CHAPTER I

Introduction to Lie Detection Techniques

A.) Polygraphy Operational Terms

1. Polygraphy– it is the scientific method of detecting deception, using a polygraph.

Polygraphy is the more popular term for Forensic Psychophysiology using the
polygraph also called Polygraph Science a technique used to determine the stress
levels of a person regarding a specific issue to ascertain whether he/she is deceptive or
telling the truth.
2. Polygraph– is an instrument for the recording of changes in blood pressure, pulse
rate, respiration and skin resistance as indication of emotional disturbances especially
of lying when questioned. It is an instrument whereby multiple signals from the
sensors are recorded on a single strip of moving paper. A scientific instrument that
simultaneously records the changes in physiological processes of the human body,
other name for polygraph is truth verifier and lie detector.
The word was derived from two Greek word poly means “many” and graphe
means “writing”. Literally means “many writings”.
3. Polygraph Examination – is a form of Psychophysiological Veracity Examination
which involves the examination of a subject using the polygraph that officially covers
the moment the subject enters the polygraph suite until he leaves. It may, however,
include the time when the examiner officially accepted the case and commenced
gathering information from the requesting party.
4. Polygraph Test–is the specific part of the polygraph examination that transpires
from the moment the chart drive (kymograph) is turned on until it is turned off. It is
the actual test whereby the reactions of the subject on a specific stimulus are being
recorded using the polygraph instrument.
5. Polygraph Examiner/Polygraphist – is the expert in polygraph science who uses
polygraph instrument to verify truthfulness of a subject’s statement or testimony.
Other descriptions for the examiner are polygraphist, forensic psychophysiology's (FP)
and polygraph examiner (PE).
6. Detection– it is an act of discovery of existence, presence of fact or something
hidden or obscure.
7. Lie – refers to uttering intentionally false statement, falsehood, anything that
deceives or creates false impression, to make untrue statement knowingly especially
with intent to deceive and to give an erroneous or misleading impression.
8. Lying– the uttering or conveying of falsehood or creating a false or misleading
information with the intention of affecting wrongfully the acts and opinion of other.
9. Liar– refers to a person who utters intentionally a false statement.
10. Chart or Polygrams – is the polygraph chart tracings obtained from a subject. It
consists of polygraph chart and the tracings (or recorded physiological responses) of a
subject from specific stimuli.
11. Subject– it refers to the person to be (or being) examined, usually a suspected
criminal. The subject is also called examinee.
12. Specific Response – is any deviation from the normal tracing of the subject.
13. Normal Tracing – is a tracing on the chart wherein the subject answered in the
irrelevant question.

B.) Lie Detection Techniques

1. Forensic Assessment Interview Technique– Allows the interviewer to assess non-

verbal and verbal behavior without the need of attachments to make the accurate
determination of truth or deception.
a. Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through the words that are
spoken, speed of delivery of words, choice of words, tone of voice and the tense of
language.

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 b. Non-Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through patterns of body
movements, gestures, facial expressions, body posture, positioning and movements
use to explain chosen words.
2. Polygraphy
3. Word association test (WAT)introduced by Francis Galton in (1879). Is a form of lie
detection whereby he used a list of 75 stimulus words with which he read and noted
his responses to the words tended to remain alike and they were typically taken from
his childhood experiences. A list of stimulus and non-stimulus words is read to the
subject who is instructed to answer as quickly as possible. The answer to the
questions may be a “yes” or a “no”. Unlike the lie detector, the time interval between
the words uttered by the examiner and the answer of the subject is recorded. When
the subject is asked questions with reference to his name, address, civil status,
nationality, etc. Which has no relation to the subject-matter of the investigation, the
tendency is to answer quickly. But when the questions bear some words which have to
do with the criminal acts the subject allegedly committed, like knife, gun, or hammer
which was used in the killing, the tendency is to delay the answer. The test is not
concerned with the answer, be it a ‘yes” or a “no”. The important factor is the time of
response in relation to stimulus or non-stimulus words. Like the use of the lie
detector, the subject cannot be compelled to be subjected to the test without his
consent.
4. Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)invented by Allen Bell Jr. and Charles
McQuiston (1972). It begun in United States when Dektor Counter-Intelligence &
Security, Inc. developed an instrument called Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)
that can detect emotional stress in a person’s voice. When a person speaks, there are
audible voice frequencies and superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency
modulations which are products of minute oscillation of the muscles of the voice
mechanism. Such oscillations of the muscles micro tremor occur at the rate of 8 to 14
cycles per second and controlled by the central nervous system.
When the person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in the
voice utterance in moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of suppression
caries inversely to the degree of psychological stress in the speaker. The psychological
stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and graphically displays the voice
modulations that we cannot hear. When a person is relaxed and responding honestly
to the questions, those inaudible frequencies are registered clearly on the instrument.
But when a person is under stress, as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to
disappear.
Procedure:
The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific purpose of
the examination and to begin formulation of relevant questions. A pre-test interview is
conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at ease with the examiner, to
provide an opportunity to specify matters, to eliminate outside issues, and to review
questions that will be asked. An oral test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions or
given which is recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture of relevant
and irrelevant questions. Immediately following the test or at a later time, the tape is
processed through the Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis of the answers.
If stress is indicated, the subject is given opportunity to provide additional
clarification. A retest is given to verify correction and clarification.
5. Hypnosis first introduce by Anton Mesmer. The technique of inducing a person into
a state of consciousness whereby he can respond to questions and is very susceptible
to suggestions. (MS Encarta Reference Library, 2003)
This altered state of consciousness and heightened responsiveness to suggestion
can be used to elicit the truth from a person. However, not all individuals are
susceptible to hypnotic induction. People who are compulsive-depressive and strong-
willed (like lawyers, accountants, and physicians) are usually non-hypnotizable. (Solis,
P. 1987)
Reasons: (why it is not admissible in court)

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 It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis per se in
ascertaining the truth from falsity. The fear that the Trier of fact will give uncritical
and absolute reliability to a scientific device without consideration of its flaw in
ascertaining veracity. The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately
fabricate. The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the
hypnotized subject is suspected will produce distortion of the fact rather than the
truth. The state of the mind, skill and professionalism of the examiner are too
subjective to permit admissibility of the expert testimony.
6. Truth Serum invented by Dr. Edward Mandel House. In this lie-detection method,
the term truth serum is a misnomer (a fallacy of description). Giving a drug to the
examinee does not make him tell the truth, thus the chemical administered is not a
serum but is actually a mind-distorting drug. In this method, common drugs used are
hyoscine hydrobromide and scopolamine. The procedure does not make someone
tell the truth and the thing administered is not serum but actually a drug. When the
proper point is reached, the questioning begins and the subject fells a compulsion to
answer the questions truthfully. He forgets his alibi which he may have built up to
cover his guilt. He may give details of his acts or may even implicate others. The drug
acts as depressant in the nervous system. Clinical evidence indicates the various
segments of the brain particularly the cortex. Statements taken from the subjects
while under the influence of truth serum are evolutionary obtained hence they are not
admissible as evidence.
7.Narco-AnalysisThis method is similar to the preceding technique. However, the
drugs used in Narcoanalysis (also called Narcosynthesis) are sodium amytal and
sodium pentothal to sedate the subject. When the narcotic effects appear,
questioning starts. The drug causes depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the
brain and the subject talks freely. A psychiatrist with a long experience on this drug
should be only allowed to administer this drug and conduct subsequent interrogation.
The result of this technique is not admissible in court. (Solis, P. 1987)
8.Intoxication with Alcohol can reveal the real character behind the façade of a
person. The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is really the result of the control
mechanism of the brain. The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is really the result
of the control mechanism of the brain, so alcohol, like truth serum and narcoanalysis
drugs “inhibit the inhibitor”.
The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mask which all of us
are said to wear “mask of sanity” is reflected in the age-old maxim, “in vino veritas”
(in wine there is truth).
The person whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take alcoholic beverages
to almost intoxication. Confessions made by the subjects while under the influence of
alcohol may be admissible if he is physically capable to recollect the facts that he has
uttered after the effects of alcohol have disappeared. But in most instances, the
subjects cannot recall everything that he had mentioned or he may refuse to admit the
truth of the statement given.
The knowledge of the truth is an essential requirement for the administration of
criminal justice. The success or failure in making decisions may rest solely on the
ability to evaluate the truth or falsity of the statement given by the suspects or
witness. The task for its determination initially lies on the hand of the investigator.
9.Statement Analysis
10.Voice Stress Analysis (VSA). The Computer Voice Stress Analyzer (CVSA)
manufactured by the National Institute of Truth Verification (NITV) is the latest in a
series of instruments known to detect deception in voice responses.
11. Brain Fingerprinting patented by Lawrence A. Farwell. The basic principle is that
different regions of the brain light up when people tell the truth or lie, and further,
that different regions are activated depending upon the type of lie. Dr. Farwell's
research, however, looks at a specific type of electrical brain wave, called P300, which
activates when a person sees a familiar object.
12. Functional MR Imaging (fMRI)

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C.) Early Methods of Detecting Deception

Ordeal, Trial or Judicium Dei is a common method of deciding guilt or

innocence and a practice of referring questions to the judgment of God, Determined by
Various means, particularly by physical tests.
Ordeal defined a severe test of character or endurance; a trying course of
experience, A medieval form of judicial trial in which the accused was subjected to
various test.
A term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval Latin “Dei Indicum”
meaning “Miraculous Decision”.
The Holy Bible contains many events of surviving ordeal because of God’s
Intervention. One of them was Daniel in the lion’s den. In the new Testaments, this
Divine intervention continued, one famous incident was when the Apostle Paul was
bitten by a snake but did not die.
For the first decades of his renewed existence, the Medieval Coroner had to be
present at some curious and barbaric rites connected with the law. These were the
various “ordeals”, a semi-magical method of determining guilt or innocence which goes
right back to pre-historic times through many cultures prior to the coming of the
Anglo-Saxons.
The idea that lying produces physical side-effects has long been claimed. In
West Africa persons suspected of a crime were made to pass a bird's egg to one
another. If a person broke the egg, then he or she was considered guilty, based on the
idea that their nervousness was to blame. In ancient China the suspect held a
handful of rice in his or her mouth during a prosecutor's speech. Since salivation was
believed to cease at times of emotional anxiety, the person was considered guilty if by
the end of that speech the rice was dry.
Throughout Europe the ordeal existed in various forms under the sanction of
law and was closely related to the oath. The most prevalent kinds of ordeal were those
of fire, water, and the wager of battle.

Ayur-Veda “Hindu book of health and science” the earliest known reference
of the methods for detecting deception. Basis of the invention of polygraph.

1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal

This ordeal is practiced in the hill tribe ofRajhmal in the North Bengal.
a.a.The accused had to carry a bar of red-hot iron in his hands while he walked
nine marked paces. In the unlikely event of no burns appearing on his hands, he was
adjudged innocent. Otherwise, he was promptly hanged.
b.b. The accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron nine times (9) unless burned
sooner. If burned, he is put to death.
2. Ordeal by Balance
This ordeal is practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India.
a.a. A scale is used, in one end of the scale the accused is placed and in the other
end is a counter balance. The Person will step out of the scale and listen to a judge to
deliver an exhortation on the balance and get back in, if he was found lighter that
before, then he should be acquitted.
3. Ordeal by Water
This ordeal was the usual mode of trial allowed to member of the lower classes. The
water is regarded as symbol of flood in the Old Testament that washed the sins from
the face of the earth. The flood water allowed only the righteous people to survive. In
ancient England, water ordeal was the usual mode of trial allowed for members of the
lower classes.
There are two kinds of ordeal by water and of cold water.
a.) Boiling Water Ordeal– According to the laws of Athelstan the first king of
England.

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 a.a. The ordeal of boiling water consisted of lifting a stone out of boiling water, if
the accused was able to lift a stone out of the boiling water he is considered innocent
otherwise he is guilty.
b.b. Used in modern Africa. The method is that the subject will plunged their
right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step into other side of the fire. All are
told to undergo the test without a murmur and when all are finished, they are told to
return at the same time the next afternoon. The one who by that time had lost some or
showed blisters would prove the thief. (points out who is the one who steal among his
tribe mates)
c.c. Practiced in Asian Countries. The accused was forced to dip his hands
into boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If remains unhurt the he is
innocent.
b.) Cold Water Ordeal–The usual mode of trial for witchcraft practiced in
Europe and early United States (17th century).
a.a. In this ordeal, the accused was tied at feet and hands and was lowered to
cold water by rope. This rope is tied around the defendant’s waist and had a knot a
particular distance from the torso. If both knot and accused dipped beneath the surface
of the water, the accused was proven innocent. If the knot is dry or the water refused to
receive him, the defendant was guilty.
b.b. This was the usual mode of trial for witchcraft. It involves a “no-win”
situation just like some other dangerous forms of ordeal. In this ordeal, the accused
was put into a sack then thrown into an icy pond. If the accused sank this showed he
was innocent, but he might well drown anyway. If he floated, this was taken proof that
he was lying and he would be hanged.
4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing
This ordeal is practiced by Indians.
a.a. It is performed with a kind of rice called “sathee”, prepared with various
incantations (prayers or chants). The person on trial eats the sathee, with the face to
east and then spits upon a pea leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his
mouth swells or he trembles, he is declared to be a liar.
5. Ordeal of the Red Water
The ordeal is also known as “sassy bark” is used in the wide region of Eastern Africa.
a.a. The accused is made to fast for twelve hours, and then swallows a small
amount of rice. Then he will be imbedded in dark colored water. The water is actually
emetic and if the suspect ejects all rice, he is considered innocent of the charge.
Otherwise, the accused is guilty.
6. Ordeal by Combat
This ordeal originated from India. In England, King Henry III abolished all legal
ordeals except Ordeal by Combat. This ordeal was vividly dramatized in the movie
“Ivanhoe” based on the novel of the same title.
a.a. The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight the alleged offender or to pay a
champion to fight for him. The victor is said to win not by own strength but because of
supernatural powers that had intervened on the side of the right, as in the duel in the
European ages in which the “judgment of God was thought to determine the winner”.
If still alive after the combat, the loser might be hanged or burned for criminal offense
or have a hand cut off and property confiscated in civil actions.
7. Ordeal of the Corsnaed (Ordeal by Blessed Bread)
This ordeal is practiced in China and Alexandria, Egypt.
a.a. A priest puts the corsnaed or hallowed bread into the mouth of the accused,
with various imprecations (prayers). If the accused swallowed it, he was freed from
punishment.
8. Test of the Eucharist
This ordeal is practiced in European Countries.
a.a. This was applied chiefly among the clergies and monks. When they look the
host, it was believed the God would smite the guilty with sickness or death. Others
believe that if the accused is innocent, when given a poisonous drink for him to take in,

