Bba 3 A

Fundamentals of IT 2.
1 UNIT-I
Unit - II
Microsoft Office and Word Processing
2.0 Objectives:
This lesson provides an introduction to the Microsoft Office. It covers Microsoft Office Products,
introduction to Word-Processing and features of Word-Processing.
Structure of the Lesson:

2.1 Introduction to Microsoft Office
2.2 Word-processing
2.3. Features of word-processing
2.4. Summary
2.5. Technical Terms
2.6. Model Questions
2.7. References
2.1. Introduction to MS-OFFICE:

Microsoft Office for windows is a suite of applications that are also available as independent
programs. Microsoft Office is a major facility in computer applications field. Microsoft Office
comes in two ways. One is called Standard and other one is called Professional. Both the
versions have the following primary applications.
1. Microsoft Word
2. Microsoft Excel
3. Microsoft PowerPoint
4. Microsoft Access
5. Microsoft Mail
6. Microsoft Graph
7. Microsoft Clip Art Gallery
8. Microsoft Word Art
9. Microsoft Organization Chart
10. Microsoft Equation Editor
11. Microsoft Publisher

Acharya Nagarjuna University 2.2 Centre for Distance Education
1. Microsoft Word
This is a full-featured word processor that can create letters, menus, reports,
newsletters, manuals and any kind of documents. You can use it for daily correspondence and
desktop publishing also. It is having more menus, keyboard shortcuts and toolbars. Toolbars
containing buttons that you can click to perform, common tasks like centering text, saving and
printing documents. After developing our own working style we can make custom toolbars.
Word provides macro capability to do repetitive tasks. It provides some model reports called
templates, rather than typing all the matters it gives skeleton reports. Wizards are more
powerful than templates. Word having spell checker that checks the document and more
features like Auto formatting, Printing envelops and labels, Mail Merge.
2. Microsoft Excel
This is a spreadsheet program that allows you to organize, analyze information. It is
designed to work with numbers. You can enter data in cells arranged horizontal rows and
vertical columns on work sheets. Excel organizes the worksheets with workbook. Every
workbook having 3 (default) worksheets and you can add up to 255 worksheets and you can
remove 1 or 2 worksheets from the three. Worksheets contains 65,536 rows and 256 columns
(numbered A to IV)..The address of the cell is combination of row and column labels. Excel
provides tool bars, menu choices and functions. Other than these features excel provides
Screen wizard, autocalc, auto complete, templates, templates wizard etc
3. Microsoft PowerPoint
It is a presentation tool. We can create slides, handouts and speaker notes. The slides can be
arranged sequentially in presentations.
4. Microsoft Access
This is a powerful database program but you can store, retrieve, and organize data. Access
comes with wizards and variety of predefined database elements.
2. Microsoft Mail
Microsoft Mail is a product that comes with a license to use mail on the workstation where office
is installed. If your workgroup is using Microsoft Mail, this license allows to copy the necessary
software to your machine.
6. Microsoft Graph
Microsoft Graph is used to convert the tabular as well as text data into the graphs and charts. A
number of graphs and chart options are provided by this component of Office.
7. Microsoft Clip Art Gallery

Clip Art Gallery is a collection of ready-made graphics that the user can import into any of the
primary applications to make them more effective.
2. Microsoft Word Art

Word Art enables a user to convert the text into various shapes for logos, banners, and
headlines.
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Fundamentals of IT 2.3 UNIT-I
2. Microsoft Organization Chart

Microsoft Organization Chart provides the tools for creating figures such as organization charts
by selecting the different styles and organizations for charts.
10. Microsoft Equation Editor

Microsoft Equation Editor enables a user to format complex equations correctly.
Microsoft Publisher
It helps to organize the material of textbooks in the form of chapters and volumes.
2.2. Word Processing:

Using a computer to create, edit, and print documents is called word processing. Of all
computer applications, word processing is the most common. To perform word processing, you
need a computer, a special program called a word processor and a printer. A word processor
enables you to create a document, store it electronically on a disk, display it on a screen, modify
it by entering commands and characters from the keyboard and print it on a printer.
The great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make
changes without retyping the entire document. If you make a typing mistake, you simply back up
the cursor and correct your mistake. If you want to delete a paragraph, you simply remove it,
without leaving a trace. It is equally easy to insert a word, sentence, or paragraph in the middle
of a document. Word processors also make it easy to move sections of text from one place to
another within a document, or between documents. When you have made all the changes you
want, you can send the file to a printer to get a hardcopy.
2.3. Features of word processing:

Insert text: Allows you to insert text anywhere in the document.
Delete text: Allows you to erase characters, words, lines, or pages as easily as you can erase
them on a black board.
Cut and paste: Allows you to remove (cut) a section of text from one place in a document and
insert (paste) it somewhere else.
Copy: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.
Page size and margins: Allows you to define various page sizes and margins, and the word
processor will automatically readjust the text so that it fits.
Search and replace: Allows you to direct the word processor to search for a particular word or
phrase. You can also direct the word processor to replace one group of characters with another
everywhere that the first group appears.
Word wrap: The word processor automatically moves to the next line when you have filled one
line with text, and it will readjust text if you change the margins.
Print: Allows you to send a document to a printer to get hardcopy.

