Chapter 2 : Topics

• System definition
• Properties
• Thermal Equilibrium
• State and Process
• Heat and Work modes
 Thermodynamic System
• System is a region of space
with a FIXED amount of
MASS.
• The system’s boundary
separates the system from
the surroundings.

• The boundary can be deformable or not,

stationary or not;
• The boundary can exchange: work, heat, BUT
NOT MASS
 Example of a System

• Mass indicated by gray is system to study.

• Boundary can move (piston could go in and out)

• No mass crosses boundary (dashed line).

 Example of a System
Energy (Heat or Work), not mass, crosses system
boundaries
 Fluid Flowing
• Very often there are applications where fluid
is flowing in and out of a region (not a
system).
• Tracking the system boundaries is not a easy
task, since the fluid is a continuously
deformable matter…

Pipe t = t0 t = t0+dt

Vo

Boundary of the system

Fluid Flowing: Emptying a Tank
t = t0+dt
• Emptying/filling a
tank is a classical
example of a region
of space
t = t0
loosing/gaining
mass.

• How the system

boundary behaves?
 Control Volume: Chapter 5
• Control Volume: Mass and
energy can cross the boundary.

• System concept necessary to

physical Laws. Control Volume
concept necessary to
experiments.

• Reynolds Transport Theorem relates the two concepts.

• Control surface can be stationary or not, deformable or
not.
• We are just interested in the region bounded by the
dashed lines.
 Isolated System
A closed system is a system or a group of
them where no heat or work may cross the
boundaries.
Isolated System Boundary

Heat = 0 Work
Work = 0 Surr 4
Mass = 0
Mass
Across System
Isolated Surr 3
Boundary Surr 1 Mass
Heat
Surr 2
 TEAM PLAY
You take a bottle of Coke
and put it in the refrigerator
that is at 3°C. Should the
bottle of Coke be treated as a
system or a control volume?
 Property
A property is a characteristic of a
system to which numerical values can
be assigned to describe the system.
• Mass
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Density
 Extensive Property
• Extensive properties are properties
which can be counted and their value
for the whole system is the sum of the
value for subdivisions of the system.
• They depend on the extent of the
system.

• Examples: Volume V, Mass M

 Intensive Property
• Intensive properties are
independent of the size (mass or
volume) of the system.
• Examples: Density, Temperature,
Pressure
 Property
m
m/2 m/2 Extensive
V
V/2 V/2 properties
T
T T
P Intensive
P P
ρ ρ ρ properties

Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties

m 
3

volume V  
Specific volume v= =  kg 
mass m  
mass m  kg 
density ρ= =  3
m 
volume V  
 TEAM PLAY
• Decide if the following properties
are extensive or intensive:
• Volume, mass, weight,
temperature, density, specific
volume, pressure, energy,
momentum, color.
 TEAM PLAY
• Decide if the following properties
are extensive or intensive:
• Volume, mass, weight,
temperature, density, specific
volume, pressure, energy,
momentum, color.
We Need to Work With Temperatures
ºC ºF K R
Boiling point 100 212 373.15 671.67

Triple point @ 0.006 atm, T = 0.01 ºC

Ice point 0.00 32.00 273.15 491.67

Absolute Zero -273.15 -459.67 0 0

 Temperature
relationships

• T (R) = T (ºF) + 459.67 [use 460]

• T (K) = T (ºC) + 273.15 [use 273]

 Pressure
• The normal force exerted on a
(small) area.
• Continuum (macroscopic
approach)
Atmospheric, Absolute, Gage,
and Vacuum Pressures
 Gage Pressure

P gage = P abs − P atm ( P > P atm)

Pvac = P atm − P abs ( P < P atm)

In the SI system we use
• SI Pressure unit is Pascal
• 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
• 1 kPa = 1,000 N/m2
• 1 bar = 100,000 N/m2
• 1 MPa = 1,000,000 N/m 2
 In the Bristh system
• lbf/in2 or psi, usually with an “a”
suffix or a “g” suffix, for absolute
or gage.
50 100

• psia: Absolute pressure 150

0
• psig: gage pressure psig
 Atmospheric pressure is

• 1 atm = 14.696 psia = 101,325 kPa

• = 1.01 bar = 760 mmHg

• 0 psig = 14.696 psia

• Absolute pressure (Pabs) =
gage pressure (psig) + atmospheric
pressure (Patm)
 Equilibrium
• A system is in equilibrium if its properties
are not changing at any given location in the
system.

