Lie Detection Techniques
Lie Detection Techniques
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b. Non-Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through patterns of body
movements, gestures, facial expressions, body posture, positioning and movements
use to explain chosen words.
2. Polygraphy
3. Word association test (WAT)introduced by Francis Galton in (1879). Is a form of lie
detection whereby he used a list of 75 stimulus words with which he read and noted
his responses to the words tended to remain alike and they were typically taken from
his childhood experiences. A list of stimulus and non-stimulus words is read to the
subject who is instructed to answer as quickly as possible. The answer to the
questions may be a “yes” or a “no”. Unlike the lie detector, the time interval between
the words uttered by the examiner and the answer of the subject is recorded. When
the subject is asked questions with reference to his name, address, civil status,
nationality, etc. Which has no relation to the subject-matter of the investigation, the
tendency is to answer quickly. But when the questions bear some words which have to
do with the criminal acts the subject allegedly committed, like knife, gun, or hammer
which was used in the killing, the tendency is to delay the answer. The test is not
concerned with the answer, be it a ‘yes” or a “no”. The important factor is the time of
response in relation to stimulus or non-stimulus words. Like the use of the lie
detector, the subject cannot be compelled to be subjected to the test without his
consent.
4. Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)invented by Allen Bell Jr. and Charles
McQuiston (1972). It begun in United States when Dektor Counter-Intelligence &
Security, Inc. developed an instrument called Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)
that can detect emotional stress in a person’s voice. When a person speaks, there are
audible voice frequencies and superimposed on these are the inaudible frequency
modulations which are products of minute oscillation of the muscles of the voice
mechanism. Such oscillations of the muscles micro tremor occur at the rate of 8 to 14
cycles per second and controlled by the central nervous system.
When the person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in the
voice utterance in moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of suppression
caries inversely to the degree of psychological stress in the speaker. The psychological
stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and graphically displays the voice
modulations that we cannot hear. When a person is relaxed and responding honestly
to the questions, those inaudible frequencies are registered clearly on the instrument.
But when a person is under stress, as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to
disappear.
Procedure:
The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific purpose of
the examination and to begin formulation of relevant questions. A pre-test interview is
conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at ease with the examiner, to
provide an opportunity to specify matters, to eliminate outside issues, and to review
questions that will be asked. An oral test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions or
given which is recorded on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture of relevant
and irrelevant questions. Immediately following the test or at a later time, the tape is
processed through the Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis of the answers.
If stress is indicated, the subject is given opportunity to provide additional
clarification. A retest is given to verify correction and clarification.
5. Hypnosis first introduce by Anton Mesmer. The technique of inducing a person into
a state of consciousness whereby he can respond to questions and is very susceptible
to suggestions. (MS Encarta Reference Library, 2003)
This altered state of consciousness and heightened responsiveness to suggestion
can be used to elicit the truth from a person. However, not all individuals are
susceptible to hypnotic induction. People who are compulsive-depressive and strong-
willed (like lawyers, accountants, and physicians) are usually non-hypnotizable. (Solis,
P. 1987)
Reasons: (why it is not admissible in court)
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It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis per se in
ascertaining the truth from falsity. The fear that the Trier of fact will give uncritical
and absolute reliability to a scientific device without consideration of its flaw in
ascertaining veracity. The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately
fabricate. The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the
hypnotized subject is suspected will produce distortion of the fact rather than the
truth. The state of the mind, skill and professionalism of the examiner are too
subjective to permit admissibility of the expert testimony.
6. Truth Serum invented by Dr. Edward Mandel House. In this lie-detection method,
the term truth serum is a misnomer (a fallacy of description). Giving a drug to the
examinee does not make him tell the truth, thus the chemical administered is not a
serum but is actually a mind-distorting drug. In this method, common drugs used are
hyoscine hydrobromide and scopolamine. The procedure does not make someone
tell the truth and the thing administered is not serum but actually a drug. When the
proper point is reached, the questioning begins and the subject fells a compulsion to
answer the questions truthfully. He forgets his alibi which he may have built up to
cover his guilt. He may give details of his acts or may even implicate others. The drug
acts as depressant in the nervous system. Clinical evidence indicates the various
segments of the brain particularly the cortex. Statements taken from the subjects
while under the influence of truth serum are evolutionary obtained hence they are not
admissible as evidence.
7.Narco-AnalysisThis method is similar to the preceding technique. However, the
drugs used in Narcoanalysis (also called Narcosynthesis) are sodium amytal and
sodium pentothal to sedate the subject. When the narcotic effects appear,
questioning starts. The drug causes depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the
brain and the subject talks freely. A psychiatrist with a long experience on this drug
should be only allowed to administer this drug and conduct subsequent interrogation.
The result of this technique is not admissible in court. (Solis, P. 1987)
8.Intoxication with Alcohol can reveal the real character behind the façade of a
person. The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is really the result of the control
mechanism of the brain. The apparent stimulation effect of alcohol is really the result
of the control mechanism of the brain, so alcohol, like truth serum and narcoanalysis
drugs “inhibit the inhibitor”.
The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mask which all of us
are said to wear “mask of sanity” is reflected in the age-old maxim, “in vino veritas”
(in wine there is truth).
The person whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take alcoholic beverages
to almost intoxication. Confessions made by the subjects while under the influence of
alcohol may be admissible if he is physically capable to recollect the facts that he has
uttered after the effects of alcohol have disappeared. But in most instances, the
subjects cannot recall everything that he had mentioned or he may refuse to admit the
truth of the statement given.
The knowledge of the truth is an essential requirement for the administration of
criminal justice. The success or failure in making decisions may rest solely on the
ability to evaluate the truth or falsity of the statement given by the suspects or
witness. The task for its determination initially lies on the hand of the investigator.
9.Statement Analysis
10.Voice Stress Analysis (VSA). The Computer Voice Stress Analyzer (CVSA)
manufactured by the National Institute of Truth Verification (NITV) is the latest in a
series of instruments known to detect deception in voice responses.
11. Brain Fingerprinting patented by Lawrence A. Farwell. The basic principle is that
different regions of the brain light up when people tell the truth or lie, and further,
that different regions are activated depending upon the type of lie. Dr. Farwell's
research, however, looks at a specific type of electrical brain wave, called P300, which
activates when a person sees a familiar object.