File management: Many word processors contain file management capabilities that allow you
to create, delete, move, and search for files.
Font specifications: Allows you to change fonts within a document. For example, you can
specify bold, italics, and underlining. Most word processors also let you change the font size
and even the typeface.
Footnotes and cross-references: Automates the numbering and placement of footnotes and
enables you to easily cross-reference other sections of the document.
Graphics: Allows you to embed illustrations and graphs into a document. Some word
processors let you create the illustrations within the word processor; others let you insert an
illustration produced by a different program.
Headers, footers, and page numbering: Allows you to specify customized headers and
footers that the word processor will put at the top and bottom of every page. The word
processor automatically keeps track of page numbers so that the correct number appears on
each page.
Layout: Allows you to specify different margins within a single document and to specify various
methods for indenting paragraphs.
Macros: A macro is a character or word that represents a series of keystrokes. The keystrokes
can represent text or commands. The ability to define macros allows you to save yourself a lot
of time by replacing common combinations of keystrokes.
Merges: Allows you to merge text from one file into another file. This is particularly useful for
generating many files that have the same format but different data. Generating mailing labels is
the classic example of using merges.
Spell checker: A utility that allows you to check the spelling of words. It will highlight words that
it does not recognize.
Table of contents and index: Allows you to automatically create a table of contents and index
based on special codes that you insert in the document.
Thesaurus: A built-in thesaurus that allows you to search for synonyms without leaving the
word processor.
Windows: Allows you to edit two or more documents at the same time. Each document
appears in a separate window. This is particularly valuable when working on a large project that
consists of several different files.
WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get): With WYSIWYG, a document appears on the
display screen exactly as it will look when printed.
2.4.Summary:
At the end of this lesson you have learnt the importance of Microsoft Office products and
important features of Word Processing. In all the MS-Office products, the familiar products are
MS Word, MS Excel, MS PowerPoint and MS Access. Word processor enables you to create a
document, store it electronically on a disk, display it on a screen, modify it by entering
commands and characters from the keyboard and print it on a printer.
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2.5. Technical Terms:

Cut and paste: Allows you to remove (cut) a section of text from one place in a document and
insert (paste) it somewhere else.
Copy: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.
WYSIWYG: What You See Is What You Get.
Spell checker: A utility that allows you to check the spelling of words.
Word wrap: The word processor automatically moves to the next line when you have filled one
line with text, and it will readjust text if you change the margins.
2.6. Self Assessment Questions:

1. Explain in detail about Ms-Office
2. Define Word-Processing? Explain the features of Word Processing?
2.7. References:
RON MANSFIELD, ‘Working with MS OFFICE’, Tata Mc Graw Hill – 2000 Edition
GUY HART DAVIS, ‘ The ABC’S Of Microsoft Office. ‘ BPB Publications, New Delhi
MS OFFICE 2000 Complete, BPB Publications, New Delhi
Y. SURESH BABU, M.Com., M.C.A.,

Lecturer, Dept.Of Computer Science,
JKC College, GUNTUR.
UNIT- II
Microsoft Word
2.1.2 Objectives:
This lesson provides an introduction to the fundamentals of Microsoft Word. It covers starting
Word, the Word interface, creating a Word document, editing a Word document, selection
techniques, text formatting, page setup and print documents.

2.1 Starting word and components of word window
2.2 Creating and saving a document
2.3 Adding & modifying text
2.4 Selecting Text
2.5 Cut, Copy and Paste Text
2.6 Paste Special
2.7 Find and Replace
2.8 Redo and Undo
2.9 Formatting Text & Paragraphs
2.10 Header and Footer
2.11 Bullets and Numbering
2.12. Zooming
2.13. Page Break
2.14. Auto Correct and Auto Text
2.15. Page Setup
2.16. Print Preview and Printing
2.17. Summary
2.12. Technical Terms
2.20. References
2.1. Getting Started with Microsoft Word:

