Thermodynamics – I : ME-130

by

Dr Irfan Ul-Haq
 Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs)

• To demonstrate understanding of the Laws of

Thermodynamics by applying to a given problem
• To present solution of a given Thermodynamics
problem related to energy interaction
• To analysis the Thermodynamics Systems by
applying fundamental knowledge of Thermodynamics
 Course Contents

• Ch.1 : Introduction and Basic Concepts

• Ch.2 : Energy Transfer and Analysis
• Ch.3 : Properties of pure substances
• Ch.4 : Energy analysis of closed systems
• Ch.5 : Mass & Energy Analysis of control volumes
• Ch.6 : Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Ch.7 : Entropy
• Ch.8 : Exergy : Measure of Work potential (just intro.)
 Course Contents

• Text Book
“Thermodynamics – An Engineering Approach” , by Cengel /
Boles, McGraw Hills 7th Edition
• Reference Books
“Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, by Moran
Michael, John Wiley Inc.
 Lectures Strategy

Please Note & Remember (PNR)

• Smile

• Respect Lecture time

• Do not disturb the lecture (Except participation)

Must develop Continuous Study Habits
 Assessment Methods and
Marks Distribution

During course 55%

Quizzes 20 %
Projects / Assignments 0%
OHTs 35 %
End Semester Exam 45%

Total 100%

Advise : Never worry for marks & Exams, you will always
succeed if you attain & retain knowledge and develop ability to
apply it ; Continuous Study Habits (CSH)
 Chapter 1
Introduction and Basic Concepts
Introduction and Basic Concepts
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
Some SI and English Units
The State & Processes
The Steady-Flow Process; Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Temperature Scales
Pressure and its measurements
Summary
Problems

Thermodynamics – I
 Thermodynamics: Meaning
• Name stems from Greek words:
– Therme (heat)
– Dynamis (power)
• Name describes early efforts to convert heat into
power
• Origin is very old, however, scope widened
since the middle of nineteenth century
 Definition of Thermodynamics
• Basic science that deals with energy.
• We all know that energy is neither created nor
destroyed – but it is transformed.
• Thus thermodynamics is a science dealing with:
– energy transformations, including heat and work
– physical properties of the substances that are
involved in energy transformations
 Engineering Thermodynamics
• Engineering thermodynamics is that part of the
science that deals with:
– all types of heat engines or power plants (stationary
or vehicular)
– refrigeration, air conditioning, combustion, the
compression and expansion of fluids
– chemical processing plants, and the physical
properties of the substances used in these and other
applications.
• Examples are:
– Gas Turbine engines, automobile engine, refrigerator,
Heating plants etc.
 Summarizing
• In short we can say that study of engineering
thermodynamics includes:
– All aspects of energy and energy transformations
– Power production (heat engines, combustion)
– Compression and expansion of fluids
– Refrigeration
– Relationships among physical properties of matter
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Principles of Thermodynamics are in existence since the

creation of Universe
It emerged as science after the construction of Successful
Steam Engines in England (Thomas Savery in 1697 and
Newcomen in 1712)
The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics Emerged
Simultaneously in 1850 primarily out of the Works of William
Rankine and Lord Kelvin
Term Thermodynamic was First used in the Publication by
Lord Kelvin in 1849
The First Thermodynamic Text Book was Written in 1859 By
William Rankine, a Professor at the University of Glasgow
 CLASSIFICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS

• Classical Thermodynamics:
– Takes the macroscopic or large scale view of the
problem in hand (Physics oriented)
• Statistical Thermodynamics:
– Looks at individual molecules and their internal
structure for solution of the problem (Chemistry
oriented)

• OUR CONCERN for ME-130 is to follow

Classical Approach!
 Why is it important to study Thermodynamics?

 Every Engineering activity involves an interaction

between Energy and Matter
 There is no process that does not relate to
thermodynamics one way or the other, thus for
engineers developing good understanding of
thermodynamics principles is a must!
 To Analyze and Design things intended to meet
human needs
 To achieve improved designs and better
performance
 Optimum utilization of available energy i.e.
Increased Output, Reduce Input, Reduce Cost with
least undesired Environmental Effects
 Few Applications of Thermodynamics

The human body

Air-conditioning Airplanes
systems

Car radiators Power plants

Refrigeration systems
 Art 1.2, page 3 (Text)

Importance of Dimensions & Units

 SYSTEM OF UNITS (Quick Review)

Dimension SI Unit English Unit

Length Meter (m) Foot (ft)

Mass Kilogram (kg) Pound (lb)

Time Second (s) Second (s)

Temperature Kelvin (K), C

o
Rankine (R), F
o

Force Newton (N) Pound-force (lbf)

