THERMODYNAMICS FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(ME182)

Lec-3

Dr. D. Jaya Krishna

Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY WARANGAL
Thermodynamics

2
Thermodynamics

 Basic Principles

 Laws of Thermodynamics

 Entropy

 Carnot Cycle

3
Thermodynamics - Definition

 The science of energy transfer and its effect on the physical properties
of substances
 It deals with
 Heat and temperature

 Energy conversion – mainly between heat and other forms of energy

 Engineering themodynamics – Focus is on using the principles to

analyze and design of systems for Energy conversion

4
5
Applications

6
Applications

7
How is Thermodynamics different from
Mechanics?
• Mechanics – Focus is on motion of particles
and bodies
• Thermodynamics – Focus is on state of the
system

8
 Macroscopic & Microscopic Approach

A substance consists of a large number of particles called

‘molecules.’ The properties of the substance naturally depend
on the behavior of these particles.
• Macroscopic approach (Classical Thermodynamics): Based
on the gross or average effects of many molecules.
• Microscopic approach (Statistical Thermodynamics): Deal
with average values of all particles under consideration.
 Basic Concepts & Definitions
Thermodynamics system: It is defined as ‘a quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study.’
Surrounding: The region outside the system is called surrounding.
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separate the system from its surroundings
is called boundary. It can be fixed or movable.
 Closed, Open, and Isolated Systems

A closed system or control mass consists of a fixed amount of

mass and no mass may cross the system boundary. The closed
system boundary may move.
Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder
devices (Note: The volume need not be fixed).
An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy
crossing the boundary, called a control surface. Examples are
pumps, compressors, turbines, valves, and heat exchangers.
An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass (closed
system) where no heat or work may cross the boundaries. It is a
collection of a main system and its surroundings that are
exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other
system.

Isolated System Boundary

Heat = 0
Work
Work = 0 Surr 4
Mass = 0 Mass
System
Across
Surr 1 Mass
Isolated Heat Surr 3
Boundary
Surr 2

The universe by default is an isolated system.

Suggest appropriate models for the following operations:
(a) Pumping of water (using a pump from a ground level tank to
elevated tank)
(b) Cooking of food (held in a covered container)
(c) Generation of steam (by heating a steady stream of water
entering a boiler)
 Properties of a System
Any observable characteristic of a system is called a property.

Examples are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

Not all properties are independent. Some are defined in terms of
other ones. For example,

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume,

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of some standard substance,

Specific volume is defined as the volume per unit mass,

Properties may be intensive or extensive.

Extensive properties are those that vary directly with size or
extent of the system.
Intensive properties are those that are independent of the size
of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.

If the value of any extensive property is divided by the mass of

the system, the resulting property is intensive and is called a
specific property.
Eg. Specific volume, Specific total energy, Specific internal energy

Volume V  m3  E  kJ  U  kJ 
v= =   e=   u=  
mass m  kg  m  kg  m  kg 
 Examples of Properties
Property Intensive Extensive symbol specific units
property
Temperature √ T K
Pressure √ p Pa (N/m²)
Internal energy √ U u J/kg
Volume √ V v m³/kg
Mass √ m kg
Dynamic viscosity √ µ Ns/m²
Entropy √ S s J/kgK
Enthalpy √ H h J/kg
 State and Equilibrium
The state of a system is the condition of the system described by
the values of its properties.

A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it

maintains thermal, mechanical, phase and chemical equilibrium.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
Thermal equilibrium requires that the temperature be uniform
throughout the system.

Mechanical equilibrium implies an equality of pressure

throughout the system.
A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition
doesn’t change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
 Process
A process is a change of a system from one equilibrium state to
another.
The series of states through which a system passes during a
process is called the path of the process.