Starting Word
On the PC, select Start followed by Programs, and Microsoft Word from the Start list.
Components of the Word Window
Besides the usual PC window components (close box, title bar, scroll bars, etc.), a Word
window has other elements, as shown in the following figure.
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Figure 6.1
Component Functionality or Purpose of the Component
Menu Bar Contains File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Table, Window
and Help menus.
Standard Toolbar Contains icons for shortcuts to menu commands.
Formatting Tool Bar Contains pop-up menus for style, font, and font size; icons for
boldface, italic, and underline; alignment icons; number and
bullet list icons; indention icons, the border icon, highlight, and
font color icons.
Ruler Ruler on which you can set tabs, paragraph alignment, and
other formats.
Insertion Point Blinking vertical bar that indicates where text you type will be
inserted. Don't confuse the insertion point with the mouse I-
beam. To move the insertion point, just click the mouse where
you want the point moved.
End-of-File Marker Non-printing symbol that marks the end of the file. You cannot
insert text after this mark.
Selection Bar (Gutter) Invisible narrow strip along the left edge of the window. Your
mouse pointer changes to a right-pointing arrow when it is in
this area. It is used to select a line, a paragraph, or the entire
document.
Split Handle Double-click to split the window in two (to view different portions
of the same file). Double-click to return to one window
Status Bar Displays page number, section number, and total number of
pages, pointer position on page and time of day.
Task Pane Displays and groups commonly used features for convenience.
Office Assistant An animated character that can provide help and suggestions.
There are multiple characters to choose from, and it is possible
to turn the Office Assistant off.
2.2. Creating and Saving a Document:

Opening and Closing A Document
To open a file, select Open... from the File menu. In the dialog box, click on the filename and
then on the Open button. If your file is not in the opened folder, click on the down arrow (next to
folder name) to see a directory listing. The Up One Level button icon on the right enables you to
move up one level. You can then switch to the floppy disk, hard drive or Desktop where the
appropriate file or folder is located.
Figure 6.2
For example, to open a file from a floppy disk, select Open... from the File menu. If the disk's
name does not appear on the left side of the dialog box, click on the down arrow. Select its
name in the box at the left or if it is not displayed, click the Up One Level button to see a
different display of files and folders. When you locate the desired diskette or file, click Open.
(Double-clicking on the name will also open it).
To close a document, click its close box in the upper right of the title bar (box with the large X on
it) or select Close from the File menu. The keyboard shortcut is <Ctrl + W>.
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Saving a Document
Saving means preserve the content in a Secondary Storage device. It is a good idea to save
your document right away and they continue saving every 5 or 10 minutes so if your computer
crashes you will not be losing much. Your document and changes you make to a document are
not saved to disk until you issue a save command. Saving is quick and easy. You should save
often to minimize the loss of your work. Word has two save commands - Save and Save As. -
that work similarly. Both are under the File menu.
Save Save As
When you save a new document for the first This command always displays a dialog box
time, Word displays a dialog box. Select where you can choose a document name and
where you want to save your document and disk. Use the Save As command whenever you
give it a name. When you save an existing want to save a copy of the current document
document that you have been editing, the under a different name or in a different folder
newly saved version is written over the older (or disk). The newly saved copy becomes the
version. active document.
2.3. Adding and Modifying Text

Entering Text
To enter text, just start typing. Word inserts the text you type at the insertion point. If you press
a wrong key, use the Delete key to erase the mistake. Word automatically starts a new line
when you reach the end of the current line. This is called "word wrap". Do not press Enter at the
end of a line. Press Enter only at the end of paragraphs.
For typing a paragraph follow the procedure given below:
Remember, don't press Enter at the end of the line.
To move the insertion point with the mouse, click the mouse in the desired location. If the
location you want is not visible, use the scroll bars to move up or down in the document. To
move the insertion point to the top of the document, press <Ctrl + Home>. To move to the end
of the document, press < Ctrl + End >.
To insert new text, just click the mouse at the point where you want to insert the additional text
and start typing. Existing text moves to accommodate your additions.
Type <Ctrl + Home> to move to the very beginning of your document.
Deleting Text
The Backspace key deletes one character to the left of the insertion point. The Delete key
deletes one character to the right of the insertion point. You can use these keys any time. To
delete more than just a few characters, select the text and press the Delete key.
Undoing Mistakes
If you have accidentally deleted an important paragraph, use the Undo command under the
Edit menu immediately (The keyboard shortcut is < Ctrl + Z >). The deleted portion of the text
is brought back. This command can bring back the deleted contents only if you have not
pressed any other key in between.
2.4. Selecting Text:

You select a portion of text in order to perform some operation on it. You can then delete,
replace, copy, move, or format it. The Selection Bar is located to the left of the document
window. When you put your mouse pointer, which is a left pointing arrow in that area, the arrow
swings to the right. The following table gives the process of selection of text contents.
To Select... Do this...
Word Double click anywhere on the word.
Line Click right-pointing arrow in the selection bar to left of line.
Sentence <Ctrl + click> anywhere in sentence.
Double-click the right-pointing arrow in the selection bar to the left

