ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude

to my school management for giving this Golden
opportunity.
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my Principal R.Feroz Ratsing as well
as my Chemistry teacher Miss Susana mam who
gave a lot of patience to help and solve my queries
about the project and also helped me in doing a lot
of Research.
I also contribute my sincere thanks to my parents
for motivating me to complete this project.
At last, but not in least I would like to thank
Google for their moral support.

Mohamed Ashish Roshan.H

INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen is the chemical element with the
symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the
lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen
is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula
H2. It is colorless, odorless, tasteless,[8] non-
toxic, and highly combustible. Hydrogen is the
most abundant chemical substance in the universe,
constituting roughly 75% of all normal matter.
The hydrogen atom has a nucleus consisting of a
proton bearing one unit of positive electrical
charge; an electron, bearing one unit of negative
electrical charge, is also associated with this
nucleus. Under ordinary conditions, hydrogen gas
is a loose aggregation of hydrogen molecules, each
consisting of a pair of atoms, a diatomic molecule,
H2. The earliest known important chemical
property of hydrogen is that it burns with oxygen
to form water, H2O; indeed, the name hydrogen is
derived from Greek words meaning “maker of
water”.
Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of
feedstock's. These include fossil resources, such as
natural gas and coal, as well as renewable
resources, such as biomass and water with input
from renewable energy sources (e.g. sunlight,
wind, wave or hydro-power). A variety of process
technologies can be used, including chemical,
biological, electrolytic, photolytic and thermo-
chemical. Each technology is in a different stage
of development, and each offers unique
opportunities, benefits and challenges. Local
availability of feedstock, the maturity of the
technology, market applications and demand,
policy issues, and costs will all influence the
choice and timing of the various options for
hydrogen production
An overview of the various feed stocks and
process technologies is presented in Figure 1.

In Figure 2, a future hydrogen pathway is

illustrated. Large-scale hydrogen production is
probable only in the longer term. In the short and
medium term, the production options for hydrogen
are first based on distributed hydrogen production
from the electrolysis of water and on the reforming
of natural gas and coal. Larger centralised
hydrogen production plants are more likely to be
introduced at a later stage. These plants will
probably be based on biomass or fossil fuels with
CO2 capture and storage.
The IEA Hydrogen Implementing Agreement
(HIA) focuses on the following hydrogen
production activities:
● H2 from fossil energy sources. – Large scale,
with CO2 capture and storage (in collaboration
with the IEA Green House Gas Implementing
Agreement programme – GHG) – Small scale,
with distributed generation
● H2 from biomass.
● Photo-electrolysis (photolysis).
● Photo-biological hydrogen production
(biophotolysis).
PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN
1)HYDROGEN FROM FOSSIL FUELS
Hydrogen can be produced from most fossil
fuels. The complexity of the processes varies,
and in this chapter hydrogen production from
natural gas and coal is briefly discussed. Since
carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product,
the CO2 should be captured to ensure a
sustainable (zero-emission) process. The
feasibility of the processes will vary with
respect to a centralised or distributed
production plant.

CH4 + H2O + heat ➞ CO + 3H2 (2.1)

CO + H2O ➞ CO2 + H2 + heat (2.2)
Production from natural gas Hydrogen can
currently be produced from natural gas by
means of three different chemical processes:
● Steam reforming (steam methane reforming
– SMR).
● Partial oxidation (POX).
● Autothermal reforming (ATR).
Steam reforming involves the endothermic
conversion of methane and water vapour into
hydrogen and carbon monoxide (2.1). The heat is
often supplied from the combustion of some of the
methane feed-gas. The process typically occurs at
temperatures of 700 to 850 °C and pressures of 3
to 25 bar. The product gas contains approximately
12 % CO, which can be further converted to CO2
and H2 through the water-gas shift reaction (2.2).
Partial oxidation of natural gas is the process
whereby hydrogen is produced through the partial
combustion of methane with oxygen gas to yield
carbon monoxide and hydrogen (2.3). In this
process, heat is produced in an exothermic
reaction, and hence a more compact design is
possible as there is no need for any external
heating of the reactor. The CO produced is further
converted to H2 as described in equation (2.2).

Autothermal reforming is a combination of both

steam reforming (2.1) and partial oxidation (2.3).
CH4 + 1 /2O2 ➞ CO + 2H2 + heat (2.3)
The total reaction is exothermic, and so it releases
heat. The outlet temperature from the reactor is in
the range of 950 to 1100 °C, and the gas pressure
can be as high as 100 bar. Again, the CO produced
is converted to H2 through the water-gas shift
reaction (2.2). The need to purify the output gases
adds significantly to plant costs and reduces the
total efficiency.