12. Functional MR Imaging (fMRI)
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C.) Early Methods of Detecting Deception
Ayur-Veda “Hindu book of health and science” the earliest known reference
of the methods for detecting deception. Basis of the invention of polygraph.
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a.a. The ordeal of boiling water consisted of lifting a stone out of boiling water, if
the accused was able to lift a stone out of the boiling water he is considered innocent
otherwise he is guilty.
b.b. Used in modern Africa. The method is that the subject will plunged their
right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step into other side of the fire. All are
told to undergo the test without a murmur and when all are finished, they are told to
return at the same time the next afternoon. The one who by that time had lost some or
showed blisters would prove the thief. (points out who is the one who steal among his
tribe mates)
c.c. Practiced in Asian Countries. The accused was forced to dip his hands
into boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If remains unhurt the he is
innocent.
b.) Cold Water Ordeal–The usual mode of trial for witchcraft practiced in
Europe and early United States (17th century).
a.a. In this ordeal, the accused was tied at feet and hands and was lowered to
cold water by rope. This rope is tied around the defendant’s waist and had a knot a
particular distance from the torso. If both knot and accused dipped beneath the surface
of the water, the accused was proven innocent. If the knot is dry or the water refused to
receive him, the defendant was guilty.
b.b. This was the usual mode of trial for witchcraft. It involves a “no-win”
situation just like some other dangerous forms of ordeal. In this ordeal, the accused
was put into a sack then thrown into an icy pond. If the accused sank this showed he
was innocent, but he might well drown anyway. If he floated, this was taken proof that
he was lying and he would be hanged.
4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing
This ordeal is practiced by Indians.
a.a. It is performed with a kind of rice called “sathee”, prepared with various
incantations (prayers or chants). The person on trial eats the sathee, with the face to
east and then spits upon a pea leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his
mouth swells or he trembles, he is declared to be a liar.
5. Ordeal of the Red Water
The ordeal is also known as “sassy bark” is used in the wide region of Eastern Africa.
a.a. The accused is made to fast for twelve hours, and then swallows a small
amount of rice. Then he will be imbedded in dark colored water. The water is actually
emetic and if the suspect ejects all rice, he is considered innocent of the charge.
Otherwise, the accused is guilty.
6. Ordeal by Combat
This ordeal originated from India. In England, King Henry III abolished all legal
ordeals except Ordeal by Combat. This ordeal was vividly dramatized in the movie
“Ivanhoe” based on the novel of the same title.
a.a. The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight the alleged offender or to pay a
champion to fight for him. The victor is said to win not by own strength but because of
supernatural powers that had intervened on the side of the right, as in the duel in the
European ages in which the “judgment of God was thought to determine the winner”.
If still alive after the combat, the loser might be hanged or burned for criminal offense
or have a hand cut off and property confiscated in civil actions.
7. Ordeal of the Corsnaed (Ordeal by Blessed Bread)
This ordeal is practiced in China and Alexandria, Egypt.
a.a. A priest puts the corsnaed or hallowed bread into the mouth of the accused,
with various imprecations (prayers). If the accused swallowed it, he was freed from
punishment.
8. Test of the Eucharist
This ordeal is practiced in European Countries.
a.a. This was applied chiefly among the clergies and monks. When they look the
host, it was believed the God would smite the guilty with sickness or death. Others
believe that if the accused is innocent, when given a poisonous drink for him to take in,
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Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven to prevent the accused from taking in the
poisonous drink.
9. Ordeal of the Bier
This ordeal is practiced in Australian and European Countries.
a.a. It’s was an ancient belief that the slain dead could point out their killer. In
England, it was customary for the accused approach the bier on which the corpse lay,
in view of the witness, the wounds of the victim were observed to see if they began to
bleed again. They believe that murderer is near, which causes the blood to flow out
from the wound of the victim. This ordeal was recorded well by Shakespeare in
“Richard III”.
b.b. The corpse was brought on a Bier of boughs (trunk of trees) after which the
natives ask the corpse if it has been bewitched. If the victim died by witchcraft, the
corpse supposed to know more and if the sorcerer who killed him was present, the
corpse will touch him.
10. Ordeal of the Needle
This ordeal is practiced in Wanaka, Eastern Africa.
a.a. A red-hot needle was drawn through the lips of the alleged criminal and if
blood flowed from the wound, he was deemed guilty; but if none, he is innocent.
11. Ordeal by Heat and Fire
This ordeal is practiced in East Germany, Early Scandinavian Countries and early
England.
a.a. The accused walked barefooted over coals of fire.
b.b. Made to walk through fire, if he was unharmed by the fire he was
considered innocent.
12. Trial of the Cross (Test of the Cross Ordeal)
This ordeal is practiced in Europe.
a.a. The accuser and the accused were placed under the cross with their arms
extended or crosswise and the first to move his hands or suffer them to fall was held
guilty.
b.b. The accused was placed before relics and two dice were then produced, one
marked with a cross, of these one taken up at hazard. If it happened to bear the sign of
the cross, the accused was acquitted.
13. Trial of the Waxen Shirt
a.a. The accused was dressed in cloth covered with wax and walked barefooted
over coals of fire. If he was unhurt by the fire and the wax did not melt, he was
considered innocent.
14. Hereditary Sieve Method
It was mentioned by Hans Gross, the Father of Criminalistics in his famous book in
criminal investigation.
a.a. Beans were thrown into the sieve as the name of the suspect was called,
mentioned this ordeal. If the beans jump out of the sieve, the owner of the sieve is
innocent. If the beans remained in the sieve the person named is a thief.
15. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal
Psychological theory
a.a. The donkey is placed in one room alone and observed it, and if the donkey
cried the accused is guilty of the crime, because deep inside and in his conscience, he
is guilty.
16. Ordeal of the Tiger
Practiced in Siam (Thailand).
a.a. The accused and accuser are place on a cage of a tiger; if the tiger spare one
of them he is considered innocent.
17. Trial by Torture
a.a. The accused was put into a severe physical test.
18. Drinking Ordeal
This ordeal is practiced in Nigeria, Brahamic India and India.
a.a. The Accused was given a decoction to drink by the priest, if innocent; no
harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die.
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19.Wager of Battle
a.a. Involves a pledge to engage in a battle, especially in order to establish guilt or
innocence by single combat, he will go in a battle in order to prove his innocence.
20. Crocodile Ordeal
a.a. The accused would cross a river full of crocodiles, if he reached the other side
unharmed then he deemed innocent.