Pressure Pascal (Pa) Pound per square inch (psi)

Work (J) or (N·m) Btu (B) or ft-lbf

Go through Examples 1-1 to 1-4

 Useful Terminologies
• Fluid:
– Matter in the form of liquid, gas or vapour that offers
little resistance to deformation
• Working Substance:
– Fluid used in power producing machines that is
capable of storing or removing energy e.g.
• Steam in steam turbines
• Water in hydraulic turbines
• Air in air compressors
• Air-fuel mixture in internal combustion engines
 Art 1.3, page 10 (Text)
Thermodynamics Systems
• System: quantity of matter or region in space chosen
for study.
• It has:
• A Boundary – fixed or moveable with zero thickness
• Surroundings – region outside the system
• Two Types:
• Closed System (Control Mass )
• Open System (Control Volume)
 Closed System

• Quantity of mass is fixed!

• System boundary may be
fixed or moveable

• Mass can not cross the system

boundary
• Energy can cross the system
boundary
 Closed System: Schematic

System
Boundary

E System

Matter can not cross the system boundary,

however, energy can cross it!
Open System

• System boundary
may be fixed or
moveable

• Both mass and

energy can cross the
system boundary
 Other Illustration of
Open System (Control Volume)

Matter
Water Energy
Heater
Energy
Matter
 OPEN SYSTEM (Control Volume)
 A control volume is an enclosure that separates a
quantity of matter from the surroundings or
environment.
 The enclosure does not necessarily have to consist of
a solid boundary like the walls of a vessel.
 It is only necessary that the enclosure:
 Forms a closed surface and
 Its properties are defined everywhere.
 An enclosure may transmit heat or be a heat insulator.
 It may be deformable and thus capable of transmitting
work to the system.
 It may also be capable of transmitting mass.
 Art 1.4, page 12 (text)
Properties of a System
PROPERTY: any observable characteristics of a system e.g.
Pressure
Temperature
Volume
Mass
Density
Modulus of elasticity
Viscosity - etc.
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Types of property are:
–Intensive – independent of size of the system,
e.g. temperature, pressure, density etc.
–Extensive – values depend upon size or
extent of the system, e.g. mass, volume, total
energy etc.
• Specific property: extensive properties per
unit mass
 Art 1.5, page 13 (text)
Density and Specific Gravity
• Density
• Specific Volume
• Specific Weight
• Relative Density
• Weight
 Some Directly Observable Properties
• Some important properties those are
independent of laws of thermodynamics:
• Density (ρ): mass per unit volume

mass m
 
volume V

• Specific Volume (v): volume per unit mass

V 1
v 
m 
Some Directly Observable Properties

Specific Weight (γ): weight of a substance

divided by its volume
weight w
 
volume V

 Relative Density (ρs) or(Specific Gravity):

ratio of density of a substance to some
standard density.
 substan ce Water is standard, such that:
s 
H O ρH o=1000 kg/m3
2
2
 Some Directly Observable Properties

Weight:
– Force of gravity on a substance
– Depends upon both the mass and gravity
– If only force acting on the body is its weight, the resulting
acceleration is g, the Newton’s 2nd law F=ma becomes:
w  mg
divide both sides by V
w m
 g
V V
  g This represents basic equation
between specific weight, density,
and gravitational acceleration
 Art 1.6, page 14 (text)
State & Equilibrium
State
• Set of properties that completely describe the system
• At a given state all properties of a system have fixed value
• If value of even one property changes, the state will
change to a different one
 Equilibrium
• Thermodynamics deals in STATE of
EQUILIBRIUM i.e. non existence of
unbalanced potential or driving force
within the system
• A system in equilibrium experiences no
change when it is isolated from
surroundings
 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

Thermal equilibrium – relates to temperature

Mechanical equilibrium – relates to pressure

Phase equilibrium – for more than one phase

Chemical equilibrium – unchanged chemical

composition
 Art 1.7, page 15 (text)
PROCESS AND PATH
• PROCESS: any change that system
undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
• PATH: series of states through which a
system passes during a process
 Process Diagram

P
State 2
P2
Process Path

State 1
P1

V2 V1 V
QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM STATE and
QUASI-STATIC PROCESS

Sufficiently slow
process, system
adjusts itself internally
to cause uniform
change in properties
Process proceeds
such that system
remains infinitesimally
close to equilibrium
state at all times
 State Postulate

The state of a simple

compressible system (closed
system with other effects ignored) is
completely specified by TWO
independent, intensive properties
 Prefix “Iso”
• Many times we will talk about process paths
where one property is kept constant
• Isothermal
– Constant Temperature
• Isobaric
– Constant Pressure
• Isochoric
– Constant Volume
 Key to Understand Thermodynamics
• Understand ENERGY and its’:
– Forms and types
– Transfer
– Transformation
– Interactions with a system
– Modes of transfer between System and Surroundings
– Effects caused by transfer
 Art 1.8, page 17 (text)