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Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven to prevent the accused from taking in the
poisonous drink.
9. Ordeal of the Bier
This ordeal is practiced in Australian and European Countries.
a.a. It’s was an ancient belief that the slain dead could point out their killer. In
England, it was customary for the accused approach the bier on which the corpse lay,
in view of the witness, the wounds of the victim were observed to see if they began to
bleed again. They believe that murderer is near, which causes the blood to flow out
from the wound of the victim. This ordeal was recorded well by Shakespeare in
“Richard III”.
b.b. The corpse was brought on a Bier of boughs (trunk of trees) after which the
natives ask the corpse if it has been bewitched. If the victim died by witchcraft, the
corpse supposed to know more and if the sorcerer who killed him was present, the
corpse will touch him.
10. Ordeal of the Needle
This ordeal is practiced in Wanaka, Eastern Africa.
a.a. A red-hot needle was drawn through the lips of the alleged criminal and if
blood flowed from the wound, he was deemed guilty; but if none, he is innocent.
11. Ordeal by Heat and Fire
This ordeal is practiced in East Germany, Early Scandinavian Countries and early
England.
a.a. The accused walked barefooted over coals of fire.
b.b. Made to walk through fire, if he was unharmed by the fire he was
considered innocent.
12. Trial of the Cross (Test of the Cross Ordeal)
This ordeal is practiced in Europe.
a.a. The accuser and the accused were placed under the cross with their arms
extended or crosswise and the first to move his hands or suffer them to fall was held
guilty.
b.b. The accused was placed before relics and two dice were then produced, one
marked with a cross, of these one taken up at hazard. If it happened to bear the sign of
the cross, the accused was acquitted.
13. Trial of the Waxen Shirt
a.a. The accused was dressed in cloth covered with wax and walked barefooted
over coals of fire. If he was unhurt by the fire and the wax did not melt, he was
considered innocent.
14. Hereditary Sieve Method
It was mentioned by Hans Gross, the Father of Criminalistics in his famous book in
criminal investigation.
a.a. Beans were thrown into the sieve as the name of the suspect was called,
mentioned this ordeal. If the beans jump out of the sieve, the owner of the sieve is
innocent. If the beans remained in the sieve the person named is a thief.
15. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal
Psychological theory
a.a. The donkey is placed in one room alone and observed it, and if the donkey
cried the accused is guilty of the crime, because deep inside and in his conscience, he
is guilty.
16. Ordeal of the Tiger
Practiced in Siam (Thailand).
a.a. The accused and accuser are place on a cage of a tiger; if the tiger spare one
of them he is considered innocent.
17. Trial by Torture
a.a. The accused was put into a severe physical test.
18. Drinking Ordeal
This ordeal is practiced in Nigeria, Brahamic India and India.
a.a. The Accused was given a decoction to drink by the priest, if innocent; no
harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die.
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19.Wager of Battle
a.a. Involves a pledge to engage in a battle, especially in order to establish guilt or
innocence by single combat, he will go in a battle in order to prove his innocence.
20. Crocodile Ordeal
a.a. The accused would cross a river full of crocodiles, if he reached the other side
unharmed then he deemed innocent.

D.) Other Countries Practicing Ordeal

1. Burma– The (Ordeal by Divination) is being practiced in this country, whereby it

involves two parties being furnished with candles of equal size and lighted
simultaneously; the owner of the candle that outlast the other is adjudged to have won
his cause.
2. Madagascar– Legal authorities practiced trial by ordeal. The supposed criminal was
made to drink a decoction; a poisonous fruit called “tangena”, a small dose is fatal,
by managing to size of the dose, those who administer it can decide result.
3. Borneo– The accuser and accused were presented shellfish placed on a plate. An
irritating fluid was then poured on the shellfish and the litigant whose shellfish moved
first was adjudged the winner.
4. Greece– The (Axe Ordeal) is being practiced in this country. A suspended axe was
spun at the center of a group of suspects. When the axe stopped, whoever was in the
line with the blade as supposed to be guilty out by the divine providence.
5. Nigeria– aa. The priest “greased a cock’s feather” and pierced the tongue of the
accused, if feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was deemed innocent.
If not, the accused is guilty. bb. The pouring of corrosive liquid into the eyes of the
accused who was supposed to be unharmed if innocent.cc. Pouring of boiling oil over
the hand of the accused with the usual requisites for guilt or innocence is also
practiced.
In the Middle of the 13th century some of the ordeal had died out in England and
on the other Continents.

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 CHAPTER II
Scientist and Manufacturers in the Development of Lie Detection Techniques

In the middle of 19th century Dr. Hans Gross defined “search for truth” as a
basis and goal of all criminal investigation. He stated, a large of the criminal work is
nothing more than a battle against lies.
Throughout the centuries, man sustained to experiment with more scientific
methods in determining truth and deception with the following scientists having
contributed much in the development of polygraph.

A.) Development of Polygraph

A. Angelo Mosso (1895) (student of Cesare Lombroso) – He stated that fear
influenced the heart and could be used as a basis for detecting deception. He uses
“Sphygmanometer” and scientific radio to study fear, there is however, no evidence
that mosso ever put this into practice.
He developed the mechanical device known as the “Scientific Cradle” often
called “Mosso’s Cradle”. The device was nothing more than a balanced table-like
platform, mounted on a fulcrum.
B. Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909) - An Italian scientist, employed the first
scientific instrument to detect deception known as Hydrosphymograph, this
instrument measures changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were
questioned about their involvement of a specific offense. He modified the
plethysmograph thus inventing a more modern device called hydrosphygmograph.
He was accorded the distinction of being the first person to utilize a scientific
instrument successfully in the detection of deception.
C. William Moulton Marston (1915) (Father of Lie Detection) –He dealt with the
Sphygmomanometer and made researches on the usefulness of Sphygmomanometer
in detecting lies, which was used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood pressure
readings during the course of an examination
He recorded the respiration and noted the time of subject’s verbal responses.
He also experimented with galvanometer to record skin resistance changes and a
gripping device to record tension.
He was the first to use polygraph in espionage case in 1917-1918.
D. Dr. John A. Larson (1921) - He device an instrument that records both
blood-pressure and galvanic skin response. He introduced this machine to the
University of California and first applied in law enforcement work by the Berkeley
Police Department under its nationally renowned Police Chief August Vollmer.
He designed the first two recording channel polygraph in the history. The first
mechanical form of the present-day polygraph consists of two recording components
and that is the cardiosphymograph and the pneumograph.
E. Leonarde Keeler (1926) - He improves Larson’s Apparatus and in 1949 he
invented the “Keeler Polygraph”. He also designed a metal bellows and a
kymograph that pulled at a constant speed, a chart paper under the recording pens
from a roll of chart paper located inside the instrument.
F. John E. Reid (1945) - He designed a special chair equipped with metal
bellows for recording unobserved muscular activities of the arms, thighs and feet,
located on the arm of the chair and on the seat, this transmit singular muscular
activity to the recording polygraph.
He introduced the first recording channel instrument to be developed. This
instrument is excellent for detecting deceptions because it does not only have a
recording pen for cardiosphymograph, pneumograph and galvanograph but also it has
the muscular movement pen for the arms and thighs.
G. Vittorio Benussi (1914)–He successfully detected deception with a
Pneumograph, an instrument that graphically measures an examinee’s inhalation and
exhalation,Benussi thus demonstrated that changes in breathing patterns accompany
deception.

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 H. Harold Burtt (1918) - He determined that respiratory changes were
indication of deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of
greater value in determining deception than in changes in respiration.
I. Luigi Galvani (1791)- He is Italian physiologist who was accorded the
distinction for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which
records electric bodily changes by measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to
electricity in terms of ohms (the lowest current ever recorded).
J. Jacques-ArseneD’arsonval – Declared that electricity is generated by the
body and named external friction as source of generation. He assorted those sweat
glands which the body at times store the electricity and at other times discharged
them.
K. Fere (1888) – He discovered that electro dermal response is caused by an
increase in the action of the heart and vital energy converted with human emotions.
He asserted that human body has the ability to generate store, discharged high voltage
of static electricity.
L. Harold Sticker (1897) – He introduced the method of detecting deception
from the galvanic impression on the chart tracing.
M. Otto Veraguth (1926) – He was the first to use the word “psychogalvanic
reflex”. He believed that electrical phenomena are due to the activity of sweat glands,
and such activity is known as “psychogalvanic”.
N. Francis Franke – He invented “plethysmograph” which was used to reveal
periodic undulations (waves) in blood pressure caused by the breathing cycle. (This
instrument was used by Mosso to measure changes in pulse and blood pressure.)

B.) Development of Questioning Technique

A. Leonarde Keeler (1942) – He developed the “relevant-irrelevant” test. The
theory of this test is that guilty reacts only to relevant questions and innocent shows
no reactions.
Keeler is also credited with introducing the “card test” and specialized in the
“peak of tension test”.
B. John E. Reid (1950) - He developed the “reviewed control question”
consisting of a known lie incorporated in to relevant – irrelevant test. The theory of the
test is to stimulate the innocent subject, to identify the general nervous tension and
guilt complex reactor and to improve contract between innocent and guilty subjects.
He also discovered the “Guilt-Complex Test” administered to the overly responsive
subject.This question became known as the Reid Control Question Technique
(RCQT) represented a major breakthrough in polygraph technique.
C. Cleve Backster (1947) (Bornon 27 February 1924 at Lafayette, New Jersey) -
In the late 1950s, he disassembled and remounted the Stoelting instrument into a
Samsonite luggage case thus introducing the first suitcase style polygraph. Backster
conceived the psychological set theory. Psychological set postulates that an individual
being asked a series of questions will mentally focus on those questions that have the
greatest salience, because they pose the greatest interest or immediate threat to his
general well-being at the point in time. This forms the basis of his zone of comparison
technique that provides constant monitoring of the subject’s reactivity and designed to
disclose outside issue. This is known as the “Backster’s Zone Comparison Test”.
D. Thomas Hayes Jaycox – He conducted a “name test” which he described as
a group of names of men who might have committed the crime to a suspect who gave
little or no apparent response except to one name at which his blood pressure and
respiration became abnormal.
E. Ronald E. Decker- the head of the Army Polygraph School who initiated the
modification of the Reid Polygraph Technique and called it the Modified General
Question Test (MGQT).
F. Professor James Allan Matte (1977) –He developed the Polygraph Quadri-
Zone Comparison Technique (renamed in January 1995 as Quadri-Track Zone
Comparison Technique - QTZCT). QTZCT was a modification of BZCT because it
provided a fourth Track or Spot for quantification designed to recover response energy
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lost by the other tracks/spots as a result of “inside issue” factors, which Matte
identified as “Fear of Error” by the innocent, and “Hope of Error” by the guilty.
In the same year, he developed the Suspicion-Knowledge-Guilt (SKG) test to
provide the Polygraphist with a single test capable of identifying the examinee(s) that
has major involvement, some direct involvement, or guilty knowledge, yet containing
similar controls to that found in the QTZCT. At that time, S-K-Y Test did not yet
contain any earlier-in-life control questions.
G. Paul K. Minor (1980) – He is the Chief Polygraph Examiner of the FBI, who
modified in the R/I technique to include control questions of measured relevance to
the target issue but not designed to cause an arousal. This latest modification of the
R/I technique is known as Modified Relevant-Irrelevant (MRI) Technique.
H. Nathan J. Gordon, William M. Waid, and Philip M. Cochetti (1987) – They
modified the BCZT to include two Backster exclusive control questions and one Reid
non-exclusive control question for comparison with three relevant questions which, at
the option of the Polygraphist, may be combined with Irrelevant Questions. A
symptomatic question, a sacrifice relevant question, and a countermeasure question
are also included in this format, which they named as Integrated Zone Comparison
Technique (IZCT).

C.) Early Publication and Laboratory on Lie Detection

A. Sir James Mackenzie (1906)–A famous heart specialist. It was said
that"polygraph" was used by him 1906 in his invention the "ink polygraph which
appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908," which was used for medical reasons.
This early polygraph had accurate clockwork that drives paper ribbon with time
markers at one-fifth of a second
Makenzie wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his
undergraduate studies. He entered Harvard Law School and graduated in 1918, re-
publishing his earlier work in 1917.According to their son, Marston's wife, Elizabeth
Holloway Marston, was also involved in the development of the systolic blood-pressure
test, it was his mother Elizabeth, Marston’s wife, who suggested to him that 'When she
got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb (Lamb, 2001).Although
Elizabeth is not listed as Marston’s collaborator in his early work (Lamb &Matte
(1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth’s work on her husband’s
deception research. She also appears in a picture taken in his polygraph laboratory in
the 1920s (reproduced in Marston, 1938)."The comic book character, Wonder Woman
by William Marston (and influenced by Elizabeth Marston carries a magic lasso which
was modelled upon the systolic blood-pressure test.
B. Vittorio Benussi (1913) – He presented a paper before the second meeting of
the Italian society for psychology in Rome on the subject of his experiments regarding
respiratory symptoms of lying.
C. Richard O. Archer (1953) - The first polygraphist to record simultaneously
on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns. He was also the first
on to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.
In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph Science, the oldest of the
polygraph publications.
He appeared to be the first Polygraphist in 1970 to use what is known as the
Mode of Answer technique in which an examinee repeats a word from the question
before answering “NO”.
D. Richard I. Golden (1969) - He presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of
American Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas Regarding his experiments using
existing control question techniques but requiring the subjects to answer each
question twice. The first time truthfully and the second time with lie, for the purpose
or requiring additional psycho-physiological data from the examinee by comparing his
subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the same question.
E. William Stern (1902) (Father of Statement Analysis) - Wrote an article “Die
Aussagepsychologie” (The Witness Psychology) hypothesizing that person’s

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statement depends on the cognitive ability of the person as well as on the interviewing
process used to obtain the statement.
F. Daniel Defoe (1730) - wrote an essay suggesting that taking the pulse is a
practical and more humane method of determining a liar.
In relation to this, “Gesta Romanorum” a book published in 1906, stated that
during the middle Ages, a nobleman tested the fidelity of his wife by taking her pulse
G. Cesare Lombroso (1895)- published the 2nd edition of L’Homme Criminel
where he explained how he used plethysmograph and sphygmograph during the
interrogation of criminal suspects.
H. Wilhelm Wundt (1879) - He founded the first Psychological Laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany whereby he immediately attracted students from all over the world.
He modified Galton’s association method to an almost standardized form.
I. Fred E. Inbau (1942) - He wrote a book entitled “Lie Detection and Criminal
Interrogation” that explained the “peak of tension test” in describing the methodology
for the administration of a guilty knowledge test where the subject has not been
informed of the essential details of the case such as the object stolen, the amount of
money missing, or the implement used in the commission of the crime.
J. Dr. William J. Yankee (1968) – He presented a report of the
Computerization of Polygraphic Recordings to the Keeler Polygraph Institute
Alumni Association’s fifth annual seminar in Chicago. Yankee explained the basics of
scientific research and a method of quantifying those variables affecting the
polygraphic recordings as a means of computerizing the polygraph system.