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CHAPTER II
Scientist and Manufacturers in the Development of Lie Detection Techniques
In the middle of 19th century Dr. Hans Gross defined “search for truth” as a
basis and goal of all criminal investigation. He stated, a large of the criminal work is
nothing more than a battle against lies.
Throughout the centuries, man sustained to experiment with more scientific
methods in determining truth and deception with the following scientists having
contributed much in the development of polygraph.
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H. Harold Burtt (1918) - He determined that respiratory changes were
indication of deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of
greater value in determining deception than in changes in respiration.
I. Luigi Galvani (1791)- He is Italian physiologist who was accorded the
distinction for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer, which
records electric bodily changes by measuring changes in person’s skin resistance to
electricity in terms of ohms (the lowest current ever recorded).
J. Jacques-ArseneD’arsonval – Declared that electricity is generated by the
body and named external friction as source of generation. He assorted those sweat
glands which the body at times store the electricity and at other times discharged
them.
K. Fere (1888) – He discovered that electro dermal response is caused by an
increase in the action of the heart and vital energy converted with human emotions.
He asserted that human body has the ability to generate store, discharged high voltage
of static electricity.
L. Harold Sticker (1897) – He introduced the method of detecting deception
from the galvanic impression on the chart tracing.
M. Otto Veraguth (1926) – He was the first to use the word “psychogalvanic
reflex”. He believed that electrical phenomena are due to the activity of sweat glands,
and such activity is known as “psychogalvanic”.
N. Francis Franke – He invented “plethysmograph” which was used to reveal
periodic undulations (waves) in blood pressure caused by the breathing cycle. (This
instrument was used by Mosso to measure changes in pulse and blood pressure.)
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statement depends on the cognitive ability of the person as well as on the interviewing
process used to obtain the statement.
F. Daniel Defoe (1730) - wrote an essay suggesting that taking the pulse is a
practical and more humane method of determining a liar.
In relation to this, “Gesta Romanorum” a book published in 1906, stated that
during the middle Ages, a nobleman tested the fidelity of his wife by taking her pulse
G. Cesare Lombroso (1895)- published the 2nd edition of L’Homme Criminel
where he explained how he used plethysmograph and sphygmograph during the
interrogation of criminal suspects.
H. Wilhelm Wundt (1879) - He founded the first Psychological Laboratory in
Leipzig, Germany whereby he immediately attracted students from all over the world.
He modified Galton’s association method to an almost standardized form.
I. Fred E. Inbau (1942) - He wrote a book entitled “Lie Detection and Criminal
Interrogation” that explained the “peak of tension test” in describing the methodology
for the administration of a guilty knowledge test where the subject has not been
informed of the essential details of the case such as the object stolen, the amount of
money missing, or the implement used in the commission of the crime.
J. Dr. William J. Yankee (1968) – He presented a report of the
Computerization of Polygraphic Recordings to the Keeler Polygraph Institute
Alumni Association’s fifth annual seminar in Chicago. Yankee explained the basics of
scientific research and a method of quantifying those variables affecting the
polygraphic recordings as a means of computerizing the polygraph system.
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detection and further suggested possibilities in detecting deception by recording
physiological changes.
H. Arthur Macdonald (1908) - an acquaintance of Lombroso who appeared
before the US congressional hearing proposing the creation of a federal laboratory to
study criminals and suggested the use of an apparatus containing all of the elements
of a modern polygraph
I. Christian Ruckmick (1936)– He repudiated the term psychogalvanic reflex
because such reaction is not a reflex, explained that the psychological nature of the
so-called psychogalvanic reflex is not completely understood, thus he proposed the
term electrodermal response and probably the first to conduct legitimate laboratory
study (1938) involving a Peak-of-Tension (POT) test resembling the current format.
J. Otto Lowenstein (1920) – a German psychiatrist who introduced an
apparatus that has two pneumographs which could record simultaneously the
movement of each foot, each hand, and the head in all three dimension; this
instrument was huge, impractical and difficult to maintain in working order, but it
was considered a true polygraph.
K. Akamatsu, Uchida and Togawa (1933) –they are Japanese psychologists
who suggested the use of electrodermal activity (EDA) for deception detection because
the conductance level was found to decrease during emotional changes.
L. Alexander R. Luria – a Russian psychologist who modified the word
association technique that was introduced by Galton so that it is suitable in the
Russian setting.
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CHAPTER III
Types of Liars, Lies and Signs of Lying
Children and those who suffer from autism cannot lie, Children cannot lie, but
as they acquire language, they learn to co-operate with others and learn about
deception, in order to survive in society. Lying has an unquestionable value in human
culture, for the ability to deceive one’s peers has evolved into one of the most advanced
and powerful of our cerebral functions. It is a power that helps us succeed in love, war
and commerce.
1. Panic Liar – a person who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession. He
or she is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and is a serious blow to his or her ego.
2. Occupational Liar – a person who has lied for years. This Person is a practical liar
and lies when it has a higher payoff than telling truth.
3. Tournament Liar – a person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not
being detected. He views as another contest and wants to win. He lies because it is the
only weapon remaining with which to fight. This person realizes that he or she will
probably be convinced but will not give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him or her
confess. He wants people to believe that the law is punishing an innocent person.
4. Ethnological Liar – a person who was trained not to be a squealer. This person
loves to be interrogated and has taken a creed either personal or with others, that he
or she will never reveal the truth, the creed of underworld gangs.
5. Psychopathic Liar – this type of liar has no conscience. He shows no regret for his
dishonest actions and no manifestation of guilt. This is the most difficult type of liar
because he is good actor he can fool most investigator.
6. Pathological Liar – a person who cannot distinguished what is right from wrong.
These are those people who are mentally sick.
7. Black Liar – a person who always pretends and a hypocrite.
1. Direct Denial - This Is Direct Denial of The Act in Question That Creates an
Emotional Sense of Disturbance. This disturbance refers to the conflict between what
is true and the attempted deception that creates an internal battle in the mind.
Example; “I didn’t do it”. The vague response permits the person to evade inner conflict
while seeming to answer the question. The reply given to a query must be evaluated in
terms of what asked to know if the answer is proper.
2. Lie of Omission - This type of lie that people usually used because it is simple to
tell. Individuals who will make use of this type of lie will tell the truth while omitting
details that could create possible troubles.