When a process proceeds in a very slow manner that the system

remains infinitesimally close to equilibrium state at all times, it is
called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium process.
The quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized
process. But many actual processes closely
approximate it, and they can be modeled as
quasi-equilibrium with negligible error.
Engineers are interested in quasi-equilibrium
for two reasons:
• They are easy to analyze.
• Work-producing devices deliver the most
work when they operate on quasi-
equilibrium process.
Quasi-equilibrium and Non-quasi-equilibrium
processes

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Process diagrams
Plotted with thermodynamics properties as co-ordinates are
very useful in visualizing the process. The P-V diagram of a
compression process is shown below.
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant. Some of these processes are:

Process Property held constant

isobaric Pressure
isothermal Temperature
isochoric Volume
isentropic Entropy
Thermodynamics
• Definition of thermodynamics and its importance
• Applications
• Difference between Mechanics and Thermodynamics
• Systems approach
• Types of systems – Closed, Open and Isolated
• Thermodynamic equilibrium – Mech., Chem. and thermal
• Quasi equilibrium and Non-quasi equilibrium

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State, Process and cycle
• State: is the condition of a system. It is defined by
the properties of the system.
• Process: a transformation from one state to
another. It changes the properties of the system.
• Cycle: a series of processes where the initial state
is same as the final state

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Process

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Process

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Cycle
• A system is said to have
undergone a cycle if it
returns to its initial state at
the end of the process. That
is, for a cycle the initial and
final states are identical.

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Change of State vs Process

• Change of state – The state of a system changes

from initial state to final but the path of the of
the change is not clearly defined
• Process – The path between the initial and final
states are also defined

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Laws of Thermodynamics –

A summary
• Zeroth law –
➢Provides a method for temperature
measurement
• First law –
➢Law of conservation of energy
• Second law –
➢Limit to conversion of heat to energy, Feasibility
of the process

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Zeroth law

“When a body A is in thermal equilibrium

with a body B, and also separately with a
body C, then B and C will be in thermal
equilibrium to each other”

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Measurement

• Pressure

• Temperature

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Pressure

• 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔𝐿
❖Units
➢SI – Pascal (Pa) – 1N/m2
➢1 bar – 105 Pa
➢1 atm – 1.01325 bar

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Temperature
• Temperature scales are defined by
triple point of water (all 3 phases
– solid, liquid and gas are in
equilibrium)

T (oC) = T (K) – 273.15

T (oF) = 1.8T (oC) + 32

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Convert the following readings of pressure into absolute pressure
(kPa), assuming the atmospheric pressure to be 760 mm of Hg.
a) 90 cm Hg gauge
b) 40 cm Hg vacuum
c) 1. 2 m water gauge
d) 0.1 bar vacuum

Hint:
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 x 105 N/m2
= 10.3323 m H20.

a) 221.26 kPa
b) 47.98 kPa
c) 113.07 kPa
d) 91.3 kPa
Reading of A is 500kPa
Reading of B is 300kPa
Absolute pressure of chamber 2 = ?

1 2
A B

Ans: 901.325 kPa

A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser measures 0.66 m Hg.
What is the absolute pressure in the condenser in kPa, when the
atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa?

Ans: 13.3 kPa

A pipe flowing light oil (density = 910 kg/m3) has a manometer
attached as shown in figure below. What is the absolute pressure in
the pipe flow?

Ans: 106.4 kPa

Triple point of water

41
Work and heat
• Heat (Q) is a form of energy
transfer across the boundary due
to temperature difference
between system and
surroundings
• Work (W) is all other forms of
energy transfer in a
thermodynamic system other
than heat

42
Path function and point function
• Point function – Only depends on the
state of the system, the path followed by
the system to reach the state is not
required.
• E.g. All thermodynamic properties
• Path function – Depends on the path
followed by the system
• E.g. Work and Heat

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First law applied to a cyclic Process

• Work done = Heat

• σ𝑊 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = σ𝑄 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

44
First law applied to a Simple change of state

• What happens when Heat input and

work done are unequal?
• It is stored as internal energy in the
system
• Internal energy of a system is a
property
• 𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝑈
• Differential form: δ𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑑𝑈
45
Example

• (−𝑄1 +𝑄2 +𝑄3 ) = ∆𝐸 + (−𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 − 𝑊4 )

46
Specific heat capacity
• Heat capacity – Amount of heat required by a mass of
substance through unit rise in temperature
𝑄
𝐶=
∆𝑡
• Specific heat capacity – Heat capacity per unit mass
𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚∆𝑡
• For liquids and solids, c is independent of process.
• For gases, at constant pressure – cp, at constant volume - cv

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Displacement work (or PdV work)
• Infinitesimal work
• 𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑃𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉
• Work done by the gas to move the
piston from 1-2
2 𝑉2
• 𝑊1−2 = ‫׬‬1 𝛿𝑊 = ‫𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑉׬‬
1
• Note: Integration can be evaluated only
for a process but not for any change of
state