D.) Other Pioneers in the Field of Deception Detection

A. Francis Galton (1879) - He developed the much-acclaimed psychological test
known as the “Word Association Test”, whereby the patient is presented with group
of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the patient to utter his first thought
generated by each word. Dr. Carl Guztav Jung later developed the work and
experiment of Galton.

B. Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns (1951) – Invented an electronic

psychometric using electrodermal response as a basis for lie detection. Both have
proven that results of lie detection test (during) using their instrumental 95%
accurate.
C.Chester W. Darrow (1930) – He devised a research “photo polygraph” which
records several responses simultaneously, which are;
a. Electro dermal response
b. blood pressure
c. heart beat frequency
d. time between verbal stimuli and verbal response
e. signal marks
f. involuntary tremors of one hand
g. breathing amplitude and frequency
h. voluntary movement of the hand
D.Erasistratus – Greek physician (300 B.C.) had successfully noted the
frequency of heartbeat, upon application of some stimuli related to the question at
hand.
E. Galileo (1581) – Devised a gadget called “Pulsilogium” instrument used to
measure heartbeat frequency. He did not use device for lie detection purpose.
F. Dr. Charles E. Cady– He recommended the use of chloroform to solve
Lincoln’s assassination including the identification of the plotters.
Based on his three years of experience as army surgeon, he had observed rebel
officers divulge important information while they were partially under the influence of
chloroform.
G. Hugo Munsterberg (1908) – A German-American psychologist and
philosopher who introduced in United States the first forensic application of WAT in lie

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detection and further suggested possibilities in detecting deception by recording
physiological changes.
H. Arthur Macdonald (1908) - an acquaintance of Lombroso who appeared
before the US congressional hearing proposing the creation of a federal laboratory to
study criminals and suggested the use of an apparatus containing all of the elements
of a modern polygraph
I. Christian Ruckmick (1936)– He repudiated the term psychogalvanic reflex
because such reaction is not a reflex, explained that the psychological nature of the
so-called psychogalvanic reflex is not completely understood, thus he proposed the
term electrodermal response and probably the first to conduct legitimate laboratory
study (1938) involving a Peak-of-Tension (POT) test resembling the current format.
J. Otto Lowenstein (1920) – a German psychiatrist who introduced an
apparatus that has two pneumographs which could record simultaneously the
movement of each foot, each hand, and the head in all three dimension; this
instrument was huge, impractical and difficult to maintain in working order, but it
was considered a true polygraph.
K. Akamatsu, Uchida and Togawa (1933) –they are Japanese psychologists
who suggested the use of electrodermal activity (EDA) for deception detection because
the conductance level was found to decrease during emotional changes.
L. Alexander R. Luria – a Russian psychologist who modified the word
association technique that was introduced by Galton so that it is suitable in the
Russian setting.

M. Father Walter G. Summers – He developed the pathometer, which measured

apparent changes in skin resistance to electricity; he used control questions, which he
called emotional standards, carefully selected from the suspect’s life in an attempt to
evoke intense pychogalvanic reactions to surprise, anger, shame or anxiety such as
‘Are you living with your wife?’ or ‘Were you ever arrested?’.
N. C.W. Darrow (1930)–He developed the Darrow Behavior Research
Photopolygraph (manufactured by C.H. Stoelting Company in Chicago, Illinois)
O. FBI Special Agent E.P. Coffey – The first FBI polygraphist (FP) and probably
the first examiner in the US Federal Government; he established the first federal
polygraph research program. (The 1st FBI use of polygraph in espionage was in 1938)
P. Captain Clarence D. Lee (1938) – He designed the Berkeley Psychograph
consisting of a chart drive or recording unit, a pneumograph or respiration unit, a
cardiograph or pulse-blood pressure unit, and a stimulus signal unit.

E.) Manufacturer in the Field of Deception Detection

A. Stoelting Company (Based at Chicago, Illinois) – They introduced in 1955
the Deceptograph model cat.no. 22500 – a polygraph that contained vacuum tubes in
its amplifier, which required significant warm-up time before use (30 minutes). The
deceptograph contained 3 recording channels for cardio, pneumo and GSR.
The Stoelting Company also introduced in 1966 the Emotional Stress Monitor
(ESM) cat. no. 22600 which was a 3-pen polygraph instrument. The most important
innovation in this model was the replacement of the vacuum tubes.
In 1968, it introduced a 4-pen ESM consisting of double pneumograph which
recorded simultaneously the thoracic and abdominal breathing patterns, in addition to
the GSR and the cardiograph. This new instrument provided a kymograph, which
recorded tracings an 8-inch chart. This was considered a major improvement in
instrumentation by professional polygraphists.
B. Biometrics Inc. (Based at Waltham, Massachusetts) (1969)–They developed a
cardio activity monitor (CAM) designed to obtain from the wrist or thumb the same
recording and chart patter obtained with the conventional sphygmograph using the
cardio medical cuff normally placed against the brachial artery at the inside upper
arm.
C. Dektor Counter-Intelligence & Security, Inc. (Based in Savannah, Georgia)
(1971) –They developed a device for the detection of emotional stress in a person’s
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voice; this device was called Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE) which was used
extensively in both the public and private sector in US.
D. Lafayette Instrument Company (1973) – They initiated the electronic trend
in polygraph instrumentation when it introduced the electronic cardio component.
E. National Institute of Truth Verification (NITV) – (Based in West Palm
Beach, Florida) (1980) - produced in the late 1980s what they termed as Computer
Voice Stress Analyzer (CVSA) The CVSA is marketed as a convenient replacement for
the polygraph.
In the early 1990’s, PSE began to be supplanted by the CVSA. Like the PSE, the
CVSA analyzes micro-tremors in a person’s voice. However, unlike PSE the CVSA
provides real-time graphical outputs or charts that examiners can score or numerically
evaluate.

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 CHAPTER III
Types of Liars, Lies and Signs of Lying

Children and those who suffer from autism cannot lie, Children cannot lie, but
as they acquire language, they learn to co-operate with others and learn about
deception, in order to survive in society. Lying has an unquestionable value in human
culture, for the ability to deceive one’s peers has evolved into one of the most advanced
and powerful of our cerebral functions. It is a power that helps us succeed in love, war
and commerce.

A.) Types of Liar

1. Panic Liar – a person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession. He
or she is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and is a serious blow to his or her ego.
2. Occupational Liar – a person who has lied for years. This Person is a practical liar
and lies when it has a higher payoff than telling truth.
3. Tournament Liar – a person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not
being detected. He views as another contest and wants to win. He lies because it is the
only weapon remaining with which to fight. This person realizes that he or she will
probably be convinced but will not give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her
confess. He wants people to believe that the law is punishing an innocent person.
4. Ethnological Liar – a person who was trained not to be a squealer. This person
loves to be interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he
or she will never reveal the truth, the creed of underworld gangs.
5. Psychopathic Liar – this type of liar has no conscience. He shows no regret for his
dishonest actions and no manifestation of guilt. This is the most difficult type of liar
because he is good actor he can fool most investigator.
6. Pathological Liar – a person who cannot distinguished what is right from wrong.
These are those people who are mentally sick.
7. Black Liar – a person who always pretends and a hypocrite.

B.) Types of Lies

1. Direct Denial - This Is Direct Denial of The Act in Question That Creates an
Emotional Sense of Disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between what
is true and the attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the mind.
Example; “I didn’t do it”. The vague response permits the person to evade inner conflict
while seeming to answer the question. The reply given to a query must be evaluated in
terms of what asked to know if the answer is proper.
2. Lie of Omission - This type of lie that people usually used because it is simple to
tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth while omitting
details that could create possible troubles.
3. Lie of Fabrication – This is the most difficult type of lie that a subject could use in
an interview.
4. Lie of Minimization - This type of lie, individual will accept that something has
occurred/but downplays the implication. Lie of minimization could be used if a subject
wanted to stay close to the truth’ however he covers the truth for his or her own
benefit.
5. Lie of Exaggeration - This is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of
obtaining some advantages. This is also often found on resume, where applicant
exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and length of service. The
exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for inconsistencies of the subject story.

C.) Other Forms or Types of Lie

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1. Bald-Faced Lie - A bald-faced (or barefaced) is a lie that is told when it is obvious to
all concerned that is it a lie. Example: a child who has chocolate all over his face and
denies that he has eaten the last piece of chocolate cake.
2. Lie-to-Children - is a lie often a platitude that may use euphemism that is told to
make an adult subject acceptable to children. A common example is “The stork
brought you”.
3. Benign or White Lie - A white lie would cause no discord if it were uncovered and
offers some benefit to the liar, the hearer, or both. White lies are often used to avoid
offense, such as telling someone that you think that their new outfit looks good when
you actually think that it is a horrible excuse for an outfit. The lie is told to avoid the
harmful implications and realistic implications of the truth.
4. Noble Lie - A noble lie is one that would normally cause discord it if were
uncovered, but that offers some benefit to the liar and perhaps assist in an orderly
society and thus potentially gives some benefit to others also. It is often told to
maintain law, order and safety. A noble lie usually has the effect of helping an elite
maintain power.
5. Emergency Lie - An emergency lie is a strategic lie told when the truth may not be
told because, for example, harm to a third party would come of it. Example: a neighbor
might lie to an engaged husband about the whereabouts of his unfaithful wife,
because said husband might reasonably be expected to inflict physical injury to his
husband.
6. Perjury - It is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material
matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law or in any of various sworn
statements in writing.
Perjury is a crime because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the
credibility of the court, witness testimony must be relied on an being truthful.
7. Bluffing - Pretending to have capability or intention one doesn’t. Bluffing is an act
of deception that is not usually seen as immoral because it takes place in the context
of a game where this kind of deception is consented to in advance by the players.
8. Misleading - A misleading statement is one where there isn’t an outright lie, but
still has the purpose of making someone believe in an untruth. Dissembling, A polite
term for lying, though some might consider it to refer to being merely misleading.
9. Jocose Lie - Are lies that are meant in jest and are usually understood as such by
all present parties. Sarcasm can be an example. Storytelling traditions that are
present in some places, where the humor comes from the storyteller’s insistence that
he or she is telling that absolute truth despite all evidence to the contrary.
10. Promotion Lies - Advertisements often contain statements that are not credible,
such as “we are always happy to give a refund.”
11. Belief Systems - It is alleged that some belief systems may find lying to be
justified.
Example: Religious lies
12. Red Lie - This is common to communist countries. This lie is used to destroy
other ideologies by means of propaganda.
13. Malicious Lie- A chronic lie purely used to mislead justice, a pure dishonesty to
obstruct justice.
14. Bad Faith – It is lying to oneself. Specifically, it is failing to acknowledge one’s own
ability to act and determine one’s possibilities, falling back on the determinations of
the various historical and current totals which have produced one as if they relieved
one of one’s freedom to do so.
15. Big Lie – It attempts to trick the victim into believing something major which will
likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their
common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the
victim’s reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be
concocted.
16. Bullshit – It does not necessarily have to complete fabrication; with only basic
knowledge about a topic, bullshit is often used to make the audience believe that one
knows far more about the topic by feigning total certainty or making probable
P a g e 15 | 47
predictions. It may also merely be “filler” or nonsense that, by virtue of its style or
wording, gives the impression that it actually means something.
17. Butler Lie – It describes small or innate lies which are usually sent electronically,
and are used to terminate conversations or to save face. For example sending an SMS
to someone reading “I have to go, the waiter is her”, when you are not at a restaurant.
18. Half-Truth – It is deceptive statement that includes some element of truth. The
statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true but only part of the
whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation,
or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame or misrepresent
the truth.
19. Haystack Answer – It is volume of false or irrelevant information, possibly
containing a true fact (the needle in the “haystack”). Even if the truth is included, it is
difficult or impossible to detect and identify.
20. Honest Lie or Confabulation – It is characterized by verbal statements or actions
that inaccurately describe history, background and present situations. There is
typically no intent to deceive and the individual is unaware that their information is
false.
21. Lying through your Teeth – This is when one lies face-to-face with the intended
recipient. This also may be an expression describing the act of lying with a smile or
other patronizing tone or body language.
22. Polite Lie – It is a lie that a politeness standard requires, and which is usually
known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily
dependent on culture. A common polite lie in international etiquette is to decline
invitations because of “scheduling difficulties”.
23. Puffery – It is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity
announcements, such as “the highest quality at the lowest price”, or “Noynoy para sa
tuwid na daan”.
24. View from Nowhere – It refers to journalism and analysis that misinform the
audience by creating the impression that opposing parties to an issue have equal
correctness and validity, even when the truth of their claims are mutually exclusive.
25. Augustine’s Taxonomy of Lies - Lies in religious teaching, lies that harm others
and help no one, Lies that harm others and help someone, Lies told for the pleasure of
lying, Lies told “please others in smooth discourse”, Lies that harm no one and that
help someone, lies that harm no one and that save someone’s life, lies that harm no
one and that save someone’s purity.