2)Production from coal

Hydrogen can be produced from coal through a
variety of gasification processes (e.g. fixed bed,
fluidised bed or entrained flow). In practice, high-
temperature entrained flow processes are favoured
to maximise carbon conversion to gas, thus
avoiding the formation of significant amounts of
char, tars and phenols.
A typical reaction for the process is given in
equation (2.4), in which carbon is converted to
carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

Since this reaction is endothermic, additional heat

C(s)
is + H2O +asheat
required, with➞methane
CO + H2reforming.
(2.4) The CO is
further converted to CO2 and H2 through the
water-gas shift reaction.
Hydrogen production from coal is commercially
mature, but it is more complex than the production
of hydrogen from natural gas. The cost of the
resulting hydrogen is also higher.
But since coal is plentiful in many parts of the
world and will probably be used as an energy
source regardless, it is worthwhile to explore the
development of clean technologies for its use.

Capture and storage of CO2

Carbon dioxide is a major exhaust in all
production of hydrogen from fossil fuels. The
amount of CO2 will vary with respect to the
hydrogen content of the feedstock. To obtain a
sustainable (zero emission) production of
hydrogen, the CO2 should be captured and stored.
This process is known as de-carbonisation.
There are three different options to capture CO2 in
a combustion process:
● Post-combustion. The CO2 can be removed
from the exhaust gas of the combustion process in
a conventional steam turbine or CCGT (combined
cycle gas turbine) power plant. This can be done
via the “amine” process, for example. The exhaust
gas will contain large amounts of nitrogen and
some amounts of nitrogen oxides in addition to
water vapour, CO2 and CO.
● Pre-combustion. CO2 is captured when
producing hydrogen through any of the processes
discussed above.
● Oxyfuel-combustion. The fossil fuel is
converted to heat in a combustion process in a
conventional steam turbine or CCGT power plant.
This is done with pure oxygen as an oxidiser.
Mostly CO2 and water vapour are produced in the
exhaust or flue gases, and CO2 can be easily
separated by condensing the water vapour. In post-
combustion and oxyfuel-combustion systems,
electricity is produced in near-conventional steam
and CCGT power plants. The electricity produced
could then be used for water electrolysis. If the
capture and storage of CO2 is applied to an energy
conversion process of relatively low efficiency,
and the electricity is used to electrolyse water, then
the overall efficiency of fuel to hydrogen would
not exceed 30%.
3)HYDROGEN FROM SPLITTING OF
WATER
Hydrogen can be produced from the splitting of
water through various processes. This paper
briefly discusses water electrolysis, photo-
electrolysis, photo-biological production and high-
temperature water decomposition.
Water electrolysis
Water electrolysis is the process whereby water is
split into hydrogen and oxygen through the
application of electrical energy. The total energy
that is needed for waterelectrolysis is increasing
slightly with temperature, while the required
electrical energy decreases.
A high-temperature electrolysis process might,
therefore, be preferable when high-temperature
heat is available as waste heat from other
processes.
This is especially important globally, as most of
the electricity produced is based on fossil energy
sources with relatively low efficiencies.
where the possibilities to considerably reduce the
production cost are evident.

Future
H2O + potential
electricitycosts
➞ H2 for+ electrolytic
1 /2O2 (3.1)hydrogen are
presented in Figure 3,
Alkaline electrolysis
Alkaline electrolysers use an aqueous KOH
solution (caustic) as an electrolyte that usually
circulates through the electrolytic cells. Alkaline
electrolysers are suited for stationary applications
and are available at operating pressures up to 25
bar. Alkaline electrolysis is a mature technology,
with a significant operating record in industrial
applications, that allows remote operation. The
following reactions take place inside the alkaline
electrolysis cell:
Electrolyte: 4H2O ➞ 4H+ + 4OH– (3.1)
Cathode: 4 H+ + 4e– ➞ 2H2 (3.2)
Anode: 4OH– ➞ O2 + 2H2O + 4e– (3.3)
Sum: 2H2O ➞ O2 + 2H2 (3.4)
Commercial electrolysers usually consist of a
number of electrolytic cells arranged in a cell
stack. Alkaline electrolysers typically contain the
main components shown in Figure 4. The major R
challenge for the future is to design and
manufacture electrolyser equipment at lower costs
with higher energy efficiency and larger turn-down
ratios.