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Work done in various Processes

• Constant Pressure Process (Isobaric) P=

constant
• Constant volume Process (Isochoric) V =
constant
• Process with PV = constant
• Polytropic Process PVn= constant

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 Constant Pressure Process

𝑉2
• 𝑊1−2 = ‫𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑉׬‬ = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
1

• 𝑑 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 (P=const)

• δ𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑(𝑃𝑉)

• δ𝑄 = 𝑑 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑑𝐻

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Constant Pressure Process
(Isobaric) P = const.
• U + PV - a point function and hence property of the system
and is known as Enthalphy (H)
• Enthalphy can be physically understood as amount of heat
energy transferred in constant pressure process
𝑑ℎ
• 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝐻 ⇒ 𝑐𝑝 =
𝑑𝑇 𝑝=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡

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Constant volume process
(Isochoric) V = constant
• There is no change in volume so, dV = 0
and hence 𝛿𝑊 = 0
• In case of a gas, 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑢
• δ𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑑𝑈 ⇒ 𝑐𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑣=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
• We can use the above result as a method
to calculate internal energy - 𝑈 =
𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇

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Process with
𝑉
PV = constant
2

𝑊1−2 = න 𝑝𝑑𝑉, 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝐶
𝑉1
𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑝=
𝑉
𝑉2
𝑑𝑉 𝑉2
𝑊1−2 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 න = 𝑝1 𝑉1 ln
𝑉 𝑉1
𝑉1
𝑝1
𝑝1 𝑉1 ln
𝑝2
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Polytropic Process n
PV = constant
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
p𝑉 = 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 =𝐶
𝑛
𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑝=
𝑉2 𝑉𝑛
𝑊1−2 = න 𝑝d𝑉
𝑉1
𝑉2
𝑛 𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑝1 𝑉1
= න d𝑉 =
𝑉𝑛 𝑛 −1
𝑉1 54
Ideal gas equation and relations for Cp and Cv

• 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅0 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
• 𝑅0 - Universal gas constant = 8.3143kJ/kg-mol-K
𝑅0
• R – Specific gas constant 𝑅 = , where M = molecular
𝑀
weight
• Consider 1st law for constant pressure process,
• δ𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑑𝑈 ⇒ 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑑 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇
• 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑑 𝑚𝑅𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇 ⇒ 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅

55
Ideal gas equation and relations for Cp and Cv
• At constant temperature, 𝐻 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇, 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇 ⇒
𝑐𝑝 𝐻
= =𝛾
𝑐𝑣 𝑈
• γ – Heat capacity ratio and is a point function
𝛾 1
• 𝑐𝑝 = 𝑅, 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑅
𝛾−1 𝛾−1

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Adiabatic Expansion Process
• It is an expansion process where no heat is supplied or
given out
⇒𝑄=0
• Applying first law, 0 − PdV = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑑𝑇
𝑅 1 1
• 𝑐𝑣 = , −PdV = 𝑚 𝑅𝑑𝑇 ⇒ −PdV = 𝑑 𝑃𝑉
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
• 𝑑 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 ⇒ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 + 𝛾𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0
• Dividing by PV and Integrating – 𝑙𝑛𝑃 + 𝛾𝑙𝑛𝑉 = 𝑙𝑛𝐶 ⇒
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
57
Latent Heat
Latent heat is defined as the heat absorbed or released
when a substance changes its physical state (Phase)
completely at constant temperature

Liquid
Solid

58
The same happens when boiling

Heat is needed to
break the bonds
between the solid
/ liquid particles

60
Latent Heat

 The heat of transformation per unit mass is called

the latent heat (L).

Q = mL
➢ Measured in J/kg

62
Specific Latent Heat
The specific latent heat of fusion (melting) of ice at 0 ºC,
for example, is 334000 J/kg. This means that to convert
1 kg of ice at 0 ºC to 1 kg of water at 0 ºC, 334000 J of
heat must be absorbed by the ice.

All at 0°C

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334000 J absorbed
Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization
For water at its normal boiling point of 100 ºC, the latent specific
latent heat of vaporization is 2260000 J/kg. This means that to
convert 1 kg of water at 100 ºC to 1 kg of steam at 100 ºC,
2260000 J of heat must be absorbed by the water.