3. Lie of Fabrication – This is the most difficult type of lie that a subject could use in
an interview.
4. Lie of Minimization - This type of lie, individual will accept that something has
occurred/but downplays the implication. Lie of minimization could be used if a subject
wanted to stay close to the truth’ however he covers the truth for his or her own
benefit.
5. Lie of Exaggeration - This is a lie often used to exaggerate things for the hope of
obtaining some advantages. This is also often found on resume, where applicant
exaggerates his or her experiences, knowledge, skills, salary and length of service. The
exaggerated claims can be verified by looking for inconsistencies of the subject story.
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1. Bald-Faced Lie - A bald-faced (or barefaced) is a lie that is told when it is obvious to
all concerned that is it a lie. Example: a child who has chocolate all over his face and
denies that he has eaten the last piece of chocolate cake.
2. Lie-to-Children - is a lie often a platitude that may use euphemism that is told to
make an adult subject acceptable to children. A common example is “The stork
brought you”.
3. Benign or White Lie - A white lie would cause no discord if it were uncovered and
offers some benefit to the liar, the hearer, or both. White lies are often used to avoid
offense, such as telling someone that you think that their new outfit looks good when
you actually think that it is a horrible excuse for an outfit. The lie is told to avoid the
harmful implications and realistic implications of the truth.
4. Noble Lie - A noble lie is one that would normally cause discord it if were
uncovered, but that offers some benefit to the liar and perhaps assist in an orderly
society and thus potentially gives some benefit to others also. It is often told to
maintain law, order and safety. A noble lie usually has the effect of helping an elite
maintain power.
5. Emergency Lie - An emergency lie is a strategic lie told when the truth may not be
told because, for example, harm to a third party would come of it. Example: a neighbor
might lie to an engaged husband about the whereabouts of his unfaithful wife,
because said husband might reasonably be expected to inflict physical injury to his
husband.
6. Perjury - It is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on a material
matter under oath or affirmation in a court of law or in any of various sworn
statements in writing.
Perjury is a crime because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the
credibility of the court, witness testimony must be relied on an being truthful.
7. Bluffing - Pretending to have capability or intention one doesn’t. Bluffing is an act
of deception that is not usually seen as immoral because it takes place in the context
of a game where this kind of deception is consented to in advance by the players.
8. Misleading - A misleading statement is one where there isn’t an outright lie, but
still has the purpose of making someone believe in an untruth. Dissembling, A polite
term for lying, though some might consider it to refer to being merely misleading.
9. Jocose Lie - Are lies that are meant in jest and are usually understood as such by
all present parties. Sarcasm can be an example. Storytelling traditions that are
present in some places, where the humor comes from the storyteller’s insistence that
he or she is telling that absolute truth despite all evidence to the contrary.
10. Promotion Lies - Advertisements often contain statements that are not credible,
such as “we are always happy to give a refund.”
11. Belief Systems - It is alleged that some belief systems may find lying to be
justified.
Example: Religious lies
12. Red Lie - This is common to communist countries. This lie is used to destroy
other ideologies by means of propaganda.
13. Malicious Lie- A chronic lie purely used to mislead justice, a pure dishonesty to
obstruct justice.
14. Bad Faith – It is lying to oneself. Specifically, it is failing to acknowledge one’s own
ability to act and determine one’s possibilities, falling back on the determinations of
the various historical and current totals which have produced one as if they relieved
one of one’s freedom to do so.
15. Big Lie – It attempts to trick the victim into believing something major which will
likely be contradicted by some information the victim already possesses, or by their
common sense. When the lie is of sufficient magnitude it may succeed, due to the
victim’s reluctance to believe that an untruth on such a grand scale would indeed be
concocted.
16. Bullshit – It does not necessarily have to complete fabrication; with only basic
knowledge about a topic, bullshit is often used to make the audience believe that one
knows far more about the topic by feigning total certainty or making probable
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predictions. It may also merely be “filler” or nonsense that, by virtue of its style or
wording, gives the impression that it actually means something.
17. Butler Lie – It describes small or innate lies which are usually sent electronically,
and are used to terminate conversations or to save face. For example sending an SMS
to someone reading “I have to go, the waiter is her”, when you are not at a restaurant.
18. Half-Truth – It is deceptive statement that includes some element of truth. The
statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true but only part of the
whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation,
or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame or misrepresent
the truth.
19. Haystack Answer – It is volume of false or irrelevant information, possibly
containing a true fact (the needle in the “haystack”). Even if the truth is included, it is
difficult or impossible to detect and identify.
20. Honest Lie or Confabulation – It is characterized by verbal statements or actions
that inaccurately describe history, background and present situations. There is
typically no intent to deceive and the individual is unaware that their information is
false.
21. Lying through your Teeth – This is when one lies face-to-face with the intended
recipient. This also may be an expression describing the act of lying with a smile or
other patronizing tone or body language.
22. Polite Lie – It is a lie that a politeness standard requires, and which is usually
known to be untrue by both parties. Whether such lies are acceptable is heavily
dependent on culture. A common polite lie in international etiquette is to decline
invitations because of “scheduling difficulties”.
23. Puffery – It is an exaggerated claim typically found in advertising and publicity
announcements, such as “the highest quality at the lowest price”, or “Noynoy para sa
tuwid na daan”.
24. View from Nowhere – It refers to journalism and analysis that misinform the
audience by creating the impression that opposing parties to an issue have equal
correctness and validity, even when the truth of their claims are mutually exclusive.
25. Augustine’s Taxonomy of Lies - Lies in religious teaching, lies that harm others
and help no one, Lies that harm others and help someone, Lies told for the pleasure of
lying, Lies told “please others in smooth discourse”, Lies that harm no one and that
help someone, lies that harm no one and that save someone’s life, lies that harm no
one and that save someone’s purity.
1. Verbal Clues
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H. Use of Words – As General Rule, Truthful subjects have no trouble denying the
allegation is precise terms, while untruthful one will have problems with the use of
words.
I. Assertiveness – Truthful persons are confident about their innocence, and deceitful
ones are not confident unless they are practiced liars.
J. Inconsistences – Contradicting testimonies made by witness are one of the best
indications of dishonesty; liars get caught up in their own web of deceit.
K. Slip of the Tongue – Liars, as “Freud” discovered, quite often slip up and divulge
them through a “slip of the tongue.