• This is also known as “thermodynamic

equilibrium” or “total equilibrium.”

• Equilibrium implies balance: no unbalanced

potentials (driving forces) in the system.

• We will distinguish four different types of

equilibrium
Types of thermodynamic equilibrium:
• Thermal equilibrium -- the temperature
does not change with time

• Mechanical equilibrium -- Pressure does

not change with time

• Chemical equilibrium -- molecular structure

does not change with time

• Phase equilibrium – mass of each phase is

unchanging with time (i.e., same liquid/gas
or liquid/solid composition)
 State

• The state of a system is defined

by the values of its properties.
 State and Equilibrium
•Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium
states;

* A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if

it maintains thermal, mechanical, phase, and
chemical equilibrium
 Thermal Equilibrium
• Occurs when two bodies are at the
same temperature T and no heat
transfer can occur.
 ZeroLaw of
th

Thermodynamics
• Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
if both have the same temperature
reading even if they are not in
contact.
Thermometer

A
B C
 State Principle or
State Postulate
• Text says, “The state of a simple
compressible system is completely given
by two independent, intensive properties.”

• Properties are independent if one can be

constant while the other varies.

• This only applies at equilibrium.

 Simple system
• A simple system is defined as one for
which only one quasiequilibrium work
mode applies.

• Simple compressible systems

• Simple elastic systems
• Simple magnetic systems
• Simple electrostatic systems, etc.
 State Postulate
• The thermodynamic state of a simple
compressible system is completely
specified by two independent intensive
properties.

P = P( ρ , T )
T = T ( P, v )
 Process/Path
• Change in state of a system from one equilibrium
state to another.
• Series of states through which a system passes.

P 1

Process Property held constant

2
isobaric pressure
isothermal temperature
isochoric volume
V isentropic entropy (see Chapter 6)
Example: Constant Pressure
Process

System
Boundary

Vapour
 Heat and Work
• If the ENERGY transfer
across the boundaries of a
system is due to a
temperature difference, it is
heat; otherwise, it is work.
 HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is a form of energy transfer that occurs
solely as a result of a temperature difference
Heat can be transferred to and from the system or
transformed into another form of energy.

Q = f ( ∆T )
TB
Tb Tair TA
 Remember
SIGN CONVENTION
Heat In = Positive Heat Out = Negative

system

• Q > 0: heat transfer to the system

• Q < 0: heat transfer from the system
• Q = 0: adiabatic
Adiabatic Process
• No net heat transfer
 Properties at end points are
independent of the process

P 1 Exact Differential
Path 2
are path
Path 1 independent!

2
P2

∫ dP = P − P
Path 3
2 1
P1
V
P is a “point function”
 Heat transfer is not a property of a system,
just as work is not a property.

2
Q= ∫ δQ
1
≠ Q2 − Q1

We can not identify Q2 (Q at state 2) or Q1.

Q and W are path functions, not “point
functions.”
 Units of HEAT
• Btu or kJ (1 Btu = 1.055056 kJ)

• Rate of heat transfer, δQ/dt, has

units of Btu/h, ft-lbf/h, J/s or
Watts

• 1 kJ = 1 kN•m = 1 kPa•m3
 WORK
• Energy can cross the boundary of a closed
system in the form of heat or work.

• If the energy crossing the boundary is not

heat, it must be work.

• Energy interaction that is not caused by a

temperature difference.