C.) Signs of Lying

1. Verbal Clues

A. Methods of Responding to the Question – in general truthful people tend to be

direct; untruthful tend to be cautious about their answer.
B. Length of Time Before Giving Response – In general, truthful persons answer
questions immediately after the question is asked; untruthful persons take their time
in giving a response
C. Repetition of Questions – The question may be repeated word for word, or the
respondent may frame the answer with a request to repeat the question.
D. Fragmented or Incomplete Sentences – Untruthful person often speak in
disjointed or curtailed sentences. Statement such as I…...Think ……. It seems to
me……... if I recall correctly…….
E. Being Overly Polite – The Suspect Who Has Been Accused and Is Lying Will Often
Say, sir, ma’am, boss or chief.
F. Oaths – lying persons will frequently utter oaths, such as “I swear to God I didn’t do
it” or “I swear on my Father grave”.
G. Clarity of Response – honest people tend be very clear in their answers, while
untruthful persons tend to speak softly and broaden their answers.

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H. Use of Words – As General Rule, Truthful subjects have no trouble denying the
allegation is precise terms, while untruthful one will have problems with the use of
words.
I. Assertiveness – Truthful persons are confident about their innocence, and deceitful
ones are not confident unless they are practiced liars.
J. Inconsistences – Contradicting testimonies made by witness are one of the best
indications of dishonesty; liars get caught up in their own web of deceit.
K. Slip of the Tongue – Liars, as “Freud” discovered, quite often slip up and divulge
them through a “slip of the tongue.
L. Pauses – “Ekman” says gap in speech patterns may be one reliable clue to
deception.
M. Speed of Speech – Persons who are tense or upset frequently increase the
swiftness of their speech, words tend to run together and the conversation can be
fragmented.
N. Tirades – a long and angry speech.

2. Non-Verbal Clues

A. Emblems – Emblems are often performed deliberately, these are expressions made
with the body, whose meanings are clearly understood.
B. Manipulators – These are usual of touching one’s self. Manipulators encompass
grooming the hair, wringing the hands, picking imaginary fur from a coat.
C. Breathing – Many persons, under prolonged periods of stress, hyperventilate. An
increase in breathing rate or volume may be a sign of deception.
D. Sweating – This is another uncontrollable body function. Perspiration occurs with
heat as well as with emotion.
E. Frequent Swallowing – A dry mouth frequently accompanies deep emotion.
F. Facial Muscles – Other muscles are not easy to control but people can control
certain facial muscles with spirit.
G. Eyes – The eyes most likely express as much emotion as any other part of the
anatomy. Blinking, Pupil dilation, and tears are some of the signs indicative of emotion
in the eyes.
H. Face – People believe that lies will commonly show up in the face and eyes.
Reddening or blushing of the face is supposed to be a sign of embarrassment and
cannot be controlled.
The polygraph is used to test or question individuals for the purpose of detecting
deception or verifying truth of statements through a visual, permanent and
simultaneous recording of a person’s cardiovascular and respiratory pattern as a
minimum instrumentation requirement.

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 CHAPTER IV
The Polygraph and Attachment of Major Components

A polygraph (commonly referred to as a lie detector) is an instrument that

measures and records several physiological responses. This instrument does not
detect lies. It can only detect whether deceptive behavior is being displayed.
The instrument is carefully and accurately engineered for recording changes in
the blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin conductivity while the subject is asked
and answers a series of questions, on the basis that false answers will produce
distinctive measurements. The polygraph chart tracing will reveal attempted deception
as shown by physiological changes that are recorded reliably. The polygraph measures
physiological changes caused by the sympathetic nervous system during questioning.
Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumentation: analog and
computerized. In the United States, most examiners now use computerized
instrumentation.

A.) Functions and Major Parts of the Polygraph

1. Cardio-Sphygmograph (Red) - records the changes of blood pressure and pulse

rate. It is consisting of arm cuff. The arm cuff is place around the subject’s arm with
the covered rubber bladder part centered at the brachial artery about an inch above
the elbow and must be inflated by a pump bulb to put air into the system, which
recorded in a sphygmomanometer in millimeters of mercury (generally 60-80 mm).
After inflation, the arm cuff becomes so susceptible to monitor changes of blood
pressure as well as pulse rate and amplitude to be sending out to the recording bellow
and be recorded by the cardio pen on the chart.
*Cardio Section:
a. Pump Bulb Assembly
b. Blood Pressure Pump Connection
c. Blood Pressure Cuff Assembly
d. Connector Block
e. Sphygmomanometer Pipe Line

2. Pneumograph (Blue) - component of the polygraph records the subject's respiratory

rate. One tube is placed around the subject's chest and a second is placed around his
or her abdomen. These tubes are filled with air or contains certain of volume of air.
When the subject breaths, changes in the air pressure in the tubes are recorded on
the polygraph.
*Pneumograph Section:
a. Rubber Jellows
b. Beaded Chain
c. Rubber Flexible Tubing
d. Pneumograph Tube Connection
e. Pneumograph Connecting Tube
f. Pneumograph Distributing Ink
g. Pneumograph Pipe Line
h. Vent Valve and Vent Bottom
i. Tambour Assembly
j. Sphygmomanometer
k. Resonance Control

3. Galvanograph (Green) - section records the amount of perspiration produced. It

consists of electrical sensors called galvanometers that are attached to the subject's
fingertips. The skin of the fingertips contains a high density of sweat glands, making
them a good location to measure perspiration. The GSR (Galvanic Skin Reflex)
comprise of finger or palm electrodes that is attached on the subject’s finger primarily
the index and ring finger or palm to check and detect skin resistance towards a small
P a g e 18 | 47
amount of electricity, to operate the galvanometer supply a current and the
mechanical movement of a seven (7) inches recording pen will take place.
*Galvanograph Section:
a. Hand Electrode
b. Electrode Bellow
c. Galvanometer

4. Kymograph - is sometimes referred as a chart drive module. This is motor that

pulls or drive the chart paper under the recording pen at the same time at the rate of
six (6) to twelve (12) inches per minute. A chart roll is about 100 feet long, 6
inches width with ½ inch margin apart. Paper is imprinted with horizontal line
spaced and ¼ inch interval (20 division) and vertical lines at 1/10-inch interval with
heavy line ½ inch interval. Each ½ inch division across the paper signifies five seconds
of time. Pulse rate per minute may then be calculated by multiplying the number of
beats counted in one division by 12.
*Kymograph or chart driving mechanism:
a. Chart Roll Arbor
b. Idler Roller
c. Pen Table
d. Paper Guides
e. Sprocket Roller
f. Cutter Bar
g. Off and On Power Switch
h. Synchronous Motor
*Pen and Inking System:
a. Capillary Pen
b. Ink Well Plates
c. Ink Dropper
d. Duct Bill

B.) Other Parts of Polygraph

1. Pen Lifter – raises or lowers pens to 3 positions.

2. Program Pacer – a programmable cueing device for question and answer spacing.
3. Paper Tear Bar – provides cutting edge for convenient removal of charts.
4. Foam Pen Hold-Down – keeps pens in place when instrument is being transported.
5. Attache Compartment – storage for all forms and supplies. Slightly smaller in
executive Ultra Scribe.
6. Accesory Storage & Optional Calibration Checking Fixture– slightly smaller in
executive ultra-facilitates set-up and storage.
7. Subject Connection – stylish grouping provides neat, professional appearance.
Facilitates set-up and storage.
8. Mechanical Pneumo Module – recording part of Mechanical Pneumo Channel.
9. Galvanic Skin Response Module - recording part of GSR channel.
10. Multi-Function Module – Selectable recording module. Can be used as;
a. Electronic Pneumo Channel
b. Electronic Cardio Channel
c. Cardio Activity Monitor (CAM)
d. Cardio Tech, or other Accessories
11. Mechanical Cardio Module – recording part of mechanical Cardio Module.
12. Paper Storage Compartment – holds two spare rolls of chart paper or other
supplies.
13. Ac Power Receptacle – power cords connect here; international standard design
for easy cord replacement.
14. Power Switch and Circuit Breaker – applies power to instrument, Built-in
resettable circuit breaker protects instrument and eliminates need for fuses. To re-set,
simply press “off” and then “on” again.
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15. Chart Drive Roller Lever – lifts chart drive roller for paper changes and chart
removal.
16. Power Analyzer – automatically indicates whether wall outlets are properly wired
and grounded for proper instrument operation and subject safety.
17. Stimulus Marker – marks significant events on the charts.
18. Sphygmomanometer Dial – reads operating pressure of cardio channels.
19. Pneumo 2 (Blue) – pneumatic connection for upper (thoracic) pneumograph. Not
connected in instrument with only one pneumo Channel.
20. Pneumo 1 (Silver) – pneumatic connection for lower (abdominal) pneumograph.
21. Cuff – pneumatic connection for Cardio Channel subject cuff tubing.
22. Pump – pneumatic connection for hand pump used to inflate subject cuff.
23. Mechanical Cardio Switch – disengages mechanical cardio module from
pneumatic system for low pressure electronic cardio operation.

C. Attachment of the Major Components of Polygraph

A polygraph is in fact several instruments combined to simultaneously record
changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin resistance. The electrical
conductivity of the skin’s surface can also be measured through the increasing sweat
gland activity that reduces the skin’s ability to carry electrical current.
The pneumograph tube is fastened around the subject’s torso and belly. The
blood pressure cuff is place on the right arm in such a way that the rubber bladder
part should be located over the brachial artery. The electrodes or galvanic skin reflex
(GSR) is attached on the index finger and ring of the left hand of the subject. Position
the subject in a manner that he looks straight ahead with the instrument and the
examiner to the right side or rear somewhat ahead of the kymograph or chart drive so
that the polygraph tracings will not distract him.

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 CHAPTER V
The Examiner and Examination Proper

Within the U.S. federal government, a polygraph examination is also referred to

as a Psychophysiological Detection of Deception (PDD) examination. Several other
technologies are also used in the field of lie detection, but the polygraph is the most
famous.

I.) Examiner

A. The Polygraph Examiner

Is one who skilled and capable to detect deception or verify truth of statement
through instrumentation or the use of mechanical devise. The instrument or devise
utilized to detect deception or verify truthfulness of the statements must meet the
basic instrumentation requirement of being capable of recording simultaneously on a
moving chart the physiological responses.
The Following are qualifications and qualities expected of a polygraph examiner
are;
1. He must remember that he is an impartial seeker of truth. Conducts examination in
a professional and ethical manner, and never allow his personal feelings, sympathies,
or prejudice influence the results of the examination.
2. He constantly bears in mind his primary obligation to his subjects is to afford them
all possible safeguards against error and must not accept any subjects whose physical
or mental health or state makes him unfit.
3. Technically, he must have a complete knowledge of the instrument and its
capabilities and limitations, the most modern polygraph technique, proficiency in the
conduct of the polygraph examination, test construction and chart interpretation.
4. Morally, he must have a sincere desire to be a polygraph examiner in its strictest
sense, by devoting himself to the polygraph profession through maintenance of a high
personal integrity and increasing personal proficiency through constant study and
research.

B. Responsibilities of Polygraph Examiner to His Subject

In conducting polygraph examination, the examiner should be reminded of his
responsibilities to his subject.
1. The polygraph examiner recognizes the fact that his primary responsibility must be
to the person who has voluntary submitted him to a polygraph examination.
2. He should never conduct examination on person without first the appraisal of the
subject’s constitutional rights, rights against self-incrimination.
3. He should never perform examination to any person unless the instrument he is
going to utilize is in good working condition and makes a continuous permanent
recording on a moving chart of at least two physiological tracings.
4. He should never render a certain or conclusive verbal or written opinion based on
the chart analysis without having administered at least two or more charts.
5. He should not suggest testimony concerning the charts or conclusions presented by
another examiner unless he is methodically familiar with the technique and
procedures employed.

C. Responsibilities of the Investigator to the Examiner

In asking polygraph assistance, the investigator must always confer first with
the examiner on the requirement for the test, selection and fitness of subject, and
appropriate schedule for the test. The following should guide the investigator in asking
assistance for polygraph examination.
1. He must not wait until the last minute, after all investigative methods and
techniques have failed, and the test should never be used as a last resort;
2. He must not fail to investigate the case as a last resort.

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3. He should not depend on the mass screening of possible suspects to produce the
guilty party except when no reasonable amount of investigation had produced a likely
suspect or materially narrowed down the number of possible suspects;
4. Not to stop investigation if polygraph examination is deferred or temporarily
delayed;
5. He must not ask the test to bolster the evidence submitted to the court. This is a
display of doubt as to his investigative findings of guilt on the part of the accused.
Such doubt always builds up to the benefit of an accused, and in numerous instances,
the opinion of the examiner is accepted by the court in favor of the defense rather for
the prosecution;
6. He must not use polygraph as a props, ruse or trickery to secure confession or for
the evaluation of the mental and physical state of the suspect; and
7. He should not tell anyone that the polygraph would decide whether the subject or
suspect is innocent or guilty. The court makes the decision.
8. He must not think that investigation is over if the test indicated that the subject lied
or confessed. Evidence and testimonies should be gathered to prove the facts of the
offense and the allegation against the subject.

D. Responsibilities of Investigators to the Subject

In asking a person involved in a criminal case under investigation to take
polygraph test, the investigator should;
1. Be knowledgeable about the polygraph so that he can talk openly and freely to the
person about the test. The subject may know very little or may have been misinformed
about it;
2. Not to divulge details of an offense which may be utilized in application of a peak of
tension test;
3. Recommended the test as a means for the subject to indicate his truthfulness.
4. Stress the test’s capacity for indicating through the recorded response whether a
person is telling the truth;
5. Guarantee the subject that the examiner is qualified and impartial to all persons
involved in the case; and
6. Avoid any claim for the instrument or examiner that is not backed up by fact.