All at 100°C

2260000 J absorbed 65
Free expansion
• A gas is separated from vacuum in a container by a partition. If the
partition is removed, the expnasion of gas against vacuum is called
free expansion.
• What is the work done in this process?

68
Perpetual Motion machine 1
Q

• A fictituous machine that violates first law

• “There can be no machine which would
continuously supply work without some other form Machine W
of energy dissappearing simultaneously”
• Converse statement – “There can be no machine Q
which would continuously consume work without
some form of energy appearing simultaneously”
Machine W

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Limitations of First Law

• Work can be completely converted to heat but

heat cannot be converted completely to work

• Spontaneous processes in nature occur only in one

direction. Spontaneity comes from a finite driving
potential.

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Limitations of First law – contd…
• Treats work and heat interactions as equivalent
forms of energy

• Does not indicate the possibility of a spontaneous

process proceeding in a certain direction

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Thermal Reservoir (Heat reservoir)
In the development of the second law of thermodynamics, it is very
convenient to have a hypothetical body with a
❑ Large thermal capacity (mass × specific heat).

❑ It can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing

any change in temperature.

Such a body is called a thermal energy reservoir.
A heat reservoir is always characterised by its temperature.
❑ A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a
source.
❑ One that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink.

❑ Conventions used
Heat supplied by the source → QH
Heat absorbed by the sink → QL
 Heat Engines
The work can easily be converted to other forms of energy, but
converting other forms of energy to work is not that easy.

The work can be converted to heat directly and completely, but

converting heat to work requires the use of special devices, known as
heat engines.
Let the gas in the cylinder constitute the system.

A simple heat engine

The substance to which and from which heat is transferred is called
the working substance or working fluid.
Definition of Heat Engine
Heat engine is defined as a device that
operates in a thermodynamic cycle and does
certain amount of net positive work through
heat transfer from high-temperature body to
low-temperature body.
Characterization of Heat Engines
Heat engines differ considerably from one to another, but all can be
characterized by the following:
❑ They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy,
oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
❑ They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a

rotating shaft).
❑ They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink
(the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
❑ They operate on a cycle.
❑ The term heat engine is often used in a broader sense to include
all work producing devices that does not operate in a
thermodynamic cycle.
• Eg., Gas turbines and car engines.
• These devices operate in a mechanical cycle but not in a
thermodynamic cycle since the working fluid does not undergo
a complete cycle.
❑ In this chapter, we restrict ourselves to heat engine which operate
on a thermodynamic cycle.
 Heat Engine- Steam Power Plant
This is an external combustion engine and the thermal energy
released during this process is transferred to the working fluid as
heat.
Thermal Efficiency of Heat Engine
Qin = amount of heat supplied to steam in boiler from a high-
temperature source (furnace).
Qout = amount of heat rejected from steam in condenser to a
low- temperature sink (the atmosphere, a river, etc.).
Wout = amount of work delivered by steam as it expands in turbine.
Win = amount of work required to pump water to boiler pressure.
The net work output = Wnet = Wout - Win
Recall that for a closed system (Control Mass) undergoing a cycle, the
change in internal energy (U) is zero, and therefore the net work
output of the system is equal to the net heat transfer to the system.
 Q =  W
Wout - Win = Qin - Qout
 Wnet = Qin - Qout
Qout represents the magnitude of the energy wasted in order to
complete the cycle. But Qout is never zero; That means, only part of
the heat transferred to the heat engine is converted to work.
Therefore the thermal efficiency of a heat engine is defined as
Net Work Output
Thermal Efficiency =
Total Heat Input
Wnet Qin − Qout Qout
thermal = = = 1−
Qin Qin Qin
The heat engines operate between a
high-temperature reservoir (Source) at
temperature TH and a low-temperature
reservoir (Sink) at temperature TL.
QH = magnitude of heat transfer between
the cyclic device and the high- temperature
reservoir (Source) at temperature TH.
QL = magnitude of heat transfer between
the cyclic device and the low- temperature
reservoir (Sink) at temperature TL.
Thermal Efficiency is a measure of how
efficiently a heat engine converts the heat
that it receives into work.
Wnet QH − QL QL
th = = = 1−
QH QH QH
 Device or System Thermal Efficiency
Large Power Plants 35-50%
Gasoline Engines 30-35%
Diesel Engines 35-40%
Smaller Utility Type Engines 20%
Can we save QL?
In a steam power plant, the condenser is the device where large
quantities of waste heat is rejected to rivers, lakes, or the
atmosphere. Then one may ask, can’t we just take the condenser out
of the plant and save all that waste energy?
The answer to this question is, unfortunately, a firm NO. This can be
justified by the following example.