L. Pauses – “Ekman” says gap in speech patterns may be one reliable clue to
deception.
M. Speed of Speech – Persons who are tense or upset frequently increase the
swiftness of their speech, words tend to run together and the conversation can be
fragmented.
N. Tirades – a long and angry speech.
2. Non-Verbal Clues
A. Emblems – Emblems are often performed deliberately, these are expressions made
with the body, whose meanings are clearly understood.
B. Manipulators – These are usual of touching one’s self. Manipulators encompass
grooming the hair, wringing the hands, picking imaginary fur from a coat.
C. Breathing – Many persons, under prolonged periods of stress, hyperventilate. An
increase in breathing rate or volume may be a sign of deception.
D. Sweating – This is another uncontrollable body function. Perspiration occurs with
heat as well as with emotion.
E. Frequent Swallowing – A dry mouth frequently accompanies deep emotion.
F. Facial Muscles – Other muscles are not easy to control but people can control
certain facial muscles with spirit.
G. Eyes – The eyes most likely express as much emotion as any other part of the
anatomy. Blinking, Pupil dilation, and tears are some of the signs indicative of emotion
in the eyes.
H. Face – People believe that lies will commonly show up in the face and eyes.
Reddening or blushing of the face is supposed to be a sign of embarrassment and
cannot be controlled.
The polygraph is used to test or question individuals for the purpose of detecting
deception or verifying truth of statements through a visual, permanent and
simultaneous recording of a person’s cardiovascular and respiratory pattern as a
minimum instrumentation requirement.
P a g e 17 | 47
CHAPTER IV
The Polygraph and Attachment of Major Components
P a g e 20 | 47
CHAPTER V
The Examiner and Examination Proper
I.) Examiner
P a g e 21 | 47
3. He should not depend on the mass screening of possible suspects to produce the
guilty party except when no reasonable amount of investigation had produced a likely
suspect or materially narrowed down the number of possible suspects;
4. Not to stop investigation if polygraph examination is deferred or temporarily
delayed;
5. He must not ask the test to bolster the evidence submitted to the court. This is a
display of doubt as to his investigative findings of guilt on the part of the accused.
Such doubt always builds up to the benefit of an accused, and in numerous instances,
the opinion of the examiner is accepted by the court in favor of the defense rather for
the prosecution;
6. He must not use polygraph as a props, ruse or trickery to secure confession or for
the evaluation of the mental and physical state of the suspect; and
7. He should not tell anyone that the polygraph would decide whether the subject or
suspect is innocent or guilty. The court makes the decision.
8. He must not think that investigation is over if the test indicated that the subject lied
or confessed. Evidence and testimonies should be gathered to prove the facts of the
offense and the allegation against the subject.
AA.) Phase I - Initial Interview with the Investigator Handling the Case
Test question are formulated by the polygraph examiner based from information
obtained from the investigator. General facts, theories and suspicions are not enough
basis for a polygraph test. Question formulation depends greatly upon detailed and
accurate information regarding all the available facts.
The investigator on case should personally inform the examiner of such facts as:
1. Unpublicized facts of the offense known only to the victim, the investigator and the
offender.
Specific articles or exact amounts of money stolen.
2. Exact time and place the offense occurred.
3. Peculiar aspects of the offense or any strange or obscene acts committed at the
scene.
4. Known facts about a suspect’s action or movements immediately preceding of after
the incidents.
5. Facts indicating a connection between suspects, victims and witnesses, especially
when they deny any connection.
6. Exact type of firearm, weapon or tool used.
7. Results of laboratory test if any.
8. Background information particularly previous police records or verifies facts which
subjects denies.
1. Concealed Information Test- It has the best theoretical foundation and validation
research. It serves as an important tool in the post test interrogation. Useful in
circumstances where the CQT may produce less than optimal results. The foundation
of CIT is the orienting response/reflex theory. (O’Gorman, 1979; Siddle, Kyriacou,
P a g e 25 | 47
Heron, & Mathews, 1979; Sokolov, 1963,1966; Verschure, Crombez, De Clerq, &
Koster, 2004)
When a person is involved in a significant event, a memory of that event is
created. If presented with information that is important because it is linked to the
memory of the event, his or her body will have an orienting response to the key.
Because an innocent person does not have a memory of that event.
Pre-Test Practices
Subject is informed that she or he will be undergoing a knowledge-based examination,
and that it is necessary to determine whether the topic to be tested is known to the
examinee. The Polygraphist should also collect and inform the following;
1. Overview of the entire process of the CIT
2. Securing of forms, waivers, medical background.
3. Examinee is asked to write everything they know about the incident; and
4. The examinee is reassured that the knowledge of the information does not mean
that they have committed the crime, and that there are instances when others involved
in the investigation leak information (investigator, victim, witness, media, etc).
Note: It should be stated that the goal of the examiner is to conduct a fair examination
and to eliminate any potentially corrupted data) to ensure that key information was
concealed from a possible innocent examinee. Verbal review of the written statement to
written statement to confirm the concealment of the key information. Examinee must
verbally commit to the information as their only knowledge about the crime.
Explanation of the procedure or instrumentation Practice examination is conducted to
acclimate the examinee of the instrumentation, the examiner voice, and ensure that
the examinee can properly follow the movement and answering instruction. Examinee
is instructed to answer each question by repeating the alternative ending.
b.b. Example B:
*Examiner: Regarding where the house was entered, was it at the ___? and you don’t
know the correct answer to that question, do you?
Note: If NO proceed with the test.
Note: If YES, document the information
Only the Question is reviewed
c.c. Example C:
1. Key items are presented only once.
2. Read each item with same voice inflection
Scoring Rules (Lykken Scoring) Ranking of EDA responses computed from 2 to 0.
1. If the largest EDA response takes place on the key item, the score is 2.
2. If the second largest EDA response takes place on the key items, the score is 1.
3. All others are scored 0.
Note: Reactions to the first buffer is ignored.
Decision Rules
Note: Decisions are based on the total score
RI = equal to the number of CITs
NRI = score lower than the total number of CITs
NO = no reaction to any of the CITs
Strengths
1. The most scientifically supportable techniques.
2. Scoring methods allows the examiner to calculate the precise likelihood of a false
positive error.
3. Less intrusive than the CQT.
4. Easy to set up, conduct and score.
5. Can be used in emotionally charge case where the CQT might fail.
6. Conducted either visually or aurally.
Limitations
1. It is designed only to determine whether the examinee knows certain information
about the crime.