Temperature & Zeroth Law of

Thermodynamics
 Temperature
• A property that distinguishes thermodynamics
from other sciences
(As important to thermodynamics as force does to
Statics and velocity to Dynamics)
• Associated with the ability to distinguish Hot
from Cold
 Temperature
• A definition of temperature in terms of concepts
that are independently defined or accepted as
primitive is difficult to provide!
• It is, however, possible to arrive at an objective
understanding of equality of temperatures by
using the fact that when the temperature of a
body changes, other properties also change
 Temperature
 When two bodies at different temperatures are
brought in contact with each other, after some
time they attain common temperature and are
said to exist in a state of thermal equilibrium
 Temperature of a system is a property that
determines whether or not a system is in
thermal equilibrium with other systems
 If a body is at 60 oC, it will be at 60 oC
irrespective of the type of the equipment used
to measure the body temperature
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If two bodies are in thermal

equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with
each other!
 Temperature Measurement
• In order to obtain quantitative measure of
temperature:
– A reference body is used
– Certain physical characteristic of this body is used
which gets changed with temperature
• The change in the selected physical
characteristics may be taken as an indication of
change in temperature!
 Thermometric Property

The selected physical

characteristic of the reference
body is called the
thermometric property
 Thermometer

It is the reference body that is selected for

determination of temperature
Common thermometer is mercury in glass
tube
Extension in mercury in tube is used as
thermometric property
 Types of Thermometer

S Thermodynamic
Type of Thermometer Symbol
No Property
Constant Volume Gas
1 Pressure P
Thermometer
 Types of Thermometer

S Thermodynamic
Type of Thermometer Symbol
No Property
Constant Volume Gas
1 Pressure P
Thermometer
Constant Pressure Gas
2 Volume V
Thermometer
 Types of Thermometer

S Thermodynamic
Type of Thermometer Symbol
No Property
Constant Volume Gas
1 Pressure P
Thermometer
Constant Pressure Gas
2 Volume V
Thermometer
Electrical Resistance
3 Resistance R
Thermometer
 Types of Thermometer

S Thermodynamic
Type of Thermometer Symbol
No Property
Constant Volume Gas
1 Pressure P
Thermometer
Constant Pressure Gas
2 Volume V
Thermometer
Electrical Resistance
3 Resistance R
Thermometer
4 Thermocouple Thermal emf ε
 Types of Thermometer

S Thermodynamic
Type of Thermometer Symbol
No Property
Constant Volume Gas
1 Pressure P
Thermometer
Constant Pressure Gas
2 Volume V
Thermometer
Electrical Resistance
3 Resistance R
Thermometer
4 Thermocouple Thermal emf ε
5 Mercury in Glass Length L
 Temperature Scales

To define a temperature scale we need

accurately reproducible temperatures
Commonly used reference temperatures
are:
 Ice-point: equilibrium temperature of ice and
air-saturated water at 1 atm
 Steam-point: equilibrium temperature of pure
liquid water in contact with its vapor at 1 atm
 Temperature Scales

• Celsius Scale: 0 ~ 100; 100 divisions

• Fahrenheit Scale: 32 ~ 212; 180 divisions
• Ideal gas Temperature Scale:
– Temperatures are measured using constant-volume
gas thermometer
– Usually Hydrogen or Helium is used
– Underlying principle is that at low pressures, the
temperature of a gas is proportional to its pressure
at constant volume
 Temperature Scales

• Thermodynamic Temperature Scale:

– Base on 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics
– Scale is independent of thermodynamic property of
any substance
– We shall discuss that in due course of time!
• Absolute Scales:
 Kelvin – refers to oC : TK = oC + 273
 Rankine – refers to oF : TR = oF + 460
 Temperature Scales

• Temperature change is identical in:

 oC and K such that ∆T (oC) =∆T (K)
 oF and R such that ∆T (oF) =∆T (R)

• Conversion Between Temperature Scales:

 T(R) = 1.8 T(K) = (9/5) T(K)
 T(K) = (5/9) T(R)
Notice from the plot that -40°C equals -40°F, leading to convenient
formulas for converting between the two scales as follows:
Comparison of Temperature Scales

Go through Example 1-4

 Art 1.9 -1.11, page 21(text)

Pressure & its Measurements

 Pressure
• The force exerted by a fluid per unit area
• Only meaningful for a gas or a liquid
(In solids we talk about stress)
 Units of Pressure

F N
P In SI units, pressure is Pa  2
A expressed in Pascal [Pa] m

One Pascal isn’t often used; we generally use kPa

or MPa to represent large pressures!