A heat-engine cycle cannot be completed without rejecting some

heat to a low-temperature sink.
Q Heat is transferred to a heat engine from a furnace at a rate
of 80 MW. If the rate of waste heat rejection to a nearby
river is 50 MW, determine the net power output and the
thermal efficiency for this heat engine.

Discussion: The heat engine converts 37.5 percent of the heat it

receives to work.
Ans.: 30MW, 37.5%
Q A car engine with a power output of 50 kW has a thermal
efficiency of 24 percent. Determine the fuel consumption rate
of this car if the fuel has a heating value of 44,000 kJ/kg (i.e.,
44,000 kJ of energy is released for each kg of fuel burnt).

50 kW

Ans: 0.00473 kg/s

Discussion: The thermal efficiency of the car could be doubled, the

rate of fuel consumption would be reduced by half.
 Refrigerators
❑ Heat transfer from high to low temp reservoir occur without
requiring any device.
❑ The reverse process requires a special devices called Refrigerators.
❑ Refrigerators, like heat engines, are cyclic devices.
❑ The working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.
❑ Most frequently used refrigeration cycle is vapor-compression
cycle.
Objective: To maintain the refrigerated space at a low temperature
by removing heat from it.

Basic components of a refrigeration system

QL is the magnitude of the heat
removed from the refrigerated
space at temperature TL.

QH is the magnitude of the heat

rejected to the warm environment
at temperature TH.

Wnet,in is the net work input to

the refrigerator.
 Coefficient of Performance (COP)
The efficiency of refrigerator is expressed in terms of Coefficient of
Performance (COP). The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat
(QL) from the refrigerated space. To accomplish this objective, it
requires a work out input of Wnet,in.
Desired Output QL
COPR = =
Required Input Wnet ,in
The conservation of energy principle for a cyclic device requires that
Wnet,in = QH - QL.

QL 1
COPR = =
QH − QL QH QL − 1
❑ COPR can be greater than unity. That is, the amount of heat
removed from refrigerated space can be greater than the amount
of work input.
❑ This is a contrast to the thermal efficiency, which can never be
greater than 1.
❑ To avoid the oddity of having efficiencies greater than unity,
another term COP is used.
❑ COP of a refrigerator decreases with decreasing refrigeration
temperature. Therefore, it is not economical to refrigerate more
than needed.
 Heat Pumps
❑ Is a device that transfer heat from a low-temperature medium to a
high-temperature one.
❑ The objective of a heat pump is to maintain a heated space at a
high temperature.
❑ This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a low-temperature
source, such as well water or outside cold air in winter, and
supplying this heat to the high-temperature medium such as a
house.
❑ The measure of performance of a heat pump is also expressed in
terms of the coefficient of performance COPHP.
Desired Output Q
COPHP = = H
Required Input Wnet ,in
QH 1
COPHP = =
QH − QL 1 − QL QH
❑ A comparison of COPR and COPHP
for fixed values of QH and QL
reveals that COPHP = COPR + 1
❑ COPHP is always greater than 1
since COPR is a positive quantity.
❑ Worst condition it works as
resistance heater, supplying as
much energy to the house as it
consumes.
❑ Most of the heat pumps available
in market are having COP of 2 to 3.

Schematic diagram of a heat pump

 Refrigerator Heat pump
1. Maintaining refrigerated 1. Maintaining heated space at
space at low temperature. a high temperature.
2. Discharging heat to high 2. Extracting heat from a low
temp is a necessary part of temp space is a necessary
operation. part of operation.