2. Cannot be used in circumstances where the examinee might legitimately have
knowledge of potential key items. (Victims or Witness)
3. Development of key items - educate the investigators in the necessity to withhold
information from the public in general, and from the potential suspects in particulars.
P a g e 28 | 47
x. You can truthfully advice the examinee about the readability of the test if he is
interested at the end of the polygraph test.
3.3True Blue Control Test- Before the test, draw a large red “1” on one card, a large
blue “2” on one card, a large “3” with the top of the number red and the bottom half is
blue on one card, a large blue “4’ on one card, A red “5” on one card and a large “6”
that is ¾ blue and ¼ red.
Advise the examinee that you are going to verify that the charts look differently
when the examinee tells a lie and tells the truth. State that if there are no difference
between his lies and truthfulness on the charts, there is no reason to continue the
examination.
Procedure:
i. Before the test begins, hold up the first card, and ask the examinee what is the color
of number 1, continue the procedure trough the remaining cards.
ii. Advise the examinee that when the red number is shown, he should lie, when the
blue number is shown, he should answer truthfully.
iii. Advise the examinee that when the mixed –color 3 is shown, he will be ask if the
“3” is blue. He should answer yes, and therefore he will be telling a half lie.
iv. Advise the examinee that when the mixed question “6” is shown, he will be asked if
and the “6” is red. He should answer no, and therefore he will be telling a small lie.
v. Conduct the test with the cards in order of 1 to 6.
vi. Discuss the test with the examinee when it is completed. Emphasizing that you
now have a recording of responses when the examinee is completely truthful, when he
is telling full, half and small lies.
E.) Validated Techniques and Scoring Models for PDD Test Data Analysis
American Polygraph Association New Standard of Practice
1. Mandatory use of a motion sensor for all examination.
2. Obligatory polygraph instrument functionality test recorded semi-annually.
3. General requirement for using only validated technique.
4. Criteria for the admissibility of particular technique in specific type of examinations,
evidentiary, paired testing, investigation, and screening.
5. Test format that conforms to valid principles relating to: target selection, question
formulations, and in-test presentation of the stimulus questions.
a.a. Validated methods for Test Data Analysis (PDD validated techniques)
1. Federal Zone Comparison Test (FZCT)
2. Utah Zone Comparison Test (UZCT)(PLC/DLC)
3. Air force Modified General Question Test (AFMGQT)
4. DLST
5. Backster You- Phase
6. Concealed Information Test (CIT)
7. Integrated Zone Comparison Test (IZCT)
8. MQTZCT
b.b. Seven (7) Position U.S. Federal Government Scoring System
1. Utah Scoring System (USS) - Introduced by David Raskin (1970) simplified version
of the numerical scoring system techniques introduced by Backster in 1963 and
modified by the US Army in 1970. Uses a 7-position scale numerical scoring relevant
question is normally compared to the preceding comparison question If the preceding
CQ is distorted by an artefact, use the closest artefact free CQ for evaluation. Scores
are assigned in each channel without reference to scores in the other channels.
-Positive (+) scores are assigned when the reaction to a CQ is stronger.
-Negative (-) scores are assigned when the reaction to a RQ is stronger.
-A zero is assigned if there is no difference between CQ and RQ
0 = No Difference
+/-1 = Noticeable difference
+/-2 = Strong and clear difference
+/-3 = Dramatic difference, stable tracing &strongest on the chart
P a g e 29 | 47
2. Empirical Scoring System (ESS)- Introduced in 2008 by R. Nelson, M. Handler
and D. Krapohl, Derived from experiment and observation rather than theory. Simple,
least complicated
Use five diagnostic features;
Respiration
1. decrease in amplitude for 3 cycles
2. decrease in rate for 3 cycles
3. temporary increase in baseline
EDA
4. amplitude
Cardio
5. amplitude
EDA (X2)
Cardio (X1)
*ESS Rules
1. Assign 3- position scores to each component, using the bigger is better Rule on the
stronger bracketing CQ for each component.
- If you can see it, point to it, and argue it is BIGGER, then you can score it. Score all
EDA with +/-2
2. Score only timely reactions.
- Don’t score reactions that begin before the stimulus onset/latency long after the
answer
3. Don’t score ugly, unstable, and artifacted data.
P a g e 30 | 47
- Leave blank, mark “A” or “/” or score zero (0). Use three position scores (+/-)
Weights are applied regardless of the magnitude of difference in response example;
even tiny difference in EDA are scored +/-2
3. Lykken Scoring System (LSS)- Introduced by David Lykken (1959-1960) use for
CIT/GKT.
Entails the ranking of the electro dermal response amplitude from 2 to 0, if the largest
EDR takes place on the key item, the score for the test is 2, if the largest EDR takes
place on the key item, the score is 1, all others are scored 0. Reactions to the first
buffer are ignored. The cut off for the result of RI (reaction indicated) is equal to the
number of CIT subtest.
4. Backster Scoring System - complex, with high rate of false-positive errors.
5. U.S. Army Military Police School Polygraph Branch (1970)- simplified the criteria
and rules of Backster method and uses up to 27 physiological features.
6. University of Utah Scoring System- reduce the number of physiological features
from twenty-seven (27) to ten (10) and assessment of reaction is based on principles of
psychophysiology.
7. Emperical Scoring System- base on Bigger is better scoring principle.
i. Test Data Analysis- The systematic process by which a particular set of decision is
applied to the evaluation of diagnostic features and other physiological data resulting
in one of the three outcome decisions.
a. Deception Indicated or Reaction Indicated (DI/RI/SR)
b. No Deception Indicated or No Reaction Indicated (NDI/NRI/NSR)
c. Inconclusive or No Reaction (INC/NR/NO)
ii. Types of TDA
1. Global Test Data Analysis - A system of rendering an opinion by viewing the
polygraph chart as a whole as opposed to making a systematic comparison among
questions.
- Use in relevant/irrelevant technique, peak of tension test and Reid’s GQT.
2. Numerical Test Data Analysis - A systematic assignment of numerical values to
physiological responses, and decision rules that are based on the sum of those
numerical values.