II.) Examination Proper

A.) The Examination Room or Polygraph Suite

1. It must be private and free from all outside noise and detracting influences.
2. Adequately lighted and well ventilated with an even comfortable temperature.
3. Devoid of pictures, paintings, decors or other ornaments.
4. Preferably sound-proof (90%)
5. Without any furniture other than a polygraph desk, Subjects chair with arm rest
and an examiner’s stool.
7. With one-way mirror and remote sound system for monitoring the test proceedings
to an authorized audience. (Lawyer or Investigator)

B.) Selection of Test Subject

1. Permanent physical illness such as mental derangement, addiction to narcotic
drugs, a person who is being forced to do so, a person who suffers from a serious heart
condition, a person who suffers from a severe nervous condition, a person who suffers
from a severe respiratory illness and a quadriplegic (paralysis on both arms and legs).
2. Temporary illness conditions such as sickness, injury, pain, physical discomfort,
external physical or mental fatigue, colds, coughs, fever, allergies, and influences of
sedatives and liquor are causes for deferment of the test until such time that the
subjects regain his ordinary physical condition, a pregnant woman, unless he has
obtained prior written permission from a physician to do so.
Note: Treatment of the subjects before being asked to make or while awaiting test
affects the success of the examination.
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Note: Prolonged interrogation with constant accusation directed against the subjects
may condition him to react falsely to the test, or may result to a flat emotionless chart.
Note: A person’s daily habit should not be upset more than necessary. Long delay
should be avoided.

III.) Phases of Polygraph Examination

AA.) Phase I - Initial Interview with the Investigator Handling the Case
Test question are formulated by the polygraph examiner based from information
obtained from the investigator. General facts, theories and suspicions are not enough
basis for a polygraph test. Question formulation depends greatly upon detailed and
accurate information regarding all the available facts.
The investigator on case should personally inform the examiner of such facts as:
1. Unpublicized facts of the offense known only to the victim, the investigator and the
offender.
Specific articles or exact amounts of money stolen.
2. Exact time and place the offense occurred.
3. Peculiar aspects of the offense or any strange or obscene acts committed at the
scene.
4. Known facts about a suspect’s action or movements immediately preceding of after
the incidents.
5. Facts indicating a connection between suspects, victims and witnesses, especially
when they deny any connection.
6. Exact type of firearm, weapon or tool used.
7. Results of laboratory test if any.
8. Background information particularly previous police records or verifies facts which
subjects denies.

BB.) Phase II - Pre-Test Interview

Before the actual testing is done, the examiner must first make an informal
interview of the subject which may last from 20 to 30 minutes to condition the subject
psychologically for the test, to apprise the subject of his constitutional rights, a written
consent which must be freely and voluntary given is taken.
Purpose of the Pre-Test Interview;
1. To determine whether the subject has any medical or psychiatric condition or has
used drugs that will prevent the testing.
3. To explain to the subject the purpose of the examination.
4. To develop the test questions, particularly those of the types to be asked.
5. To relieve the truthful subject of any apprehension as well as to satisfy the deceptive
subject as to the efficiency of the technique.
6. To know any anti-social activity or criminal record of the subject.
Rights of the Subject;
1. To be examined by a qualified examiner
2. To be determined if fit for examination
3. To be informed of the reason for the lie detector test
4. To have an explanation of the lie detector machine and what it does
5. To give consent to the lie detector test
6. Not to be compelled to undergo prolonged questioning
7. Not to be expose to oral criticism or abuse
8. Not to be exposed to physical, mental or psychological abuse, and
9. To refuse to submit to the lie detector test

CC.) Phase III – The Conduct of Instrumentation or Actual Test

Questions are formulated from the information given by the investigators, from
declaration of witnesses or the subject himself, from records, interviews and from
other factual in nature. Questions in the same exam must be related to one another. If
distinctly separate issues must be covered, they must be asked in a separate
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examination. Personal and disturbing questions have no place in a properly conducted
polygraph examination. There are general and specific rules to be followed in the
formulation of the test questions. The questions to be formulated must;
1. Short
2. Simple and Direct
3. Be answerable by either ‘Yes” or “No” only
4. Phrased in the language easily understood by the subjects
5. The questions must be clear and must have reference to only one element of
an offense of fact.
6. Not involve legal terminologies like murder, rape, etc.
7. Not be in the form of an accusation
8. Not contain influence to one’s religion, race or belief
9. Never contain an inference that presupposes knowledge on the part of the
subject

a.a. Types of Question

1. Irrelevant Question- These are questions which have no bearing to the case under
investigation. The question may refer to the subject’s age, educational attainment,
marital status, citizenship, occupation, etc. The examiner asks these types of
questions to ascertain the subject’s normal pattern of response by eliminating the
feeling of apprehension.
2. Relevant Question - These are questions pertaining to the issue under
investigation. They must be unambiguous, unequivocal and understandable to the
subject. They must be related to one issue or one criminal act. It is equally important
to limit the number of relevant questions to avoid discomfort to the subject.
a. Strong Relevant or Primary or Crucial Question – These questions are
intended and created to test for direct participation only and specifically designed to
produce and emotional response in guilty subject.
b. Weak Relevant or Secondary Question – These are questions concern in
several secondary aspects of the crime or problem and often deal with guilty
knowledge and partial involvement.
3. Control Question- These are questions which are unrelated to the matter under
investigation but are of similar nature although less serious as compared to those
relevant questions under investigation.
a. Primary Control Question – is based on known lie. It must concern about
actions that transpired within three (3) to five (5) years’ time prior to case under
investigation occurred. Example: Before turning the age of 15, have you ever raped a
goat?
b. Secondary Control Question – is more precise in nature and is based on
another experience of unlawful activity, which will improve the chance for
responsiveness. It ranges covers up to the current period. The question for
responsiveness must not be connected to the case under investigation.
4. Evidence Connection Question – This is intended to arouse the guilty subject and
focus his attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would tend to
establish his guilt. In formulating the question, the examiner must know from the
investigator whether or not pieces of evidences were collected from the scene of the
crime. Example: Was the evidence found at the scene of the crime yours?
5. Knowledge Question – This question is intended to discover whether the subject
possesses information regarding the identity of the offender, or as to the location of the
evidence or other secondary elements of the facts of the case under investigation.
Example: Did you know who committed the crime?
6. Sacrifice or DYAT Question – This is intended to obtain responses usually
produced by the introduction of the first relevant question in the sequence. These
divulge the subject’s norm plus stimulus and excitement stage. Example: Regarding
the stealing incident, do you intend to answer all of these questions truthfully?
7. Symptomatic or Introductory Question – These questions are intended to identify
and assess the occurrence of the outside issues that might restrain subject’s
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responses to the relevant question. An outside factor in a case, which he is concerned,
but not the issue under investigation. Example: Do you understand that i will only ask
you questions we discussed?
8. SKY Question – These are three groups question place as one by Backster and they
are intended to verify the previous charts and detect indirect participation or guilty
knowledge. The “S” stands for “suspect”, the “K” stands for “know”, and “Y” stands for
“you”. Example: Do you know who stole the money of Pedro?

b.b. Test Construction Applied are of Two Main Types.

1. General Peak Tension Test- The general question test consists of a series of
relevant and irrelevant questioned asked in a planned order.
Example:
Have you ever been called by the name Fred? (Irrelevant)
Is today Friday? (Irrelevant)
Do you have anything to do with the robbery at Goodwill Grocery last night? (Relevant)
Did you rob the Goodwill Grocery last night? (Relevant)
Are you over twenty years of age? (Irrelevant)
Do you know is any of the fingerprints found at goodwill Grocery is yours? (Relevant)
Do you drink water? (Irrelevant)
Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery of Goodwill Grocery last night?
(Relevant)
2. Peak of Tension Test
This valid test is only made when there is no widespread publicity about the crime.
Example:
Do you know whether the stolen watch from Fred is Boluva?
It is an Elgin?
Is it a Colorado?
Is it a Rolex?

c.c. There are Three Basic Approaches to the Polygraph Test:

1. The Control Question Test (CQT) - This test compares the physiological response
to relevant questions about the crime with the response to questions relating to
possible prior misdeeds. "This test is often used to determine whether certain criminal
suspects should be prosecuted or classified as uninvolved in the crime" (American
Psychological Association).
2. The Directed Lie Test (DLT) - This test tries to detect lying by comparing
physiological responses when the subject is told to deliberately lie to responses when
they tell the truth.
3. The Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) - This test compares physiological responses to
multiple-choice type questions about the crime, one choice of which contains
information only the crime investigators and the criminal would know about.
Objectives;
1. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth by verifying statement and/or comparing
conflicting statements.
2. Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of an offense.
3. Locate fruits or roots of crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.
4. Identify other persons involved.
5. Obtain valuable information from reluctant witnesses.
6. Most important is the elimination of innocent suspects.

D.) Polygraph Technique

1. Concealed Information Test- It has the best theoretical foundation and validation
research. It serves as an important tool in the post test interrogation. Useful in
circumstances where the CQT may produce less than optimal results. The foundation
of CIT is the orienting response/reflex theory. (O’Gorman, 1979; Siddle, Kyriacou,

P a g e 25 | 47
Heron, & Mathews, 1979; Sokolov, 1963,1966; Verschure, Crombez, De Clerq, &
Koster, 2004)
When a person is involved in a significant event, a memory of that event is
created. If presented with information that is important because it is linked to the
memory of the event, his or her body will have an orienting response to the key.
Because an innocent person does not have a memory of that event.

Guidelines in Conducting CIT

a.a. Educating Crime Scene Investigators
1. Investigators must be taught with the CIT techniques during their professional
training, it should be included as part of their investigative practices.
2. Investigators should be exposed on all aspects and approaches of CIT, from
theory to applications.
b.b. Gathering Information
Early involvement of the examiner for the investigation helps secure critical
information and ensures that information is not to be released to anyone but those
individuals responsible for working the investigation.
- ocular/visit of the crime scene
- early participation in the investigation
cc. Constructing CIT’s
Each CIT include one key item. Non-key item is always placed as the first item
in the sequence. Key item is randomly placed in the sequence after the first non-key
item. Key Item must be something that the perpetrator is most likely to have paid
attention to, and to be able to recall during the test.
Example:
If you killed Mary Smith, you know the object that was used to strike her. Repeat after
me these object.
Non Critical Item : Steam Iron
Non Critical Item : Table Lamp
Key Item : Stone book end
Non Critical Item : Wine Bottle
Non Critical Item : Tire Jack
Non Critical Item : Hammer

Pre-Test Practices
Subject is informed that she or he will be undergoing a knowledge-based examination,
and that it is necessary to determine whether the topic to be tested is known to the
examinee. The Polygraphist should also collect and inform the following;
1. Overview of the entire process of the CIT
2. Securing of forms, waivers, medical background.
3. Examinee is asked to write everything they know about the incident; and
4. The examinee is reassured that the knowledge of the information does not mean
that they have committed the crime, and that there are instances when others involved
in the investigation leak information (investigator, victim, witness, media, etc).
Note: It should be stated that the goal of the examiner is to conduct a fair examination
and to eliminate any potentially corrupted data) to ensure that key information was
concealed from a possible innocent examinee. Verbal review of the written statement to
written statement to confirm the concealment of the key information. Examinee must
verbally commit to the information as their only knowledge about the crime.
Explanation of the procedure or instrumentation Practice examination is conducted to
acclimate the examinee of the instrumentation, the examiner voice, and ensure that
the examinee can properly follow the movement and answering instruction. Examinee
is instructed to answer each question by repeating the alternative ending.

2.) Acquaintance Test- Examinee is instructed to answer each question by repeating

the alternative ending.
a.a. Example A:
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*Examiner: Regarding the color of your shirt today, is it blue?
*Subject: Blue
Reviewing the Question
1.To ensure that the examinee understands all of the questions and how to
pronounce it.
2. To identify any problematic items, and
3. To verify that the examiner does not know the key stimulus from the control
stimuli in the test.
Before each test, review the general question that is to be asked, and inform the
examinee to repeat the alternative ending.

b.b. Example B:
*Examiner: Regarding where the house was entered, was it at the ___? and you don’t
know the correct answer to that question, do you?
Note: If NO proceed with the test.
Note: If YES, document the information
Only the Question is reviewed

c.c. Example C:
1. Key items are presented only once.
2. Read each item with same voice inflection
Scoring Rules (Lykken Scoring) Ranking of EDA responses computed from 2 to 0.
1. If the largest EDA response takes place on the key item, the score is 2.
2. If the second largest EDA response takes place on the key items, the score is 1.
3. All others are scored 0.
Note: Reactions to the first buffer is ignored.
Decision Rules
Note: Decisions are based on the total score
RI = equal to the number of CITs
NRI = score lower than the total number of CITs
NO = no reaction to any of the CITs
Strengths
1. The most scientifically supportable techniques.
2. Scoring methods allows the examiner to calculate the precise likelihood of a false
positive error.
3. Less intrusive than the CQT.
4. Easy to set up, conduct and score.
5. Can be used in emotionally charge case where the CQT might fail.
6. Conducted either visually or aurally.
Limitations
1. It is designed only to determine whether the examinee knows certain information
about the crime.
2. Cannot be used in circumstances where the examinee might legitimately have
knowledge of potential key items. (Victims or Witness)
3. Development of key items - educate the investigators in the necessity to withhold
information from the public in general, and from the potential suspects in particulars.