• Rising piston, rotating shaft, electric wire,

gravity, acceleration, spring force, …….
 WORK
Work -- is done by a system
(on its surroundings) if the sole
effect on everything external to
the system could have been the
raising of a weight.
 System
boundary
Motor
 Sign Convention
Work In = Negative Work Out = Positive

system

• W < 0 is work done on the system

• W > 0 is work done by the system
 You’ve Seen Work Before
in Mechanics
It’s defined in terms of
force and displacement

W = ∫ F⋅d s
Note that F and ds are vectors….
What is work again?

Work -- an interaction between

a system and its surroundings
whose equivalent action can
be the raising of a weight.
 Work is not a property of a
system, just as heat is not a
property

We also use an inexact

differential, δ, with work.
2

W= δW
1
 Heat and Work
• Both heat and work are boundary
phenomena - recognized at the
boundaries of a system as they cross
them.
• System possess energy, but not heat or
work.
• Both heat and work are path functions.
Their magnitude depend on the path
followed during the process as well as
the end states.
 Units of WORK
• Btu or kJ, the same as Heat
• Rate of doing work, δW/dt,
has units of Btu/h, ft-lbf/h, J/s
or Watts
• Rate of doing work is called
POWER
 Compressible Work Mode:
The Moving Boundary Work
• The force on
the piston is

F = P × A piston

W = ∫ Fds = ∫ P × A piston ds

2
W = ∫ PdV
1
What did an Integral represent in Calculus?

P Process
2
Wb = ∫ 1
P dV
AREA

1 2 v
So, if we know P = P(V), then work due to
compression can be interpreted as the
area under a curve in pressure-volume
coordinates.
Q & W: Path Functions
• Both the heat and work are associated
with a process, not a state!
 Net Work per Cycle

2
Wb = ∫ 1
P dV

• For path functions ∫ δW = ∫ PdV ≠ 0

• This enables cyclic devices (car engines,

power plants,……) to produce net work.
 TEAMPLAY
For a piston-cylinder system, two paths are shown
from point 1 to 2. Compute the work in kJ done in
going by path A (WA) and by path B (WB).

P, kPa
1
300
A

150 b 2
B
0 0.05 0.15 V, m3
 QUESTION …..
Consider the piston-cylinder problem you just
did. How could you accomplish this process by
heating and cooling the system at process B?
P, kPa
1
300
A

150 b 2
B
0 0.05 0.15 V, m3
 Isometric Process
• Isometric process -- dV = 0
• Heating or cooling at constant volume.

Wb =
∫ 1
PdV = 0

• The pressure change (increase or

reduction) is achieved by heat transfer.
Types of Work Other Than
Compression/Expantion
 Shaft Work
T 
W sh = Fs =  (2πr )n = 2πnT
r
δ W
W sh = sh
= ( 2πn ) T = Tω
dt
• T : torque
• n : number of revolutions
• ω : angular velocity
 Gravitational and
Kinetic work
• Gravitational work (=∆PE):
• (kJ)
W g = mg ( z 2 − z1 )
• Kinetic work (=∆KE):
• (kJ)
1
(
Wa = m V2 − V1
2
2 2
)
 Spring Work
• Spring force : F = k x

• Spring work : δWspring = F dx

W spring = k ( x − x )
1
2
2
2
2
1
Expansion of a Gas
Against a Spring

x /A
= k
F/A
P =
Expansion/Contraction Work
of an Elastic Solid Bar

2 2
Welastic = ∫ σ n dV = ∫ σ n Adx
1 1

x normal stress σn = F/A

F
Stretching a Liquid Film

2
W surface = ∫ σ s dA
1
Non-mechanical
Forms of Work
• Electrical Work
δW
= − VI
dt
• Magnetic Work
• Electrical Polarization
work
 Summary:
Heat and Work
• They are only recognized at the boundary
of a system, as they cross the boundary.
• They are associated with a process, not a
state. Unlike P and T which have definite
values at any state, q and w do not.
• They are both path-dependent functions.
• A system in does not possess heat or
work.