- Used in ZCT, MGQT
a. Seven-Point Scale
+3 = Maximum Truthful Score
+2 = Truthful Score
+1 = Minimum Truthful Score
0
1 = Minimum Deception Score
2 = Deception Score
3 = Maximum Deception Score
b. Three-Point Scale
+1 = if the reaction to the CQ is stronger
0
-1 = if the reaction to the RQ is stronger
iii. Four (4) Major Standardized TDA Methods
1. Lykken Scoring
2. Us Federal Government Scoring System
3. University of Utah Scoring System
4. Empirical Scoring System
P a g e 31 | 47
E.) Scoring
Respiration is scored first, to note any artefacts that may affect other channel (DB’s,
MVT’s and SNF).
Reactions are indicated by reduction in respiratory activity
1. decrease in amplitude
2. elevated baseline
3. apnea (blocking)
4. slowing of rate
Respiratory Features
Cardio Features
P a g e 32 | 47
Decision Criteria
1. Single Issue = grand total is +/- 6
NDI = grand total of +6 or greater
DI = grand total of -6 or less
INC = scores between -5 and +5
Note: if INC, conduct additional two chart and cutting score of +/- 6 remains the same
for 5 charts.
2. Multiple-Faceted= if/then
1. Used in examinations where the subject may be truthful to some but not to all
the RQ.
2. If spot totals are al positive or all negative,
Then, use the +/-6 grand total rule.
3. If any of the spot totals are opposite, some positive and some negative (ignoring
scores of 0),
Then, use a SPOT SCORE RULE (SSR) for each spot.
Spot Score Rule
NDI = +3 or greater at every spot
DI = -3 0r less at any spot
Examinees fail the test not on individual questions
3. General Guidelines
a.a. Seven (7) Position Scale:
0 = no response to compare
+/-1 = subtle difference
+/-2 = definite difference
+/-3 = dramatic difference
b.b. Pneumograph
+/- 1 = usual score
+/- 2 = rare score
+/- 3 = never
In case of two equivalent diagnostic features, measure the time window of longer
reaction and then compare the length line (RLL) in the same time window of reaction.
Respiration Line Length- refers to the linear measurement of a waveform over a
specified period of time
1. apnea blocking
2. decrease in Amplitude
3. progressive decrease in amplitude
4. decrease in cyclic rate
5. inhalation/exhalation (i/e) ratio change
c.c. Electrodermal
+/- 1 = if ratio is not more than 3:1
+/- 2 = if ratio is 3:1
+/- 3 = if ratio is more than 4:1
If there is no reaction to one of the compared questions, apply the rule regarding
quantity of chart division;
+/- 1 = up to 2 division
+/- 2 = from 2 to 3 division
+/- 3 = more than 3 division
d.d. Cardio
+/- 1 = up to 2 times greater increase in baseline
+/- 2 = from 2 to 3 times greater reaction
+/- 3 = at least 3 times greater reaction
If there is no reaction to one of the compared questions, apply the rule regarding
quantity of chart division;
+/-1 = up to 2 division
+/-2 = from 2 to 3 division
+/-3 = more than 3 division
P a g e 34 | 47
4. Cut off Score
a.a. Zone Comparison Technique
DI = if grand total is less than -6 or any subtotal less than -3
NDI = if every subtotal is more than +1 and grand total more than +6
INC = other results
b.b. You Phase (BI-Zone)
DI = when grand total is less than -4 or any subtotal less than -3
NDI = if all subtotal is greater than +1 and grand total is more than +4
INC = other result
c.c. UTAH Probable Lie Test (UPLT)- The first polygraph technique developed by
psychologists who explicitly incorporated basic knowledge and principles from
psychological science and psychophysiology into the pre-test interview, questions
structure, recording methods and evaluation methods (Handler and Nelson, 2009),
with high reliability and validity. (Ad Hoc Committee on Polygraph Techniques, 2011;
Kraphol, 2006)
1.1. Uses of UPLT
1. Single Issue Test
-Introductory
-Sacrifice Relevant
-Irrelevant 1
-Comparison 1
-Relevant 1 (primary)
-Irrelevant 2
-Comparison 2
-Relevant 2 (primary)
-Irrelevant 3
-Comparison 3
-Relevant 3 (primary)
2. Multi-Facet Test
-Introductory
-Sacrifice Relevant
-Irrelevant 1
-Comparison 1
-Relevant 1 (primary)
-Irrelevant 2
-Comparison 2
-Relevant 2 (secondary)
-Irrelevant 3
-Comparison 3
-Relevant 3 (secondary)
3. Mixed Issue Test
-Introductory
-Sacrifice Relevant
-Irrelevant 1
-Comparison 1
-Relevant 1 (issue 1)
-Irrelevant 2
-Comparison 2
-Relevant 2 (issue 2)
-Irrelevant 3
-Comparison 3
-Relevant 3 (issue 3)
Questions Rotation
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Chart 1 I SR N1 C1 R1 N2 C2 R2 N3 C3 R3
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Chart 2 I SR N3 C2 R3 N1 C3 R1 N2 C1 R2
Chart 3 I SR N2 C3 R2 N3 C1 R3 N1 C2 R1
Chart 4 I SR N1 C1 R1 N2 C2 R2 N3 C3 R3
Chart 5 I SR N3 C2 R3 N1 C3 R1 N2 C1 R2
Questions Rotation
Positio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
n
Chart I SR N1 C1 R1 R2 C2 R3 R4 C3 N2
1
Chart I SR N2 C2 R4 R1 C3 R2 R3 C1 N1
2
Chart I SR N1 C3 R3 R2 C1 R1 R4 C2 N2
3
Chart I SR N2 C1 R2 R4 C2 R3 R1 C3 N1
4
Chart I SR N1 C2 R1 R3 C3 R4 R2 C1 N2
5
a.a. Scoring
Charts are scored channel by channel using 3- position or 7- position scoring
system.
In the three-question version, each RQ is scored against the immediately preceding
CQ, unless the tracing of the CQ is unstable due to artifacts or loss of signal. In that
case the RQ is scored against the nearest CQ.
Ex: C1 R1 N2 C2...
In the four- question version, each RQ is scored against the stronger of the two nearest
CQ.
P a g e 36 | 47
Ex: C1 R1 R2 C2...
b.b. Decision Rules
1. Single – Issue
DI = if the total is -6 or lower
NDI = if the total score is +6 or more
INC = scores between -5 to +5
2. Multiple - Facet
+/- 6 cut off scores is use if the total score for each relevant question are all positive
or all negative.
