MMB323-Thermodynamics I

Instructors:
Prof Ketlogetswe [ketloget@ub.ac.bw]{248/172}
Mr Rabasoma [rabasomak@ub.ac.bw]{248/178}
 Course Information
Course Description
The course introduces heat energy. It provides an understanding of the
interrelations between different forms of energy. It provides the concepts of
first and second law of thermodynamics, thermodynamic properties, ideal
gas, control volume energy analysis, Carnot cycle, entropy, idealized
processes, equations of state, mixtures and exergy and exegetic analysis.
Learning Objectives
On completion of this course, you should be able to:
• Understand the concept of thermal process
• Understand the thermodynamic properties
• Use steam table to evaluate thermodynamic processes
• Apply the energy equation for thermodynamic process
• Understand the concept of energy conservation
• Apply the modified energy equation for thermodynamic processes
 Course Materials

Recommended text:
1. M. J. Moran, H. N. Shapiro, Fundamentals of
Engineering Thermodynamics, 2004, ISBN 0-
471-27471-2.
2. Y.A. Cengel, M.A. Boles, Thermodynamics: An
Engineering Approach. ISBN 007125084-0
 Course Assessment

Coursework/Continuous Assessment (40%):

CA Component Weight (%)
Assignment 1 5%
Laboratory report 1 5%
Test 1 10%
Assignment 2 5%
Laboratory report 2 5%
Test 2 10%

Final Examination (60%):

• 2 hours paper covering all the content studied in the course including Labs
and Assignments.
 Course Content & Teaching Plan
Week Topics Description
1 Introduction: Thermodynamics Definitions, heat & work, ideal gases
2 Gases Gas laws, Ideal gases, Specific heat capacities of a gas
3 Systems Processes, Closed & open systems, Cycles, Carnot & Rankine,
First law of thermodynamics
4 Thermodynamic Cycles Thermal efficiency/work ratio, work & internal energy, steady
flow energy equation
5 Assignment 1
5,6 First law of Thermodynamics Steam plant, enthalpy & specific heat, steam table & charts,
Steam plant efficiency, Throttling
7 Test 1
9,10 Second law of Thermodynamics Heat engines, Carnot & Rankine cycles, Entrophy
11 Internal Combustion engine Workdone, brake & indicated power, mechanical efficiency,
Energy balance of an IC engine
11 Assignment 2
12 Refrigeration/Heat pump Coefficient of Performance (COP), P-H chart
13 Test 2
13 Gas Turbine Open & closed cycles, Thermal efficiency
14 Combustion Mixture of fuels
 Laboratory Experience

• The course incorporates 2 laboratory sessions.

• The Labs will be assessed via Laboratory
reports (Guidance on Labs & Lab reports to be
provided during the semester).
Lab Description Weeks
1 Steam marcet Boiler 5&6
2 Air-conditioning or Refrigeration 7&8
 Why Thermodynamics?

• Where does thermodynamics find application

in our world?

• These videos show industrial application of

thermodynamics in power generation (steam
and gas turbine applications)
• https://youtu.be/IdPTuwKEfmA
• https://youtu.be/zcWkEKNvqCA
 Problem Solving Technique

• A systematic step-by-step
approach to solving
problems.

• Step 1: Problem statement

– In your own words, briefly state the problem,
the key information given, and the quantities
to be found. This is to make sure that you
understand the problem and the objectives
before you attempt to solve the problem.
 Problem Solving Technique
• Step 2: Schematic
– Draw a realistic sketch of the physical system
involved and list the relevant information on
the figure. The sketch does not have to be
something elaborate, but it should resemble
the actual system and show the key features.
• Step 3: Assumptions & approximations
– State any appropriate assumptions and
approximations made to simplify the problem
to make it possible to obtain a solution. Justify
the questionable assumptions. Assume
reasonable values for missing quantities that
are necessary.
 Problem Solving Technique
• Step 4: Physical laws
– Apply all the relevant basic physical laws and principles (such as the
conservation of mass) and reduce them to their simplest form by utilizing
the assumptions made.
• Step 5: Properties
– Determine the unknown properties at known states necessary to solve the
problem from property relations or tables.
• Step 6: Calculations
– Substitute the known quantities into the simplified relations and perform
the calculations to determine the unknowns. Pay particular attention to
the units and unit cancellations and remember that a dimensional
quantity without a unit is meaningless.
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification & Discussion
– Do your answers make sense? Repeat calculations if necessary!
 Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics: is a branch of science that

deals with the study of different forms of
energy and the quantitative relationships
between them.
• Thermodynamics: is the study of the effects of
work, heat, and energy on a system
Thermodynamics is only concerned with macroscopic
(large-scale) changes and observations
 Forms of Energy

• Chemical energy: energy stored within chemical

bounds of a substance (petroleum group such as:
firewood, coal, petrol, gas, oil and gasoline)

