classroom.

In deciding your child’s placement, the ARD committee must make sure your
child spends as much of their school day (as is appropriate) with children who
do not have disabilities. This includes academic, nonacademic, and after school
activities. This part of IDEA is called Least Restrictive Environment or LRE.
And, in this case, the word "appropriate" follows the definition of Free
Appropriate Public Education (FAPE).

The LRE for children with disabilities depends on each child’s unique needs.
It’s important to know that the school district cannot use a “one size fits all”
approach to educating children who have disabilities.

The Educational Setting

There are some common placements in which students might get specific
services. Teams of trained teachers and aides are in all types of placements.

A student could be placed in a single setting all day or spend parts of the day in
different settings. For example, a student in a mainstream education classroom
all day might receive special education services in the same general education
classroom as part of regularly scheduled instruction time. Or, a student might go
to different educational settings for part – or all – of the day to receive special
education services.

Here are some educational settings your child could have:

 Mainstream (many people refer to this as General Education): Many

students receive special education and related services in a general
education classroom where peers without disabilities also spend their
days. This is called inclusion. Some services that a student might receive
 in a mainstream setting include: direct instruction, a helping teacher, team
teaching, co-teaching, an interpreter, education aides, modifications or
accommodations in lessons or instruction, or more teachers per student.
 Resource: This is a class for students who receive special education
services and need intensive help to keep up with grade-level work. The
class may have 1 or 2 students, or may have many students. However,
students receive instruction or support based on their unique needs. The
number of minutes your child spends in a resource class must be written
into the IEP.
 Self-Contained Programs: This is a general term for placements for which
the student needs to receive services outside of the general education
classroom for half of the school day or more. Placement in a self-
contained classroom has to be based on a student’s unique needs, not on
the disability alone.

Programs That Often Have Specialized Settings

Each school district is going to offer its own set of special education programs
and services, and the names of these programs will be different. However, here
are 4 examples of programs often delivered in specialized settings that we
thought you should know about:

 Early Childhood Special Education (ECSE): This is a set of special

education services for children age 3 to 5. ECSE services can take place
in different settings, including a child development center, Head Start, a
private preschool, or right on an elementary school campus. Any ECSE
placement can include related services like occupational, physical, or
speech therapy. See our ECSE page to learn more.
 Life Skills: This helps students with many different types of disabilities
but generally those who need support with academic, social, or behavioral
issues as well as daily living skills. Students who receive services in this
program may stay until they turn 22 years old.
 Social Behavior Skills (SBS): This goes by different names in different
districts. It is also called Applied Behavior Skills or just Behavior Skills.
In this program, trained teachers help students learn decision-making and
social skills (to promote self-responsibility) with other peers around. SBS
is a separate classroom that children can stay in full-time or part-time,
depending on their IEP.

De-institutionalization
Institutions are long-stay residential facilities that segregate and confine people
with disabilities. They are characterized by a regimented culture. Institutions
process people in groups and discourage individuality, impose mass treatment,
and rely on a status imbalance between staff and residents. Institutions limit
personal possessions, and have fixed timetables for activities like eating and
walking—irrespective of residents’ preferences or needs.

Residents of institutions have no privacy or personal space, must live with

people they have not chosen and may not like, and cannot pursue personal
interests or relationships. An institution is not defined by size: even small-scale
facilities can perpetuate these conditions.

What is deinstitutionalization and why is it necessary?

Deinstitutionalization is the gradual relocation of residents to regular,

community-based housing. It is accompanied by the development of services
that support inclusion and participation in the community, and that offer flexible
and personal assistance, support, and coordination so people can live the lives
they want.

Some institutions can transform themselves into community-service providers,

redeploying staff to close the institution and providing supported housing, day
services, and individualized support. This support includes transportation, job
placement assistance, workplace assistance, and foster care for children with
disabilities. Research across the globe demonstrates that when they leave
institutions, almost without exception.

The segregation of people with disabilities is a human rights violation. The

United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an
international, legally binding instrument that sets minimum standards for civil,
political, social, economic, and cultural rights for people with disabilities. It
acknowledges the right to “live in the community with choice equal to others,”
and requires states to develop “a range of in-home, residential, and other
community support services, including personal assistance to support living and
inclusion in the community, and to prevent isolation or segregation from the
community.” Most countries have signed the convention, and many of those
have also ratified it.

Why not improve conditions within institutions to make them more

humane?
While much of the criticism of institutions has understandably focused on
derelict facilities and a horrible legacy of neglect and abuse, the real problem is
the culture of institutionalization itself. Even when material conditions are
reasonably good, institutions still deprive residents of essential freedoms,
segregate them from their communities, suppress individual choice and personal
expression, and foster a perception that people with disabilities are different and
unable to take a place in society. No amount of fresh paint, repairs, or improved
entertainment activities can make up for this.