If the total scores for each RQ are on opposite side of 0, decisions are made by
individual questions.
DI = -3 or lower
NDI = +3
INC = other score
3. Mixed- Issue
SR = -3 or lower
NSR = +3 or greater
NO = other score
1. X / 60 / 1.5A
a. First marking of the examiner on the chart.
2. X
a. Indicates the beginning or the start of the test.
b. Is placed on the chart below the cardio tracing.
c. Wait for fifteen (15) to twenty (20) seconds before asking the first
question in order to record the normal tracings of the subject.
3. 60
a. Millimeter of mercury shown in sphygmamometer dial.
4. 1.5A
a. ohms of skin electrical resistance.
5. XX
a. Indicates end or ending of the test.
b. Is placed on the chart below the cardio tracing.
6. / //
P a g e 39 | 47
a. When a question is asked, a stimulus mark or a vertical line is placed on the
chart below the cardio tracing.
b. The single stimulus mark or the vertical line indicates the beginning of
the question and double stimulus mark or the vertical line indicates the ending
of the question.
7. +, - and No sign
a. Plus sign or positive sign indicates that the subject answers the question
with “Yes” Minus sign or negative sign indicated “No” and No sign indicates
that subject fails to answer the question being asked.
8. “T” or“T”--------“T”
a. Talking by the subject other than the subject talks “Yes” or “No”,
indicate on the chart at the point subject’s starts to talk and again where
the subjects stopped talking.
b. Draw horizontal line between the two (two) symbols to show the length
of talking.
9. “TI”
a. It is for talking instruction
b. It is made on the chart below the cardio pattern when the subject is
diplomatically instructed regarding talking.
10. “C”
a. It is for Coughing
b. It causes a sharp ring in the galvo and a break on cardio pattern,
depending on its intensity.
11. “M” or “M”--------“M”
a. It indicates subject’s moves. Prolong movement is indicated with the first
“M: when movement is noticed and second “M” when movement stopped, and draw
horizontal line between the two (2) symbols to determine the length of the
movement.
12. “MI”
a. It is for Movement instruction.
13. or
a. The mechanical adjustment is done only when necessary and shall be
preceded by an irrelevant question and is indicated by an arrow either
pointing up or down adjacent to respective pattern where the adjustment
is made.
14. “CT”
a. Is placed on the chart for clearing throat and is frequently placed bellow
the pneumo tracing, both galvo and cardio appears as a result of any noise
or sound sufficient to cause disturbance in the pattern.
15. “OSN”
a. Indicated on the chart for outside noise and shall be placed on the chart
where the galvo or pneumo activity appears as a result of any noise or sound
sufficient to cause disturbance in the pattern.
16. “S”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sigh and shall be placed inside the
pneumo tracing exactly where it took place. It may be indicative of deception or
merely denotes relief, because of the psychological implications involved, it must
be distinguished from deep breath.
17. “SN”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sniff and shall be placed below the
pneumo tracing where the sniff was noted.
18. “SZ”
a. It is indicated on the chart for Sneeze and should place just below the
pneumo tracing at the point where the sneeze occurred. Such occurrence
will affect all three (3) tracing to varying degrees.
19. “B”
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a. It is indicated on the chart for Burp or Belch with affects both pneumo and
galvo tracings.
20. “Y”
a. It is indicated for Yawn on the chart, it is placed below the pneumo
tracing.
b. Yawning will also affect the cardio and galvo tracings.
21. “L”
a. It is placed on the chart if the subject Laughs and should be placed below
the pneumo tracings. This will also affect the cardio tracings.
22. “VC”
a. It stands for change of voice when the subjects answer the question. It
is indicated on the chart and the symbol is placed at the break point of the
cardio tracing where stimulus mark showed subject answer. The change of
voice when subject answer the question will also affect the galvo and pneumo
tracing.
23. “IM”
a. It is indicated on the chart for involuntary movement at the break point
of the cardio tracing.
b. The subject will actually jerk occasionally; thus, this will affect the galvo
and pneumo tracings. Involuntary movement frequently contains deception
criteria.
24. “ARM”----------“ARM”
a. Extraneous factors due to blood pressure cuff discomfort will affect all the
three (3) tracings; it is indicated on the char with “ARM”. If the discomfort
continues, draw a horizontal line for the duration of the apparent discomfort with
the additional “ARM” at the termination of discomfort.
25. “BI”
a. Indicated on the chart as breathing instruction and placed below the cardio
tracings. This is being done when the subject is carefully and properly instructed
regarding deep breathing.
26. “RQ”
a. It is indicated below the cardio tracing when the subject requests a
repetition of the question.
27. “PJ”
a. Indicated for paper jam below the cardio pattern at the time of the wedge.
28. “C+” or “C-“
a. C positive or plus is indicated if the sensitivity of galvo was increased, while
C negative or minus is indicated if the sensitivity of galvo was decreased.
29. “IS”
a. It is indicated when the ink of the polygraph stops.
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Chapter VI
Admissibility and Legal Aspects of Polygraph
E. Confession
a. Kinds of Confession
1. Extra-Judicial Confession – this is a confession made outside of the court prior to
the trial of the case.
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Sec. 3, rule 133, rules of court – Extra-judicial confession, not sufficient ground for
conviction; an extra-judicial confession made by an accused, shall not be sufficient
ground for conviction, unless corroborated by evidence of corpus delicti (body of the
crime).
Kinds of Extra-Judicial Confession
i. Voluntary Extra-Judicial Confession – the confession is voluntary when the
accused speaks of his free will and accord, without inducement of any kind, and with
a full and complete knowledge of the nature and consequence of the confession, and
when the speaking is so free from influences affecting the will of the accused, at the
time the confession was made that it renders it admissible in evidence against him.
Ii. Involuntary Extra-Judicial Confession – Confessions obtained through force,
threat, intimidation, duress or anything influencing the voluntary act of the confessor.
2. Judicial Confession – This is a confession of an accused in court. It is conclusive
upon the court and may be considered to be a mitigating circumstance to criminal
liability.
A plea of guilty when formally entered on arraignment is sufficient to sustain a
conviction of any offense, even a capital one, without further proof.
Sec. 2, rule 129, rule of court – Judicial Admission; admissions made by the parties
in the pleadings, or in the course of the trial or other proceedings do not require proof
and cannot be contradicted unless previously shown to have been made through
palpable mistake.
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