Ph
oto-electrolysis (photolysis)
Photovoltaic (PV) systems coupled to electrolysers
are commercially available. The systems offer
some flexibility, as the output can be electricity
from photovoltaic cells or hydrogen from the
electrolyser.
Direct photo-electrolysis represents an advanced
alternative to a PV-electrolysis system by
combining both processes in a single apparatus.
This principle is illustrated in Figure 5.
Photoelectrolysis of water is the process whereby
light is used to split water directly into hydrogen
and oxygen. Such systems offer great potential for
cost reduction of electrolytic hydrogen, compared
with conventional two-step technologies.

Photo-biological production (biophotolysis)

Photo-biological production of hydrogen is based
on two steps: photosynthesis and hydrogen
production catalysed by hydrogenases in, for
example, green algae and cyanobacteria.
Long term basic and applied research is needed in
this area, but if successful, a long-term solution for
renewable hydrogen production will result. It is of
vital importance to understand the natural
processes and the genetic regulations of H2
production. Metabolic and genetic engineering
may be used to demonstrate the process in larger
bioreactors. Another option is to reproduce the two
steps using artificial photosynthesis.

High-temperature decomposition High-

temperature splitting of water occurs at about 3000
°C. At this temperature, 10% of the water is
decomposed and the remaining 90% can be
recycled. To reduce the temperature, other
processes for high temperature splitting of water
have been suggested:
● Thermo-chemical cycles.
● Hybrid systems coupling thermal decomposition
and electrolytic decomposition.
● Direct catalytic decomposition of water with
separation via a ceramic membrane (“thermo-
physic cycle”).
● Plasma-chemical decomposition of water in a
double-stage CO2 cycle. For these processes,
efficiencies above 50 % can be expected and could
possibly lead to a major decrease of hydrogen
production costs.
The main technical issues for these high-
temperature processes relate to materials
development for corrosion resistance at high
temperatures, high-temperature membrane and
separation processes, heat exchangers, and heat
storage media. Design aspects and safety are also
important for high-temperature processes

Thermo-chemical water splitting Thermo-

chemical water splitting is the conversion of water
into hydrogen and oxygen by a series of thermally
 driven chemical reactions. Thermo-chemical
water-splitting cycles have been known for the
past 35 years. They were extensively studied in the
late 1970s and 1980s, but have been of little
interest in the past 10 years.
While there is no question about the technical
feasibility and the potential for high efficiency,
cycles with proven low cost and high efficiency
have yet to be developed commercially. An
example of a thermo-chemical process is the
iodine/sulphur cycle, outlined in equations (3.10),
(3.11) and (3.12) and Figure 7. For this process,
the research and development needs are to capture
the thermally split H2, to avoid side reactions and
to eliminate the use of noxious substances. The
corrosion problems associated with the handling of
such materials are likely to be extremely serious.

(850 °C): H2SO4 ➞ SO2 + H2O + 1 /2O2 (3.10) (120 °C):

I2 + SO2 + 2H2O ➞ H2SO4 + 2HI (3.11)
(450 °C): 2HI ➞ I2 + H2 (3.12)
SUM: H2O ➞ H2 + 1 /2O
BIOMASS TO HYDROGEN
In biomass conversion processes, a hydrogen-
containing gas is normally produced in a manner
similar to the gasification of coal. However, no
commercial plants exist to produce hydrogen from
biomass.
Currently, the pathways followed are steam
gasification (direct or indirect), entrained flow
gasification, and more advanced concepts such as
gasification in supercritical water, application of
thermo-chemical cycles, or the conversion of
intermediates (e.g. ethanol, bio-oil or torrified
wood). None of the concepts have reached a
demonstration phase for hydrogen production.
Biomass gasification is an R area shared between
H2 production and biofuels production.
Gasification and pyrolysis are considered the most
promising medium-term technologies for the
commercialisation of H2 production from biomass.
A typical flow sheet for the production of
hydrogen from biomass is presented in Figure 8. In
terms of its energy requirements, the drying of
biomass might not be justifiable; therefore, other
pathways based on wet biomass are being sought
as well. Biomass feedstocks are unrefined products
with inconsistent quality and poor quality control.
The production methods vary according to crop
type, location and climatic variations. Erratic fuels
have contributed to the difficulties in technological
innovation, since less homogenous and lowquality
fuels need more sophisticated conversion systems.
There is a need to rationalise the production and
preparation of fuel to produce more consistent,
higher-quality fuels that can be described by
common standards. Large-scale systems tend to be
suitable for cheaper and lower quality fuels, while
smaller plants tend to require higher levels of fuel
quality and better fuel homogeneity. A better
understanding of this relationship, and the specific
tolerances that each technology can accommodate,
is needed.