3.) Demonstration Test

a.a. Purpose:
1. To familiarize the examinee with the testing procedures.
2. To provide a glimpse of the examinee’s normal physiological pattern.
3. To set the instrument proper gains and centering.
4. To test for examinee cooperation or countermeasure.
5. To reassure the innocent, and focus the guilty.
6. For practice in conducting and interpreting Peak of Tension test.
7. To look for evidence of drugs, such a very unresponsive tracings or unusual tonic
physiological levels.
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b.b. General Rules
1. There should be no trickery involved, nor the appearance of trickery.
2. If demonstration test is used, they should be given to all examinees, and conducted
as the first chart.
3. Do not use responses on demonstration test as template for response patterns of
typical examinee.
4. A Demonstration Test must have a proper pre-test and posttest.
5. The examiner should not manipulate the tracing.
6. Sometimes emphasis on reactions on the DT may give feedback to an examinee
using a countermeasure.
c.c. Kinds of Demonstration Test
1.1Calibration and Verification of Sensitivity (CVOS)
Procedure:
i. Advise the examinee that you are going to run a special test to calibrate the
instrument to him.
ii. Reassure that the test is easy and review all the questions to him.
iii. The 1stquestion is neutral questions for which the truth is known, such as
examinee’s name or other verified detail that is not emotionally evocative.
iv. The 2nd question is another neutral question for which the truth is known, such as
the location of the examination.
v. On the 3rd question advise the examinee that you will ask a simple math question
for the purpose of confirming that he can process information. Tell the examinee to
figure out the answer, to tell it to you.
vi. Do not reveal what the math question is. Ensure the difficulty of the math
question.
Example: “How much is 6 times 6, minus 11?”
vii. For the 4th question, tell the examinee you will ask: “Have you taken any drugs or
medication today?”
viii. For the 5th question, tell the examinee you will ask: “Regarding this test, do you
intend to answer each question truthfully?”
ix. When the question review is complete, have the examinee prepare for the test.

2.2Fail-Proof Blind Numbers Test

Procedure:
i. Ask the examinee to select a number between 2 and 6, and write it on a sheet of
paper.
ii. Tell the examinee to fold up the paper and place it under a leg or arm.
iii. Advise the examinee; I’m going to give you a test on the number you just wrote
down. I want you to answer “no” to all of them including the number you pick.
iv. Begin the testing, gives the preparatory statement. “Regarding the number you
wrote down was it the number ____?” read the numbers in order. Continue the next
sequence. Try to determine what the number was.
v. Conduct mixed test, the first number should be the least likely, and the second
should also be unlikely. The third number should be the most likely, followed by
number one as the fourth number; the fifth number should be the second guess.
Finish with the last number.
vi. For the third test, advised the examinee to answer truthfully to the question. If the
truthful answer is no, answer no to the question and if the answer is yes, say yes. Ask
the examinee if he/she understand the instruction.
vii. Ask the examinee of your first guess. If correct, turn off the polygraph. Comment
is optional.
viii. If the first choice is incorrect, the next number should be the number 1, read all
the numbers, and then read last your second choice. Then turn off the polygraph.
Comment is optional.
ix. If neither choice was correct, turn off the polygraph at the end of the test. Do not
comment on the test at that point.

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x. You can truthfully advice the examinee about the readability of the test if he is
interested at the end of the polygraph test.

3.3True Blue Control Test- Before the test, draw a large red “1” on one card, a large
blue “2” on one card, a large “3” with the top of the number red and the bottom half is
blue on one card, a large blue “4’ on one card, A red “5” on one card and a large “6”
that is ¾ blue and ¼ red.
Advise the examinee that you are going to verify that the charts look differently
when the examinee tells a lie and tells the truth. State that if there are no difference
between his lies and truthfulness on the charts, there is no reason to continue the
examination.
Procedure:
i. Before the test begins, hold up the first card, and ask the examinee what is the color
of number 1, continue the procedure trough the remaining cards.
ii. Advise the examinee that when the red number is shown, he should lie, when the
blue number is shown, he should answer truthfully.
iii. Advise the examinee that when the mixed –color 3 is shown, he will be ask if the
“3” is blue. He should answer yes, and therefore he will be telling a half lie.
iv. Advise the examinee that when the mixed question “6” is shown, he will be asked if
and the “6” is red. He should answer no, and therefore he will be telling a small lie.
v. Conduct the test with the cards in order of 1 to 6.
vi. Discuss the test with the examinee when it is completed. Emphasizing that you
now have a recording of responses when the examinee is completely truthful, when he
is telling full, half and small lies.

E.) Validated Techniques and Scoring Models for PDD Test Data Analysis
American Polygraph Association New Standard of Practice
1. Mandatory use of a motion sensor for all examination.
2. Obligatory polygraph instrument functionality test recorded semi-annually.
3. General requirement for using only validated technique.
4. Criteria for the admissibility of particular technique in specific type of examinations,
evidentiary, paired testing, investigation, and screening.
5. Test format that conforms to valid principles relating to: target selection, question
formulations, and in-test presentation of the stimulus questions.
a.a. Validated methods for Test Data Analysis (PDD validated techniques)
1. Federal Zone Comparison Test (FZCT)
2. Utah Zone Comparison Test (UZCT)(PLC/DLC)
3. Air force Modified General Question Test (AFMGQT)
4. DLST
5. Backster You- Phase
6. Concealed Information Test (CIT)
7. Integrated Zone Comparison Test (IZCT)
8. MQTZCT
b.b. Seven (7) Position U.S. Federal Government Scoring System
1. Utah Scoring System (USS) - Introduced by David Raskin (1970) simplified version
of the numerical scoring system techniques introduced by Backster in 1963 and
modified by the US Army in 1970. Uses a 7-position scale numerical scoring relevant
question is normally compared to the preceding comparison question If the preceding
CQ is distorted by an artefact, use the closest artefact free CQ for evaluation. Scores
are assigned in each channel without reference to scores in the other channels.
-Positive (+) scores are assigned when the reaction to a CQ is stronger.
-Negative (-) scores are assigned when the reaction to a RQ is stronger.
-A zero is assigned if there is no difference between CQ and RQ
0 = No Difference
+/-1 = Noticeable difference
+/-2 = Strong and clear difference
+/-3 = Dramatic difference, stable tracing &strongest on the chart
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2. Empirical Scoring System (ESS)- Introduced in 2008 by R. Nelson, M. Handler
and D. Krapohl, Derived from experiment and observation rather than theory. Simple,
least complicated
Use five diagnostic features;
Respiration
1. decrease in amplitude for 3 cycles
2. decrease in rate for 3 cycles
3. temporary increase in baseline
EDA
4. amplitude
Cardio
5. amplitude

Respiratory Features (X1)

EDA (X2)

Cardio (X1)

*ESS Rules
1. Assign 3- position scores to each component, using the bigger is better Rule on the
stronger bracketing CQ for each component.
- If you can see it, point to it, and argue it is BIGGER, then you can score it. Score all
EDA with +/-2
2. Score only timely reactions.
- Don’t score reactions that begin before the stimulus onset/latency long after the
answer
3. Don’t score ugly, unstable, and artifacted data.
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- Leave blank, mark “A” or “/” or score zero (0). Use three position scores (+/-)
Weights are applied regardless of the magnitude of difference in response example;
even tiny difference in EDA are scored +/-2
3. Lykken Scoring System (LSS)- Introduced by David Lykken (1959-1960) use for
CIT/GKT.
Entails the ranking of the electro dermal response amplitude from 2 to 0, if the largest
EDR takes place on the key item, the score for the test is 2, if the largest EDR takes
place on the key item, the score is 1, all others are scored 0. Reactions to the first
buffer are ignored. The cut off for the result of RI (reaction indicated) is equal to the
number of CIT subtest.
4. Backster Scoring System - complex, with high rate of false-positive errors.
5. U.S. Army Military Police School Polygraph Branch (1970)- simplified the criteria
and rules of Backster method and uses up to 27 physiological features.
6. University of Utah Scoring System- reduce the number of physiological features
from twenty-seven (27) to ten (10) and assessment of reaction is based on principles of
psychophysiology.
7. Emperical Scoring System- base on Bigger is better scoring principle.

i. Test Data Analysis- The systematic process by which a particular set of decision is
applied to the evaluation of diagnostic features and other physiological data resulting
in one of the three outcome decisions.
a. Deception Indicated or Reaction Indicated (DI/RI/SR)
b. No Deception Indicated or No Reaction Indicated (NDI/NRI/NSR)
c. Inconclusive or No Reaction (INC/NR/NO)
ii. Types of TDA
1. Global Test Data Analysis - A system of rendering an opinion by viewing the
polygraph chart as a whole as opposed to making a systematic comparison among
questions.
- Use in relevant/irrelevant technique, peak of tension test and Reid’s GQT.
2. Numerical Test Data Analysis - A systematic assignment of numerical values to
physiological responses, and decision rules that are based on the sum of those
numerical values.
- Used in ZCT, MGQT
a. Seven-Point Scale
+3 = Maximum Truthful Score
+2 = Truthful Score
+1 = Minimum Truthful Score
0
1 = Minimum Deception Score
2 = Deception Score
3 = Maximum Deception Score
b. Three-Point Scale
+1 = if the reaction to the CQ is stronger
0
-1 = if the reaction to the RQ is stronger
iii. Four (4) Major Standardized TDA Methods
1. Lykken Scoring
2. Us Federal Government Scoring System
3. University of Utah Scoring System
4. Empirical Scoring System

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E.) Scoring
Respiration is scored first, to note any artefacts that may affect other channel (DB’s,
MVT’s and SNF).
Reactions are indicated by reduction in respiratory activity
1. decrease in amplitude
2. elevated baseline
3. apnea (blocking)
4. slowing of rate
Respiratory Features

-Reaction cannot begin before .5 seconds after question onset

-Amplitude measured from onset to peak
-If reaction started early, measure from point of inflection
-Use caution when evaluating reaction that occur during recovery
+/-1 = amplitude is double or 1.5 plus duration or complexity
+/-2 = amplitude is triple or 1.5 plus duration or complexity
+/-3 = amplitude is quadruple, tracing is stable and largest on chart
Electrodermal Features

-Rise in tracing, usually clearer on diastolic side

Duration
+/-1 = ratio of 1.5 to 1
+/-2 = ratio of 2 to 1
+/-3 = ratio of 3 to 1
-Only one 3 scores per chart and it has to be the largest reaction on the chart

Cardio Features

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Decision Criteria
1. Single Issue = grand total is +/- 6
NDI = grand total of +6 or greater
DI = grand total of -6 or less
INC = scores between -5 and +5
Note: if INC, conduct additional two chart and cutting score of +/- 6 remains the same
for 5 charts.
2. Multiple-Faceted= if/then
1. Used in examinations where the subject may be truthful to some but not to all
the RQ.
2. If spot totals are al positive or all negative,
Then, use the +/-6 grand total rule.
3. If any of the spot totals are opposite, some positive and some negative (ignoring
scores of 0),
Then, use a SPOT SCORE RULE (SSR) for each spot.
Spot Score Rule
NDI = +3 or greater at every spot
DI = -3 0r less at any spot
Examinees fail the test not on individual questions

A. Zone Comparison Test

Total score of more than +2 (ignore spot) = NSR/NDI
Total score less than -4 = SR/DI
If INC, then any spot less than -7 = SR/DI
B. BI Zone/You Phase
Total is more than +2 (ignore spot) = NSR/NDI
Total of less than -4 = SR/DI
If INC, then any spot less than -6 = SR/DI
C. MGQT and DLST
if any subtotal is less than -3 = SR
when all subtotal is more than +1 = NSR
other result = INC
D. US Federal Government Scoring System (Oldest) -A modification of the Backster
Scoring System Originally based on 22 diagnostic features (USAMPS). In 2006, Do DPI
made changes in physiological features (kept 8 main features and introduced 3
auxiliary features Variation of U.S. Federal Govt. TDA 7 position Scale,7 position
evidentiary and3 position scale.
a.a. Respiration – Reaction begins from the start of question to one full cycle after the
answer for at least 3cycles.
Pneumograph Diagnostic Features
- suppression (decrease in amplitude)
- apnea
- change in inhalation/exhalation ratio
- progressive decrease in amplitude
P a g e 33 | 47
- slowing of rate
- temporary change in baseline (secondary)
b.b. Electrodermal- Reaction begins from the stimulus on et to the answer up to
return to baseline.
EDA Diagnostic Features
- amplitude (main feature)
- complexity
- duration
Note: Complexity and duration is considered only when both compared EDA
amplitudes are similar
c.c. Cardio- Start of reaction is from stimulus onset to the end of the answer. Range of
reaction is from start to return to baseline.
Cardio Diagnostic Features
- increase of baseline (main feature)
- decrease in pulse rate (if main feature does not occur)
- duration (auxiliary)
Note: When compared changes of baseline are equal

3. General Guidelines
a.a. Seven (7) Position Scale:
0 = no response to compare
+/-1 = subtle difference
+/-2 = definite difference
+/-3 = dramatic difference

b.b. Pneumograph
+/- 1 = usual score
+/- 2 = rare score
+/- 3 = never
In case of two equivalent diagnostic features, measure the time window of longer
reaction and then compare the length line (RLL) in the same time window of reaction.
Respiration Line Length- refers to the linear measurement of a waveform over a
specified period of time
1. apnea blocking
2. decrease in Amplitude
3. progressive decrease in amplitude
4. decrease in cyclic rate
5. inhalation/exhalation (i/e) ratio change
c.c. Electrodermal
+/- 1 = if ratio is not more than 3:1
+/- 2 = if ratio is 3:1
+/- 3 = if ratio is more than 4:1
If there is no reaction to one of the compared questions, apply the rule regarding
quantity of chart division;
+/- 1 = up to 2 division
+/- 2 = from 2 to 3 division
+/- 3 = more than 3 division
d.d. Cardio
+/- 1 = up to 2 times greater increase in baseline
+/- 2 = from 2 to 3 times greater reaction
+/- 3 = at least 3 times greater reaction
If there is no reaction to one of the compared questions, apply the rule regarding
quantity of chart division;
+/-1 = up to 2 division
+/-2 = from 2 to 3 division
+/-3 = more than 3 division