Device or System COP

Household Refrigerator 2.5
Deep Freeze 1.0
Heat Pump 4
Q The food compartment of a refrigerator is maintained at 4 0C by
removing heat from it at a rate of 360 kJ/min. If the required
power input to the refrigerator is 2 kW, determine (a) the
coefficient of performance of the refrigerator and (b) the rate of
heat rejection to the room that houses the refrigerator.
(a) The coefficient of performance of the refrigerator is

QL 360 kJ/min  1 kW 
COPR = =  =3
Wnet ,in 2 kW  60 kJ/min 

That is, 3 kJ of heat is removed from the refrigerated space for each kJ of
work supplied.
(b) The rate at which heat is rejected to the room is

QH = QL + Wnet ,in
 60 kJ/min 
= 360 kJ/min+ ( 2 kW )   = 480 kJ/min
 1 kW 
Q A heat pump is used to meet the heating requirements of a house
and maintain it at 20 0C. On a day when the outdoor air
temperature drops to –2 0C, the house is estimated to lose heat at
a rate of 80,000 kJ/h. If the heat pump under these conditions
has a COP of 2.5, determine (a) the power consumed by the
heat pump and (b) the rate at which heat is absorbed from the
cold outdoor air.
(a) The power consumed by heat pump is determined from the COP
Q H 80,000 kJ/h
Wnet ,in = = = 32,000 kJ/h
COPHP 2.5
(b) The house is losing heat at a rate of 80,000 kJ/h. If the house is to be maintained at a
constant temperature of 20 0C, the heat pump must deliver heat to the house at
the same rate, i.e., at a rate of 80,000 kJ/h. Then the rate of heat transfer from the
outdoor becomes

Q L = Q H − Wnet ,in = 80,000 − 32,000 = 48,000 kJ/h

Discussion:
Note that 48,000 of the 80,000 kJ/h
heat delivered to the house is actually
extracted from the cold outdoor air.
Therefore, we are paying only for the
32,000 kJ/h energy that is supplied as
electrical work to the heat pump. If an
electric resistance heater were used
instead, we would have to supply the
entire 80,000 kJ/h to the resistance
heater as electric energy.
Second law
• Kelvin Planck’s statement: “It is impossible for a
heat engine to produce net work in a complete
cycle if it exchanges heat only with bodies at a
single fixed temperature”

• Clausius statement - “It is impossible to

construct a device which, operating in a cycle,
will produce no effect other than the transfer of
heat from a cooler to hotter body”

104
Perpetual Motion machine 2
• A heat engine that can
produce net work in a
complete cycle by exchanging
heat only with one reservoir

• Violates Kelvin Planck

statement

105
Perpetual-Motion Machines (PMM)

❑ A perpetual-motion machine of the first kind (PMM1) would create work from nothing or
create mass or energy, thus violating the first law.
❑ A perpetual-motion machine of second kind (PMM2) would extract heat from a source and
then convert this heat completely into other forms of energy, thus violating the second law
of thermodynamics.
❑ A perpetual-motion machine of third kind (PMM3) would have no friction, and thus would
run indefinitely but produce no work.
1. An air-conditioner discards 5.1 kW to the ambient with a power
input of 1.5 kW. Find the rate of cooling and the coefficient of
performance.
Ans: 2.4

2. A house should be heated by a heat pump, β′ = 2.2, and maintained at

20oC at all times. It is estimated that it looses 0.8 kW per degree the
ambient is lower than the inside. Assume an outside temperature of -10oC
and find the needed power to drive the heat pump?

Ans: 10.91kW
107
 Irreversibilities
The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called
irreversibilities. They are
• Friction
• Unrestrained expansion of gases
• Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
• Mixing of two different substances
• I2R losses in electrical circuits
• Any deviation from a quasi-static process
The presence of any of these effects renders a process irreversible. A
reversible process involves none of these.
Entropy (S)
• It is a property of a system. It can be understood as the degree
of disorderliness in the system
• Reversible Process – It is a process where both the system and
surroundings can be brought back to the original states
without leaving a trace of the process.
𝛿𝑄
𝑑𝑆 =
𝑇
𝛿𝑄
• Irreversible process - 𝑑𝑆 >
𝑇

109
Clausius inequality (Second law of TD for a cycle)

For all cycles we can write

Q
T 0

where the equality holds for reversible cycles and the inequality for irreversible cycles. This
relation in known as the inequality of Clausius.
Temperature-Entropy plot
(T-s diagram)
• For a reversible process, 𝑄 =
‫𝑆𝑑𝑇 ׬ = 𝑄𝛿 ׬‬

• Area under T-s diagram gives

us Net heat input to the
system

111
Carnot Cycle

112
Carnot cycle

• 4-1 – Heat Addition – Isothermal

• 1-2 – Expansion – Adiabatic
• 2-3 – Heat Rejection – Isothermal
• 3-4 – Compression - Adiabatic