• Thermal energy: energy arising from a chemical

reaction (combustion processes or friction (heat))

• Mechanical energy: work produced by a mechanical

device
 Getting Started

• All of thermodynamics can be expressed in

terms of four quantities
– Temperature (T)
– Internal Energy (U)
– Entropy (S)
– Heat (Q)
• These quantities are defined later.
 Basic Terms
• System: Quantity of matter or a region of space which is under
consideration in the analysis of a problem.
• Surroundings: Anything outside the thermodynamic system is
called the surroundings. The system is separated from the
surroundings by the boundary. The boundary may be either
fixed or moving.
• Closed system: There is no mass transfer across the system
boundary. Energy transfer may be there.
• Open system: There may be both matter and energy transfer
across the boundary of the system.
 Basic Terms
• Isolated system: There is neither matter nor energy transfer
across the boundary of the system.
• State of the system and state variable: The state of a system
means the conditions of the system. It is described in terms of
certain observable properties which are called the state
variables, for example, temperature (t), pressure (p), and
volume (v).
• State function: A physical quantity is a state function in the
change in its value during the process depends only upon the
initial state and final state of the system and does not depend
on the path by which the change has been brought about.
 Types of thermodynamic processes

• Isothermal process: When the temperature of a system remains

constant during a process, we call it isothermal. Heat may flow in or
out of the system during an isothermal process.
• Adiabatic process: No heat can flow from the system to the
surroundings or vice versa.
• Isochoric process: It is a process during which the volume of the
system is kept constant.
• Isobaric process: It is a process during which the pressure of the
system is kept constant.
• Reversible processes: A process which is carried out infinitesimally
slowly so that all changes occurring in the direct process can be
exactly reversed and the system remains almost in a state of
equilibrium with the surroundings at every stage of the process.
 Adiabatic Process

• An adiabatic process transfers no heat

– therefore Q = 0
ΔU = Q – W
• When a system expands adiabatically, W is
positive (the system does work) so ΔU is
negative.
• When a system compresses adiabatically, W is
negative (work is done on the system) so ΔU is
positive.
 Isothermal Process

• An isothermal process is a constant

temperature process. Any heat flow into or
out of the system must be slow enough to
maintain thermal equilibrium
• For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0
Therefore, Q = W
– Any energy entering the system (Q) must leave as
work (W)
 Isobaric Process

• An isobaric process is a constant pressure

process. ΔU, W, and Q are generally non-zero,
but calculating the work done by an ideal gas
is straightforward
W = P·ΔV
• Water boiling in a saucepan is an example of
an isobaric process
 Isochoric Process

• An isochoric process is a constant volume

process. When the volume of a system doesn’t
change, it will do no work on its surroundings.
W=0
ΔU = Q
• Heating gas in a closed container is an
isochoric process
 Heat Capacity

• The amount of heat required to raise a certain

mass of a material by a certain temperature is
called heat capacity
Q = mcxΔT
• The constant cx is called the specific heat of
substance x, (SI units of J/kg·K)
 Heat Capacity of Ideal Gas

• CV = heat capacity at constant volume

CV = 3/2 R

• CP = heat capacity at constant pressure

CP = 5/2 R

The universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/mol·K

 Laws of Thermodynamics

According to British scientist C. P. Snow, the

three laws of thermodynamics can be
(humorously) summarized as:
1. You can’t win
2. You can’t break even
3. You can’t get out of the game
 1st Law (You can’t win)

• The first law of thermodynamics is an extension of

the law of conservation of energy
• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but
rather transformed from one form to another.
• The change in internal energy of a system is equal to
the heat added to the system minus the work done by
the system.
ΔU = Q - W
• 𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
• 𝑊 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
• ∆𝑈 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
1st Law of Thermodynamics
 1st Law Signs
• Signs of the terms in the equation
– ∆𝑄
• Positive if energy is transferred to the system by heat
• Negative if energy is transferred out of the system by heat (when do we
expect this process to occur ?)
– 𝑊
• Positive if the work is done by the system (positive work decreases the
internal energy of the system) typical example of such process to occur?
• Negative if work is done on the system (negative work increases the
internal energy of the system).
This is consistent with the definition of mechanical work
– ∆𝑈
• Positive if the temperature increases
• Negative if the temperature decreases
 Results of ∆𝑈

• Change in the internal energy result in change in the

measurable macroscopic variables of the system.
(thermodynamics variables)
• These include
– Pressure
– Temperature
– Volume
This will call for the use of Pressure volume (P-v), Temperature
entropy (T-s) diagrams. To be covered later.
 T-s Diagram (Constant Pressure Process)
working substance water and steam

𝑇0C
1

𝑆 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 . 𝑘
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆2 𝑆1