P a g e 34 | 47
4. Cut off Score
a.a. Zone Comparison Technique
DI = if grand total is less than -6 or any subtotal less than -3
NDI = if every subtotal is more than +1 and grand total more than +6
INC = other results
b.b. You Phase (BI-Zone)
DI = when grand total is less than -4 or any subtotal less than -3
NDI = if all subtotal is greater than +1 and grand total is more than +4
INC = other result
c.c. UTAH Probable Lie Test (UPLT)- The first polygraph technique developed by
psychologists who explicitly incorporated basic knowledge and principles from
psychological science and psychophysiology into the pre-test interview, questions
structure, recording methods and evaluation methods (Handler and Nelson, 2009),
with high reliability and validity. (Ad Hoc Committee on Polygraph Techniques, 2011;
Kraphol, 2006)
1.1. Uses of UPLT
1. Single Issue Test
-Introductory
-Sacrifice Relevant
-Irrelevant 1
-Comparison 1
-Relevant 1 (primary)
-Irrelevant 2
-Comparison 2
-Relevant 2 (primary)
-Irrelevant 3
-Comparison 3
-Relevant 3 (primary)
2. Multi-Facet Test
-Introductory
-Sacrifice Relevant
-Irrelevant 1
-Comparison 1
-Relevant 1 (primary)
-Irrelevant 2
-Comparison 2
-Relevant 2 (secondary)
-Irrelevant 3
-Comparison 3
-Relevant 3 (secondary)
3. Mixed Issue Test
-Introductory
-Sacrifice Relevant
-Irrelevant 1
-Comparison 1
-Relevant 1 (issue 1)
-Irrelevant 2
-Comparison 2
-Relevant 2 (issue 2)
-Irrelevant 3
-Comparison 3
-Relevant 3 (issue 3)

Questions Rotation
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Chart 1 I SR N1 C1 R1 N2 C2 R2 N3 C3 R3
P a g e 35 | 47
 Chart 2 I SR N3 C2 R3 N1 C3 R1 N2 C1 R2
Chart 3 I SR N2 C3 R2 N3 C1 R3 N1 C2 R1
Chart 4 I SR N1 C1 R1 N2 C2 R2 N3 C3 R3
Chart 5 I SR N3 C2 R3 N1 C3 R1 N2 C1 R2

4. Four (4) Questions Multiple-Facet

-Introductory
-Sacrifice Relevant
-Irrelevant 1
-Relevant 1 (primary)
-Relevant 2 (secondary)
-Comparison 2
-Relevant 3 (secondary)
-Relevant 4 (secondary)
-Comparison 3
-Irrelevant 2
5. Four (4) Questions Mixed-Issue
-Introductory
-Sacrifice
-Irrelevant 1
-Comparison 1
-Relevant 1
-Relevant 2 (topic 2)
-Comparison 2
-Relevant 3 (topic 3)
-Relevant 4 (topic 4)
-Comparison 3
-Irrelevant 2

Questions Rotation
Positio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
n

Chart I SR N1 C1 R1 R2 C2 R3 R4 C3 N2
1
Chart I SR N2 C2 R4 R1 C3 R2 R3 C1 N1
2
Chart I SR N1 C3 R3 R2 C1 R1 R4 C2 N2
3
Chart I SR N2 C1 R2 R4 C2 R3 R1 C3 N1
4
Chart I SR N1 C2 R1 R3 C3 R4 R2 C1 N2
5
a.a. Scoring
Charts are scored channel by channel using 3- position or 7- position scoring
system.
In the three-question version, each RQ is scored against the immediately preceding
CQ, unless the tracing of the CQ is unstable due to artifacts or loss of signal. In that
case the RQ is scored against the nearest CQ.
Ex: C1 R1 N2 C2...
In the four- question version, each RQ is scored against the stronger of the two nearest
CQ.
P a g e 36 | 47
 Ex: C1 R1 R2 C2...
b.b. Decision Rules
1. Single – Issue
DI = if the total is -6 or lower
NDI = if the total score is +6 or more
INC = scores between -5 to +5
2. Multiple - Facet
+/- 6 cut off scores is use if the total score for each relevant question are all positive
or all negative.
If the total scores for each RQ are on opposite side of 0, decisions are made by
individual questions.
DI = -3 or lower
NDI = +3
INC = other score
3. Mixed- Issue
SR = -3 or lower
NSR = +3 or greater
NO = other score

F.) Exclusionary Phrases

a. Exclusionary Phrases
-Before this year,
-During your 20’s,
-While in high school,
-Between the ages of 18 and 25,
-When you were in college,
-As a soldier,
-Not related to this incident,
-Prior to the year,
-Before moving to this area,
-As a teenager,
b. Probable Lie Comparison Question is designed to be a probable lie for the
examinee, similar in nature but unrelated by time, place or category of the specific
issue. Broad in scope and time so that it captures as many of the examinee’s past life
as possible.
1. Physical Attacks
Have you ever wanted to hurt someone badly?
Have you ever threatened anyone with physical harm?
Have you ever thought about hurting another person?
Have you ever harmed anyone out of anger?
Have you ever lied about hurting another person?
Have you ever done anything to get even with someone?
Have you ever done something malicious to someone you were angry with?
Have you intentionally hurt someone but claim it was an accident?
Have you ever lost your temper and struck anyone?
2. Sex Crimes
Have you ever done anything sexually unusual?
Have you ever lied about your sexual activities?
Have you ever touched yourself sexually in a public place?
Have you ever wanted to have sex with anyone under the age of 18?
Have you ever used pornography excessively for sexual purposes?
Have you ever touched someone sexually without permission?
3. Damage to Property
Have you ever damage anything?
Have you ever deliberately broken the property of someone else?
Have you ever caused any damage to someone else’s belongings?
Have you ever damage someone’s property out of revenge?
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 Have you ever lied about damaging someone’s property?
Have you ever damaged any property in the school you attended?
Have you intentionally broken something without taking responsibility?
4. Stealing
Have you ever stolen anything?
Have you ever cheated anyone?
Have you ever obtained anything dishonestly?
Have you ever stolen anything from an employer?
Have you ever padded your expense account?
Have you ever cheated anyone out of anything?
Have you ever dishonestly taken someone else’s property?
Have you ever lied about stealing anything?
5. Lying
Have you ever lied to cover up something?
Have you ever lied for personal gain?
Have you ever lied to a person in a position of authority?
Have you ever lied to get someone into trouble?
Have you ever lied to make yourself look better?
Have you ever lied to someone who trusted you?
Have you ever done anything that would dishonor your family if it were known?
Have you ever blamed someone else for your mistake?
Have you ever lied about something important?
6. Victims of Sexual Offenses
Did you ever lie about something important?
Have you ever lied to make yourself look more important?
Have you ever lied to someone who trusted you?
Have you ever lied to advance your own interests at the expense of someone
else?
Did you ever say something hurtful about another person because you were
angry?
Have you ever lied to someone in a position of authority?
c. Directed Lie Comparison Question comparison question that addresses a minor
transgression to which most people will readily admit, upon acknowledging having
committed such a transgression, the examinee is directed to lie when asked that
questions on the test.
In your entire life, did you ever make a mistake?
In your entire life, did you ever tell even one lie?
In your entire life, did you ever commit a traffic violation?
d. Directed Lie Questions
Have you ever later regretted something you’d said to someone?
In your life, have you cheated in any contest or competitions?
Did you ever lie to a co-worker?
Have you ever spread false information about another person?
Have you ever lied about yourself to impress someone?
Have you ever lied to a past employer?
Have you ever intentionally done something to make someone mad?
Do you ever lose your temper?
Do you ever lie to a friend about something significant?

G.) Test Procedure

1.) The questions should not more than twelve (12)
2.) At least three (3) charts are taken, each lasting not more than four (4) minutes,
3.) Five (5) to ten (10) minutes interval between charts.

DD.) Phase IV - Post-Test Interview or Interrogation

This phase includes all consideration that bears on the examination just after
the instrument are turned off. If there are significant fluctuations that show up on the
P a g e 38 | 47
polygraph test result this may signal that the subject has been deceptive, especially if
the person displayed similar responses to the question that was repeatedly asked, the
examiner will then proceed to conduct short interrogation. The purpose of which is to
obtain confession or admission. However, if the chart of the polygraph indicates that
the subject is innocent; the examiner will just release the subject cordially and thanks
him/her for his/her cooperation. To clarify the findings, to learn if there are any other
reasons for the subject’s responding to a relevant question, other than the knowledge
of the crime. To obtain additional information and an admission for law enforcement
purposes, if he results suggest deception.
Some Techniques of Interrogation
1. Emotional Appeal – The interrogator must create a mood that is conducive to
confession. He may be sympathetic and friendly to the subject. The subject may be
willing to disclose more information if he is treated in a kind of approach.
2. Mutt and Jeff Technique – In this technique there must be at least two
investigators with opposite character; one (Mutt) who is arrogant and relentless who
knows the subject to be guilty and will not waste time in the interrogation, and the
other (Jeff) who is friendly, sympathetic and kind. When Mutt is not present Jeff will
advise the subject to make a quick decision and plea for coordination.
3. Bluff and Split-Fair Technique – This is applicable where there are two or more
persons who allegedly participated in the commission of a crime. All of them are
interrogated separately and the results of their individual statements are not known to
one another. While one of them is under interrogation, the interrogator claim that the
subject was implicated by the author and that there is no use for him to deny
participation.
4. Stern Approach – The questions must be answered clearly, and the interrogator
utilizes harsh language. Immediate response from the subject is demanded.
Limitations
a. It is an invaluable investigation aid, but never a substitute for investigation.
b. It is not a lie detector; it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.
c. It does not determine facts; it records responses to that which the subject knows to
be true.
d. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.
The underlying theory of the polygraph is that when people lie they also get
measurably nervous about lying. The heartbeat increases, blood pressure goes up,
breathing rhythms change, perspiration increases, etc. A baseline for these
physiological characteristics is established by asking the subject questions whose
answers the investigator knows. Deviation from the baseline for truthfulness is taken
das sign of lying.
EE.) Chart marking
a. Signs and Symbols Commonly Used;

1. X / 60 / 1.5A
a. First marking of the examiner on the chart.
2. X
a. Indicates the beginning or the start of the test.
b. Is placed on the chart below the cardio tracing.
c. Wait for fifteen (15) to twenty (20) seconds before asking the first
question in order to record the normal tracings of the subject.
3. 60
a. Millimeter of mercury shown in sphygmamometer dial.
4. 1.5A
a. ohms of skin electrical resistance.
5. XX
a. Indicates end or ending of the test.
b. Is placed on the chart below the cardio tracing.
6. / //

P a g e 39 | 47
 a. When a question is asked, a stimulus mark or a vertical line is placed on the
chart below the cardio tracing.
b. The single stimulus mark or the vertical line indicates the beginning of
the question and double stimulus mark or the vertical line indicates the ending
of the question.
7. +, - and No sign
a. Plus sign or positive sign indicates that the subject answers the question
with “Yes” Minus sign or negative sign indicated “No” and No sign indicates
that subject fails to answer the question being asked.
8. “T” or“T”--------“T”
a. Talking by the subject other than the subject talks “Yes” or “No”,
indicate on the chart at the point subject’s starts to talk and again where
the subjects stopped talking.
b. Draw horizontal line between the two (two) symbols to show the length
of talking.
9. “TI”
a. It is for talking instruction
b. It is made on the chart below the cardio pattern when the subject is
diplomatically instructed regarding talking.
10. “C”
a. It is for Coughing
b. It causes a sharp ring in the galvo and a break on cardio pattern,
depending on its intensity.
11. “M” or “M”--------“M”
a. It indicates subject’s moves. Prolong movement is indicated with the first
“M: when movement is noticed and second “M” when movement stopped, and draw
horizontal line between the two (2) symbols to determine the length of the
movement.
12. “MI”
a. It is for Movement instruction.
13. or
a. The mechanical adjustment is done only when necessary and shall be
preceded by an irrelevant question and is indicated by an arrow either
pointing up or down adjacent to respective pattern where the adjustment
is made.
14. “CT”
a. Is placed on the chart for clearing throat and is frequently placed bellow
the pneumo tracing, both galvo and cardio appears as a result of any noise
or sound sufficient to cause disturbance in the pattern.
15. “OSN”
a. Indicated on the chart for outside noise and shall be placed on the chart
where the galvo or pneumo activity appears as a result of any noise or sound
sufficient to cause disturbance in the pattern.
16. “S”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sigh and shall be placed inside the
pneumo tracing exactly where it took place. It may be indicative of deception or
merely denotes relief, because of the psychological implications involved, it must
be distinguished from deep breath.
17. “SN”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sniff and shall be placed below the
pneumo tracing where the sniff was noted.
18. “SZ”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sneeze and should place just below the
pneumo tracing at the point where the sneeze occurred. Such occurrence
will affect all three (3) tracing to varying degrees.
19. “B”

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 a. It is indicated on the chart for Burp or Belch with affects both pneumo and
galvo tracings.
20. “Y”
a. It is indicated for Yawn on the chart, it is placed below the pneumo
tracing.
b. Yawning will also affect the cardio and galvo tracings.
21. “L”
a. It is placed on the chart if the subject Laughs and should be placed below
the pneumo tracings. This will also affect the cardio tracings.
22. “VC”
a. It stands for change of voice when the subjects answer the question. It
is indicated on the chart and the symbol is placed at the break point of the
cardio tracing where stimulus mark showed subject answer. The change of
voice when subject answer the question will also affect the galvo and pneumo
tracing.
23. “IM”
a. It is indicated on the chart for involuntary movement at the break point
of the cardio tracing.
b. The subject will actually jerk occasionally; thus, this will affect the galvo
and pneumo tracings. Involuntary movement frequently contains deception
criteria.
24. “ARM”----------“ARM”
a. Extraneous factors due to blood pressure cuff discomfort will affect all the
three (3) tracings; it is indicated on the char with “ARM”. If the discomfort
continues, draw a horizontal line for the duration of the apparent discomfort with
the additional “ARM” at the termination of discomfort.
25. “BI”
a. Indicated on the chart as breathing instruction and placed below the cardio
tracings. This is being done when the subject is carefully and properly instructed
regarding deep breathing.
26. “RQ”
a. It is indicated below the cardio tracing when the subject requests a
repetition of the question.
27. “PJ”
a. Indicated for paper jam below the cardio pattern at the time of the wedge.
28. “C+” or “C-“
a. C positive or plus is indicated if the sensitivity of galvo was increased, while
C negative or minus is indicated if the sensitivity of galvo was decreased.
29. “IS”
a. It is indicated when the ink of the polygraph stops.