113
Carnot Cycle and
Reversed Carnot Cycle

114
 The Carnot Heat engine
❑ Hypothetical heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot
cycle is called Carnot heat engine.
❑ Thermal efficiency of any heat engine, reversible or irreversible, is
given by QL
th = 1 −
QH
❑ For reversible heat engines, the heat
transfer ratio in the above relation can be
replaced by the ratio of the absolute
temperatures of the two reservoirs.
❑ Then the efficiency of a Carnot engine,
or any reversible heat engine, becomes
QL TL
th , rev = 1− = 1−
QH TH
 ❑ This is the highest efficiency a heat engine operating between
the two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures TL and TH
can have.
❑ The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible heat engines
operating between the same temperature limits compare as
follows

 th ,rev irreversible heat engine


th =th ,rev reversible heat engine
>
 th ,rev impossible heat engine
 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
❑ A refrigerator or a heat pump that operates on the reversed
Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator, or a Carnot heat
pump.
❑ The coefficient of performance of any refrigerator or heat
pump, reversible or irreversible, is given by
1 1
COPR = and COPHP =
QH QL − 1 1 − QL QH
❑ The COPs of all reversible refrigerators or heat pumps can be
determined by replacing the heat transfer ratios by the ratios of
the absolute temperatures of the high- and low-temperature
reservoirs.
 ❑ Then the COP relations for reversible refrigerators and heat
pumps become,
1 1
COPR , rev = and COPHP , rev =
TH TL − 1 1 − TL TH
❑ These are the highest coefficients of performance that a
refrigerator or a heat pump operating between the temperature
limits of TL and TH can have.
❑ The coefficients of performance of actual and reversible
refrigerators operating between the same temperature limits can
be compared as follows:
 COPR ,rev irreversible refrigerator

COPR =COPR ,rev reversible refrigerator
>COP
 R , rev impossible refrigerator
Q A cyclic machine, as shown below, receives 325 kJ from a 1000 K
energy reservoir. It rejects 125 kJ to a 400 K energy reservoir and
the cycle produces 200 kJ of work as output. Is this cycle
reversible, irreversible, or impossible?
TL
Carnot =1−
TH
400
=1− = 0.6
1000
W
 Real =
QH
300
= = 0.615  Carnot
325
This is impossible
 First Law Analysis for a Control Volume

Mass balance

dmCV
= m i− m e
dt i e

The FLOT for a Control Volume

We have already considered the first law of thermodynamics for a control mass as:
E2 − E1 = 1Q2 − 1W2
This may be written as an instantaneous rate equation as
dECM
= Q − W
dt
To write the first law for a control volume, we proceed in a manner analogous to that used for
control mass.
In this energy equation, the rate of work term includes shaft work, boundary work and any
other type of work.
However, the flow work term is listed separately.
Therefore the final form of FLOT for a control volume becomes
dECV    V 2
  V 2

 i  hi +
= QCV − WCV + m i
+ gzi  − m
 e  he + e
+ gze 
dt  2   2 
As the KE and PE terms per unit mass appear together with enthalpy in all flow terms, a shorter
notation is often used.
V2 V2
htot = h + + gz hstag = h +
2 2
defines the total and stagnation enthalpies.
The shorter equation becomes
dECV  
=Q CV − WCV + mi htot , i − me htot , e
 
dt
giving the general energy equation on a rate form.
 The Steady-State Process
Certain set of assumptions makes the general model into a specific
type of process like this.
1. The control volume does not move relative to the coordinate
frame, means that all velocities measured relative to the
coordinate frame are also velocities relative to the control surface,
and there is no wok associated with the acceleration of the
control volume.
2. The state of the mass at each point in the control volume does not
vary with the time require that dmCV/dt = 0 and dECV/dt = 0
Therefore, for the steady-state process we can write
Continuity Equation: m i = m e
FLOT for CV:  V 2
  V 2