1 atm = 101,325 Pa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar = 14.7 psi

Note: 1 bar = 105 Pa and psi is lbf / in2

 Types of Pressure
• Absolute pressures are measured relative to
perfact vacuum
– Usually we will talk about absolute pressure, and will
use absolute pressure in our calculations
• Gage pressures are measured relative to the
surroundings
• If the system has pressure less than the
surroundings pressure, the gage pressure is
termed as Vacuum Pressure
Absolute vs. Gage Pressure

Pressure to be
measured
pgage
Surroundings

pabs
Patm

Vacuum

Pgage= Pabs – Patm

Absolute vs. Vacuum Pressure

Surroundings

Pressure to be pvac
measured
pabs
Patm

Vacuum

Pvac= Patm– Pabs

Go Through Example 1-5

 Devices to measure pressure
• Barometer
• Manometer
• Bourdon tube
• Pressure Transducer
• Piezoelectric
–Strain gage
Barometer F
P  gh
A
Measures atmospheric A
pressure
F  mg  ghA
FBD of Hg in
the Tube
m  V  hA
h V  hA
Note: The
pressure measured
by a barometer is
independent of tube
cross sectional area
 Barometer

• The relation P = ρgh is used to measure the

atmospheric pressure.
• For a given barometer and location the density
and the acceleration due to gravity are constants
• so we conclude that:

– Pressure is directly proportional to height of the

fluid column!

• Pressure is often measured in [mm Hg] or [in Hg]

• 1 atm = 760 [mm Hg] = [29.92 in Hg]
 Manometer
• Used to measure pressure in a tank by comparing
pressures

Atmospheric pressure
W=ρghA acts at location 3
3 • Force balance: P1A
= P3A+W

Gas
h P1  Patm  gh

P  P1  Patm  gh
• 1 2 •
P1
Pressure is same at
FBD of Hg column
between 2 & 3 locations 1 & 2
 Pressure : Conversion Factors
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 kPa = 0.145038 Psi
1 Psi = 6.894757 kPa 1 in Hg = 0.4912 Psi
1 in Hg = 3.387 kPa 1 mm Hg = 0.1333 kPa
1 m of H2O = 9.80638 kPa
1 bar = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.696 psia
= 760 mm Hg
= 29.92 in Hg
 Some Facts About Pressure

Pressure in a liquid
The pressure of a fluid at rest
at rest increases
increases with depth as a result
linearly with distance
of added weight.
from the free
Hence h is taken positive surface
downward.
 Some Facts About Pressure

The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in

a given fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the points
are interconnected by the same fluid
 Pascal’s Law

The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the

pressure throughout by the same amount.
Common application of the Pascal’s
law is the car lift.
Noting that P1 = P2 since both pistons
are at the same level.
Hence the ratio of output force to input
force is determined to be:

The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal Lifting of a large weight by
a small force by the
mechanical advantage of the hydraulic
application of Pascal’s law
lift.
 Go Through Examples 1-7 to 1-10

ME – 130
THERMODYNAMICS – I

Pressure: Problem Solving Session

Example

For barometer, we have:

Example
Example
At the beach, atmospheric pressure is 1025 m bar. You dive 15 m
down in the ocean and you later climb a hill up to 250 m elevation.
Assume the density of water is about 1000 kg/m3 and the density
of air is 1.18 kg/m3. What pressure do you feel at each place?

Solution: We know that ΔP = ρgh

Pocean= Patm + ΔP (ΔP is positive downward)
= (1025 ×10-3 ×105) + (1000 × 9.81 × 15)
= 249650 Pa ≈ 249.65 kPa
Phill = (Patm – ΔP) (ΔP is negative upward)
= (1025 ×10-3 ×105) – (1.18 × 9.81 × 250)
= 99606 Pa ≈ 99.61 kPa
Example
A 2.5 m tall steel cylinder has a cross sectional area of 1.5 m2. At the
bottom with a height of 0.5 m is liquid water on top of which is a 1 m
high layer of gasoline. The gasoline surface is exposed to
atmospheric air at 101 kPa. What is the highest pressure in the
water? The densities are: ρgasoline = 750 kg/m3; ρwater = 997 kg/m3

Solution:
The pressure in the fluid goes up with the depth as
P = (Ptop + ΔP) = (Ptop + ρgh)

and since we have two fluid layers we get

P = Ptop + [(ρh)gasoline + (ρh)water]g

P = 101 + [750 × 1 + 997 × 0.5] (9.807/1000) = 113.2 kPa