FF.) Chart Interpretation

A. Accuracy of the Instrumental Detection of Deception
The accurateness of instrumental deception detection is (85-95%) but it will still
dependent upon the examiner’s capability to diagnose or deception by reading and
interpreting the chart of the subject. If one can precisely interpret the polygrams
produced by the combination of psycho physiological events, and in turn render a fair
and impartial report to interested parties, no purpose will have been accomplished.
B. Keynotes to Accurate Chart Interpretation
The keynote to accurate chart interpretation is the question formulation. If a
relevant question is phrased and delivered properly, to determine its particular
purpose, it will influence subject’s fight mechanism in a manner, in which will make
chart interpretation easy.
C. The pneumograph tracing normally, found at the top of the chart
The pneumograph pattern consists of inhalation and exhalation strikes with a
normal amplitude from ½ to ¾ inches. The normal cyclic rate is from 13 to 18 breaths
per minute and may vary in reasons of exceptional physical build condition or
P a g e 41 | 47
respiratory defects. The classification of abnormal is generally applied to those
patterns that deviate from the established individual.
1. Descriptive types of breathing are;
a. Normal
b. Rapid
c. Slow
d. Shallow
e. Shallow
f. Deep
g. Deviations caused by coughing and mechanisms of answering
2. Pneumograph changes from the individual norm which may be
considered indicative deception are;
a. Change of rhythm or regularity
b. Change in amplitude or volume
c. Change in the inhalation or exhalation ratio
d. Notched or serrated inhalation or exhalation
e. Change of baseline
f. loss of base line
g. Hyperventilation
h. Suppression
i. Respiratory block
C. The galvanograph tracing, normally located at the center position
If the chart, when properly balanced takes from of as lightly wavering line across
the middle portion of the chart with a minor response to spoken stimuli. Galvanic
tracings which may be indicative of deception;
a. Vertical rise at point of deception
b. Double saddle response
c. Long duration and or degree of response following point of deception
d. Plugging galvo tracing
D. The cardio-sphygmograph tracing normally found at the bottom of the chart.
Is the three physiological phenomena, a systolic strokes and a dichotic notch.
Normal pulse rate of the average individual is 72 to 80 beats per minute and may vary
due to emotional tone of the subject. Amplitude or volume is also subject to variation
and dictated by the physiological structure of the person and the cuff pressure.
Tracing taking the form of specific responses indicative of deception are;
a. Increase or decrease in blood pressure
b. Increase or decrease in pulse rate
c. Increase or decrease in amplitude
d. Change in position or disappearance of dichotic notch
e. Extra systoles (premature contradiction of an auricle or ventricle while fundamental
rhythm of the heart is maintained)
E. Cardinal Rule in Chart Interpretation
“Any change from normal requires an explanation”. The accountability lies
particularly with the examiner for determining whether a change from normal is
psychological or physiological in nature, whether it results from direct, indirect,
implied, related, careful, sensitive, fearful or distasteful sources; sources immediately
at hand or extraneous; a result of one or a interpretation of chart tracings. He must be
right, law objectively goes out of the window and subjectively reigns.
There are rules to be followed in the Chart Interpretation
1. There must be a specific response.
2. To be a specific response, the response must from deviation from norm.
3. It must appear in at least two (2) test charts.
4. The best indication of deception is the simultaneous specific responses
in three (3) tracing of the chart.
F. Chart Probing
Every after the taking of each chart, chart probing should be conducted. The
examiner shows the recorded result with brief explanation as to the importance of the
P a g e 42 | 47
recorded reactions. He points out the difference between reactions as to the
importance of the recorded reactions. He points out the difference between reactions
accompanying irrelevant question and irrelevant questions. The examiner informs the
subjects that the probing being dine is essential, in order to attain the test objective.
Purpose of Chart Probing
1. To determine the reason of the recorded responses.
2. To composed an overly stimulated subject.
3. To clarify confusion that might have been caused by the questions asked.
4. To convince a doubtful subject who may be testing the instrument or the
competence of the examiner.
5. To re-stimulate a subject who has little response or no response at all.
6. To know the cause or origin of a flat or unemotional chart.
7. To gain additional information essential to any specific issues.
8. To set the stage for the following chart by correcting the given questions that
needs rephrasing.
9. To sustain a kind psychological pressure.
10. To confirm whether or not subject has been truthful in answering the
questions asked during the test.

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 Chapter VI
Admissibility and Legal Aspects of Polygraph

A. Common situations requiring the use of Polygraph services

i. General situations that may require the use of polygraph examination are;
1. Criminal/Police investigation
2. Pre-employment screening
3. Internal-affairs investigations of law enforcement agencies
4. Civil litigation
ii. In crime detection and investigation, the common objectives of using polygraph
services are the following:
1. To ascertain if a person (witness/suspect) is telling the truth
2. To locate the fruit/s and/or instruments of the crime under investigation
3. To obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of the case/offense
4. To locate the whereabouts of suspects and wanted persons
5. To identify suspects, witnesses, and/or victims involved in the criminal/civil case
6. To recover valuable information from reluctant witnesses
7. To eliminate innocent suspects

B. Admissibility of Polygraph Examination

In most cases, polygraph evidence is used during pre-trial investigation and
preparations rather than during the actual trial.
A polygraph examination result is admissible in court if allowed by the judge.
The judge will unlikely to use polygraph test if unaccredited and inexperienced
examiner administered the test. There is a great deal of action in the court system
today concerning the use of polygraph, the law is changing rapidly.
The polygraph test is an invaluable aid to investigation. If a subject agrees to
voluntarily submit to take the test and it is properly conducted, his rights are not
violated, in the same manner; no polygraph test can be effectively employed on a
reluctant subject. The charts derived there from would be indicative more of bodily
movements, reticence and anger rather than an objective basis for an opinion of lying,
hence voluntary consent is essential.
The public’s opinion on the result of polygraph testing is not allowed in court
under any circumstances.
Polygraph and expert testimony relating thereto can be admissible upon
stipulation to support other evidence of a defendant’s involvement in crime charged or
to support or change his testimony under the following conditions.
1. That the admissibility of the polygraph test result is subject to the decision of the
trial judge like for example if the trial judge is not persuaded that the examiner is
competent, he may reject to accept such evidence.
2. That counsel of both parties and the subject sign a written condition providing for
his admission to the examination and for the succeeding admission at trials of the
graphs and the examiner’s opinion thereon in behalf of either the defendant or the
state.
3. That if the examiner’s opinion is offered as evidence, the opposing party shall have
the right to cross-examine the examiner respecting;
i. The qualifications and trainings of the examiner;
ii. The stipulation under which the test was administered;
iii. The restrictions and possibilities for the test were administered;
iv. At the good judgment of the trial judge, any other matter deemed important
to the inquiry; and
v. That if such evidence is admitted, the examiner’s testimony does not incline to
prove or disprove any element of the crime with which a defendant is charge but at
most tends only to specify that at the examination, subject was not telling the truth.
The trial judge shall determine the weight and effect of such testimony.

C. The Law Regarding the Basic Admissibility Issue

P a g e 44 | 47
 Admissibility of polygraph test result as evidence in court differs between
jurisdictions. Manny jurisdictions allow introduction of evidence of polygraph test
result if the parties to the case jurisdictions allow the introduction of evidence of
polygraph test results if the parties to the case stipulate to its admissibility. Its
introduction as evidence at trial may not be allowed in other jurisdiction but will
permit introduction in other situations such as at sentencing hearing, probation and
parole hearings and in certain administrative hearings.
New Mexico has offered the admissibility of polygraph evidence without
stipulation of the parties, including the qualifications of the examiner and if polygraph
examination conditions have been met. Jurisdictions vary regarding the admissibility
of polygraph results, but most jurisdictions agree that voluntary statements and
confessions made during a polygraph examination are admissible. In considering the
admissibility of polygraph results, it is important to consult the law of the relevant
jurisdiction.
Few representative cases in United States regarding polygraph admissibility;
In the O. J. Simpson civil trial, the results of a polygraph were admitted into
evidence. This established a precedent across United States allowing polygraph
examinations in civil trials such as divorce cases.
The first appellate court decision upon the admissibility of the results of a
deception test was rendered in 1923 by Federal court in Fry vs. United States, in
which the accused (on trial for murder) offered as evidence of the results of a Marston
“systolic blood pressure test”. The trial court refused to permit Dr. Marston to testify
concerning his results, and upon appeal this ruling was affirmed. The reason which
impelled the court to arrive at the conclusion of inadmissibility is very clear, stated in
the following except from its reported opinion.
Ten years after the fry case the Wiscons Supreme Court was called upon to
consider the admissibility of the results of a Polygraph examination. In case, State v.
Bohner, defense counsel offered to prove that the results of a polygraph examination
established the truthfulness of the defendant’s alibi to a robbery charge, which offer
the trial court refused. Upon appeal the Wiscons in Supreme Court sustained the trial
court’s ruling and held that although the Polygraph technique may have some utility
at present, or may ultimately be of great value in the administration of justice too
hasty acceptance of it during this stage of its development may be assumed to have.
Two cases regarding the admissibility of the results of tests conducted with
galvanic skin reflex recorder were decided by the New York court in 1938. One of the
cases, People V. Kenny, was a trial court decision; the other, People V. Forte, a
decision of New York’s highest court, the court of Appeals. In the Kenny case the
defendant (on trial of robbery) offered in evidence and permitted the jury to consider
the witness opinion as to the defendant’s innocence or guilt. The court in the Kenny
case apparently was impressed with Father Summer’s assertion to the effect that his
pathometer was effectively 100 percent efficient. Moreover, the effect of the Kenny
casemust viewed in the light of the latter and more authoritative decision of the New
York Court of Appeals in the Forte case.
In the case the defendant (on trial for murder) requested the court’s permission
to be tested on the same instrument and by the same examiner (Summers) as in the
Kenny case. This request was denied on the ground that despite the view taken by the
court in the Kenny case, the validity of such a test judicial acceptance. Upon appeal
the trial court’s ruling was affirmed by the New York Court of Appeals.
In the Philippine setting, PVE using the polygraph is not fully developed. The
following are the reasons why at this stage, results of PVE are not admissible as
evidences in the Philippine trial courts;
1. Qualifications of the polygraph examiners are not standardized.
2. PVE using the polygraph is not standardized.
3. No standard instrumentation

Other cases related to Polygraphy;

a. Arizona State v. Mendez
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b. California People v. Espinoza
c. Delaware Foraker v State
d. Hawaii State v. Okumura
e. Indiana Sanchez v. State
f. Kansas State v. Wakefield
g. North Carolina State v. Fleming
h. Ohio State v. Hesson
i. Texas Perkins v. State
j. Federal Courts U.S. v. Possado
U.S. v. Thomas
U.S. v. Picciononna
U.S. v. Galbreth

D. Can someone beat the Polygraph

If you know that you are lying, the polygraph will detect the signs of deception.
Unless you are a sociopath that can tell a lie and honestly believe it, you cannot beat
the polygraph. Any experienced polygraph examiner can detect deception, while an
honest person that has done nothing wrong has no reason to try, some people will try
to beat the test.
Attempts to beat the test using medications use of diazepam (valium) or
methylphenidate (ritalin) are usually unsuccessful. A study published in 1983
showed that the accuracy rate actually improved in examinees taking these
medications before the test. If the use of drugs is suspected, a pre-test (or post-test)
drug screening is advised. While the use of certain drugs and medications may affect
the examination, such use generally results in an "INCONCLUSIVE" test rather than
changing the result from deceptive to truthful. Inconclusive is when the polygraphist is
unable to decide. A lot of polygraphists will preface their inconclusive ruling with a
statement similar to "the subject may not have committed the act, but they are
reacting because they have knowledge of the act, or maybe they saw something."

E. Errors in polygraph examination

While the polygraph technique is highly accurate, it is not infallible and errors do
occur. Polygraph errors may be caused by the examiner's failure to properly prepare
the examinee for the examination, or by a misreading of the physiological data on the
polygraph charts. Errors are usually referred to as either false positive or false
negative. False positive occur when a truthful examinee is reported as being
deceptive. False negative occurs when a deceptive examinee is reported as truthful.
Some research indicates that false negatives occur more frequently than false
positives. Other research studies shows the opposite conclusion.

F. Effect of Failure of Counsel to Object to Admissibility of Test Results

In accordance with the general evidentiary rule, a failure of counsel to object to
evidence ordinarily considered inadmissible constitute a waiver, although there are
certain exceptions that are not particularly relevant at this point. A rather unequal
aspect of this general rule did occur, however, in 1974 Utah case, which is deserving
of attention. In case, State v. Jenkins for one reason or another, the defense was able
to introduce polygraph test result, favorable to the defendant, but without objection
from the prosecution. He was nevertheless found guilty, and upon appeal his counsel
contended that since the results showed the defendant was telling the truth the
prosecution’s case against him was not established beyond a readable doubt, as
constitutionally required.

E. Confession
a. Kinds of Confession
1. Extra-Judicial Confession – this is a confession made outside of the court prior to
the trial of the case.

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Sec. 3, rule 133, rules of court – Extra-judicial confession, not sufficient ground for
conviction; an extra-judicial confession made by an accused, shall not be sufficient
ground for conviction, unless corroborated by evidence of corpus delicti (body of the
crime).
Kinds of Extra-Judicial Confession
i. Voluntary Extra-Judicial Confession – the confession is voluntary when the
accused speaks of his free will and accord, without inducement of any kind, and with
a full and complete knowledge of the nature and consequence of the confession, and
when the speaking is so free from influences affecting the will of the accused, at the
time the confession was made that it renders it admissible in evidence against him.
Ii. Involuntary Extra-Judicial Confession – Confessions obtained through force,
threat, intimidation, duress or anything influencing the voluntary act of the confessor.
2. Judicial Confession – This is a confession of an accused in court. It is conclusive
upon the court and may be considered to be a mitigating circumstance to criminal
liability.
A plea of guilty when formally entered on arraignment is sufficient to sustain a
conviction of any offense, even a capital one, without further proof.
Sec. 2, rule 129, rule of court – Judicial Admission; admissions made by the parties
in the pleadings, or in the course of the trial or other proceedings do not require proof
and cannot be contradicted unless previously shown to have been made through
palpable mistake.

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