Typical heating process at constant Typical example of a cooling

pressure. Working substance water and process at a constant volume.
steam. Our main focus will be to Our main focus will be to
Determine heat supplied (Qin) or determine entropy change (∆𝑆)
Entropy change (∆𝑆) or heat rejected

More details will be covered later

 P-v diagram (constant temperature process)
compressed air in a piston – cylinder device

𝑃
𝑃𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
T = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉2 𝑉
𝑉1
Polytropic process
The process occurs in such a way the temperature (in
the piston–cylinder mechanism remains constant

The details will be covered later

 2nd Law (You can’t break even)

Think about what it means to not “break even”. Every

effort you put forth, no matter how efficient you are,
will have a tiny bit of waste.
• Fuel is burned to heat working substance such as water to produce
steam for power generation (chemical energy to thermal energy).
• The work done by heat becomes kinetic energy in the working
substance (thermal energy to kinetic energy)
• Working substance is passed across turbine (steam) to do work i.e.
rotate shaft which is coupled to electrical generator for generating
electricity (power) (kinetic energy to mechanical energy)
• Work done by engine produces non-useable heat which must be lost
i.e. friction (mechanical energy to thermal energy)
 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

No thermodynamic process can have a thermal efficiency of

100%. (referee to the previous slide for the reason)

• No engine can convert all energy supplied to it into work. It is

not 100% efficient.
• Some energy is lost
• Heat of combustion transferred to equipment
• Heat of friction is produced by equipment
• Both of these are unusable and will ultimately be lost to the
environment (i.e. carried away by a cooling system/medium)
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
 Concerning the 2nd Law

• The second law of thermodynamics introduces

the notion of entropy (S), a measure of system
disorder (messiness).
• U is the quantity of a system’s energy; S is the
quality of a system’s energy.
• Another C.P. Snow expression:
– not knowing the 2nd law of thermodynamics is the cultural equivalent
to never having read Shakespeare
 Implications of the 2nd Law

• Time marches on
– If you watch a movie, how do you know
that you are seeing events in the order they
occurred?
– If I drop a raw egg on the floor, it becomes
extremely “disordered” (greater Entropy) –
playing the movie in reverse would show
pieces coming together to form a whole egg
(decreasing Entropy) – highly unlikely!
 Direction of a Process

• The 2nd Law helps determine the preferred

direction of a process
• A reversible process is one which can change
state and then return to the original state
• This is an idealized condition – all real
processes are irreversible
 3rd Law (You can’t get out)

• No system can reach absolute zero.

• This is one reason we use the Kelvin
temperature scale. Not only is the internal
energy proportional to temperature, but you
never have to worry about dividing by zero in
an equation!
• There is no formula associated with the 3rd
Law of Thermodynamics
 The Zeroth Law (One more law???)

• The First and Second Laws were well

entrenched when an additional Law was
recognized.

• If objects A and B are each in thermal

equilibrium with object C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Allows us to define temperature relative to an
established standard.
 Properties of Water & Steam
• Sensible heat
– Heat added to a substance which produces a temperature
increases
• Latent heat
– Heat added to a substance which causes a phase change
• Saturated temperature:
– Temperature, or point at which water changes phase
• Superheated steam
– Steam at temperature above saturation point
• Desuperheated steam
– Superheated steam that has been cooled to a temperature just
above saturated point
 Five components of a thermodynamic
Cycle
• Working substance – medium by which energy is carried through a cycle

• Engine – device that converts the energy of a working substance into useful
mechanical energy to performed work (for this subject we will be talking
about turbine) in a power generation plant

• Heat sink – absorbs heat from working substances after it has performed work
in the engine (for this subject we will be talking about condenser) in a
power generation plant.

• Heat source – supplies heat to the working substance (in the case of
Morupule power generation plant we are talking about pulverised coal)

• Pump – moves the working substance from the low pressure side to the high
pressure side of the cycle
 Problems

• A well-insulated electric oven is being heated through its heating element.

If the entire oven, including the heating element, is taken to be the
system, determine whether this is a heat or work interaction. Give reason
to your choice.
• A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while stirred by a paddle
wheel. Initial, the internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the
cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the paddle wheel does
100 kJ of work to the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the
fluid, neglect the stored in the paddle wheel.
• The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the
installation of a hydraulic turbine-generator at a location where the depth
of the water is 50m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. if the
electric power generated is measured to be 1862 kW and the efficiency is
95%, determine
– (a) the overall efficiency of the turbine generator
– (b) the mechanical efficiency of the turbine
– (c) the shaft power supplied by the turbine to the generator
 Problems

• A piston-cylinder device contains 0.06 m3 of saturated water vapour at

350 kPa. Determine the temperature and the mass of the vapour inside
the cylinder.

• A mass of 200g of saturated liquid water is completely vaporised at a

constant pressure of 100 kPa. Determine (a) the volume change and
(b) the amount of energy transferred to the water