QCV + m  i  hi + i
+ gzi  = m  e  he + e
+ gze  + WCV
 2   2 
3. The assumptions that the various mass flows, states, and rates at
which heat and work cross the control surface remain constant
requires that every quantity in the energy equation be steady with
time.
This means that application of steady-state energy equation (SSEE) to
the operation of some device is independent of time.
Many of the applications of the steady state model are such that
there is only one flow stream entering and leaving the control
volume.
For such applications the equations become:
Vi2 Ve2
i = m
m e = m ; q + hi + + gzi = he + + gze + w
2 2
Q CV WCV
Where q = and w =
m m
Units for q and w are kJ/kg
 Examples of Steady Flow Devices
Heat Exchangers:
Heat exchangers are normally well-insulated devices that allow
energy exchange between hot and cold fluids without mixing the
fluids. The pumps, fans, and blowers causing the fluids to flow across
the control surface are normally located outside the control surface.
To simplify the FLOT equation here we neglect the changes in KE and
PE and the work term.
Therefore the FLOT becomes: QCV +

 m i hi =  m e he
The heat transfer rate associated with the heat exchanger depends
on how the control volume is selected.
Heat exchangers are intended for heat transfer between two fluids
within the device, and the outer shell is usually well insulated to
prevent any heat loss to the surrounding medium.
Nozzle and Diffuser:
Nozzles and diffusers are commonly used in jet engines, rockets,
spacecrafts, and even garden hoses.
• A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the
expense of pressure.
• A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by
decelerating it.
• That is, nozzles and diffusers perform opposite tasks.
• The cross-sectional area of nozzle decreases in the flow direction
for subsonic flows and increases for supersonic flows.
• The reverse is true for diffusers.
For flow through nozzles, the heat transfer, work, and changes in
potential energy are normally neglected, and nozzles have one
entrance and one exit.
The conservation of energy becomes
V12 V22
h1 + = h2 +
2 2
Q Nitrogen gas flows into a convergent nozzle at 200 kPa, 400 K and
very low velocity. It flows out of the nozzle at 100 kPa, 330 K. If
the nozzle is insulated find the exit velocity.
Ans: 381.94 m/s
Throttling Devices:
• Throttling devices are any kind of flow-restricting devices that
cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid.
• The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large
drop in temperature.
• Flow through them may be assumed to be adiabatic, since there is neither sufficient time
nor large enough area for any effective heat transfer to take place (q ≈ 0).
• Also there is no work done (w = 0).
• Even though the exit velocity is often considerably higher than the inlet velocity, in many
cases, the increase in kinetic energy is insignificant (ΔKE ≈ 0). And the change in potential
energy, if any, is very small (ΔPE ≈ 0).
• SSEE for Throttling Device is hi = he
• For this reason, the throttle device is often called as isenthalpic device.
• To gain some insight into how throttling affect fluid properties, let us
express the SSEE hi = he as
u1 + P1v1 = u2 + P2v2 or IE1 + FE1 = IE2 + FE2
• The final outcome of a throttling process depends on which of the two
quantities increases during the process. If the flow energy increases during
the process (P2v2 > P1v1), it can do so at the expense of the internal energy.
As a result, internal energy decreases, which is usually accompanied
by a drop in temperature.
Turbine:
• It is a rotary steady-state machine whose purpose is to produce
shaft work at the expense of the pressure of the working fluid.
• Used in almost all power plants, some propulsion systems (e.g.,
turbofan and turbojet engines).
• Working Fluid: Liquids (e.g., hydro power plants), Vapors (e.g.,
steam power plants), Gases (e.g., gas power plants).
• Inside the turbine, there are two distinct processes.
• In the first, the working fluid passes through a set of nozzles, or
the equivalent-fixed blade passages contoured to expand the fluid
to a lower pressure and to a high velocity.
• In the second process inside the turbine, this high-velocity fluid
stream is directed onto a set of moving blades (rotating) blades.
• This directed velocity decrease produces a torque on the rotating
shaft, resulting in a shaft work output. The low-velocity, low-
pressure fluid then exhaust from the turbine.
W  V12 − V22 
• SSEE for turbine is = (h1 − h2 ) +   + g (z1 − z2 )
m  2 
• If we neglect the changes in KE and PE as fluid flows through an
adiabatic turbine having one entrance and one exit, the SSEE
becomes
WCV = m (hi − he )
Temperature – Volume diagram for water showing liquid and vapor phases

144
145
Rankine Cycle
• 4-1 – Heat Addition – Pressure = const.
• 1-2 – Expansion – Adiabatic
• 2-3 – Heat Rejection – Pressure = const.
• 3-4 – Compression - Adiabatic

146