CENTRALISED HYDROGEN
PRODUCTION
Large-scale, industrial hydrogen production from
all fossil energy sources can be considered a
commercial technology for industrial purposes,
though not yet for utilities. Hydrogen production at
a large scale has the potential for relatively low
unit costs, although the hydrogen production cost
from natural gas in medium sized plants may be
reduced towards the cost of large-scale production.
An important challenge is to decarbonise the
hydrogen production process. CO2 capture and
storage options are not fully technically and
commercially proven. They require R on
absorption or separation processes and process
line-up, as well as acceptance for CO2 storage. It
is also important to increase plant efficiency,
reduce capital costs and enhance reliability and
operating flexibility. A principle sketch of
hydrogen distribution from a natural gas-based
centralised hydrogen production plant is presented
in figure 9
DISTRIBUTED HYDROGEN
PRODUCTION
Distributed hydrogen production can be based on
both water electrolysis and the natural gas
processes discussed above. The benefit would be a
reduced need for the transportation of hydrogen
fuel, and hence less need for the construction of a
new hydrogen infrastructure. Distributed
production would also utilise existing
infrastructure, such as natural gas or water and
electric power. However, the production costs are
higher for the smaller-capacity production
facilities, and the efficiencies of production will
probably be lower than those of centralised plants.
In addition, carbon capture and sequestration
would be more difficult and costly in small fossil-
fuelled plants. Also, it is unlikely that CO2 from
fossil fuels will be captured and stored when
hydrogen is produced from distributed reformers.
The R needs for distributed hydrogen production
are summarised in Table 2. Small-scale reformers
will enable the use of existing natural gas pipelines
for the production of hydrogen at the site of the
consumer. Such reformers therefore represent an
important technology for the transition to a larger
hydrogen supply. The availability of commercial
reformers is limited and most reformers are
currently in an R stage. Further development and
R is essential to meet customer requirements.
Some of theses gaps are challenging and require
more effort by the technology developers and
suppliers. The technology achievements in the last
three years have been remarkable and the
technology gaps have been reduced significantly.
Compactness (i.e. footprint and height) is an 18
especially important market requirement.
Suppliers have significantly reduced the footprint
and height. The optimum system for the future
would be an underground system that requires a
space of 10 × 3 × 3 meters for a capacity of 500 –
700 Nm3/hour. The target is within reach with
some additional R effort. However, the space
required by hydrogen production is a disadvantage
for the technology when compared with
conventional trucked-in systems for
gasoline/diesel or hydrogen. Minimising footprint
and visibility has been an important R priority.
Also, codes and standards for hydrogen production
and storage will need to be revised to permit the
use of enclosed or underground spaces, at least in
some countries.

CONCLUSION AND
RECCOMENDATION
In conclusion, hydrogen is a highly promising
energy carrier and fuel for stationary and
transportation uses, but the potential expanded use
of hydrogen involves many technical and
infrastructure-related challenges. Approximately
10-11 million metric tonnes of hydrogen are used
each year in the US, but mostly in internal
industrial settings. Delivering this hydrogen to
smaller merchant end-uses, such as small (<1 to 5
MW) fuel-cell power plants or hydrogen refueling
stations is likely to be challenging. This is now
being done in certain places, but for smaller-scale
applications it is more common for hydrogen to be
made onsite from either natural gas or electricity.
In addition to the more conventional methods of
SMR, gasification, and grid-powered electrolysis,
a new suite of renewable production options is
emerging. These include using renewable power
directly for electrolysis, various biogas conversion
options, and newly developed photo-
electrochemical and thermo-chemical processes.
Also being investigated are use of tailored
molecules that can facilitate the splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen with lower
energy requirements than conventional
electrolysis, and a range of biological and algae-
based methods.

Gaseous H2 Storage:
Status: Commercially available, but costly.
Best option: C-fibre composite vessels (6-10 wt%
H2 at 350-700 bar).
Issues: Fracture mechanics, safety, compression
energy, and reduction of volume.
Liquid H2 Storage:
Status: Commercially available, but costly.
Best option: Cryogenic insulated dewars (ca. 20 wt
% H2 at 1 bar and -253°C).
Issues: High liquefaction energy, dormant boil off,
and safety.
Solid H2 Storage:
Status: Very early development (many R
questions).
Best options: Too early to determine. Many
potential options: Rechargeable hydrides, chemical
hydrides (H2O thermally reactive), carbon, and
other high surface area materials. Most-developed
option: Metal hydrides (potential for > 8 wt.% H2
and > 90 kg/m3 H2-storage capacities at 10-60
bar).
Issues: Weight, lower desorption temperatures,
higher desorption kinetics, recharge time and
pressure, heat management, cost, pyrophoricity,
cyclic life, container compatibility and
optimisation.