Paragraph
of the paragraph, or triple-click in paragraph.
Click at one end of the block and shift-click at the other end of the
A block of text of any size block. Or click at one end of block and drag to the other end of the
block.
Press < Ctrl + A> or hold down the Ctrl key and click in the
Entire document
selection bar.
Deselect text Click anywhere outside the selection.
Shift-click an additional block. For example, if you have selected a

Extend a selection paragraph and you shift-click on another paragraph, it will be added
to the selection.
2.5. Cut, Copy and Paste Text:

You can copy selected text from one place to another with the Copy and Paste commands.
Cut - The Cut command extracts the selected text and puts it on the Clipboard (a temporary
storage area). The contents of the Clipboard are overwritten with each copy or cut. This can be
done either by selecting Edit from the menu bar and opting the cut option in it. Alternative usage
of the short cut key is CTRL +X.
Copy - The Copy command puts a copy of the selected text on the Clipboard. By selecting the
Edit from the menu bar and opting the Copy option in it. Alternative is usage of the short cut key
is CTRL + C.
Paste - The Paste command inserts the Clipboard's contents at the insertion point. The text that
has been selected using Cut/ Copy command will be pasted at the insertion point. Existing text
moves to accommodate pasted text. By selecting the Edit from the menu bar and opting the
Paste option in it. Alternative usage of the short cut key is CTRL + V.
2.6. Paste Special:

Paste Special is a way to paste information from one application/document to another. The
Paste Special dialog box allows you to paste information in different ways. Choose Paste
Special from the Edit Menu.
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Fundamentals of IT 2.11
UNIT-I
You can paste in the information in several ways:
Formatted Text, Unformatted Text, Picture Object.
When we paste Formatted Text, it will paste all formatting (such as Bold, etc.) along with the
text. When we use Paste Special option the formatted text can be pasted as unformatted text
or an object.
2.7. Find and Replace:

Word allows us or helps us to search for a word in a document
Find: Find is used for searching a word in your document.

1.On the Edit menu, click Find.
2.In the Find what box, enter the text that you want to search for.
Replace: Replace is used to replace the searched word by another text.

Click On the Edit menu, click Replace.
In the Find what box, enter the text that you want to search for.
In the Replace with box, enter the replacement text.
The other options you have are Replace, Replace All, Find Next and Cancel.
Replace button replaces a word selected, at the first occurrence of the word in your document
after the insertion point.
Replace All button replaces all the searched words in your document.
Find Next button searches for the next occurrence of the word being searched.
Cancel button cancels the search process.
2.2. Undo and Redo:

Undo
When working in Microsoft Word you will often commit mistakes. Instead of manually trying to
undo these actions you are able to rectify the mistake just by clicking the Undo button on the
Standard toolbar.
To practice the Undo Feature:
1) Press CTRL +End to move to the end of the document
2) Highlight the last paragraph in the document
3) Press the Delete key on the keyboard
To Undo the Previous Action:
Click the Undo button on the Standard Toolbar
Redo
You may accidentally click Undo too many times and thus, need to redo it. This command
works exactly in the reverse of Undo command.
To Redo the Previous Action:
Click the Redo button on the Standard Toolbar
Save and close the file.
2.2. Formatting Text and Paragraph

Microsoft Word allows you to format a document very easily. Without formatting, a document
looks very plain and may not get the attention that is desired.
Figure 2.9a
Making Font Changes

In Microsoft Word you are able to change the font size, color, type and attributes. Below we
demonstrate various ways to change the font.
Select a document of unformatted text for formatting.
Figure 2.9b
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To edit the font style

1) Highlight the paragraph
2) Select Format menu
3) Select a Font type.
4) Notice the Preview window at the bottom of the dialog box, which displays the style of the
font, selected.
5) Click OK
Font Size
Opting the one of the numbers in size box does changing the font size for a selected portion of
the text.
Using Bold, Italics and Underline

Another way to make text stand out in a document is by using bold, italics and underline (or a
combination of these) formatting.
To Bold Text in a Document
1) Select any word(s) in the document
2) Click the Bold icon on the Formatting Toolbar
To Italicize Text in a Document

2) Click the Italic icon on the Formatting Toolbar
To Underline Text in a Document

2) Click the Underline icon on the Formatting Toolbar
Formatting Paragraphs
In Microsoft Word, a paragraph is any amount of text followed by a paragraph symbol (¶). A
one-word heading is a paragraph. A 100-word job description is a paragraph. Even a blank line
terminated by a ¶ is a paragraph.
You can perform paragraph formatting from the Format menu.

Highlight the paragraph you want to format.
Click on Format from the Command menu.
Choose Paragraph.
Figure 2.9c
Make the changes from the options that are displayed in the window. For example, to change
line spacing from single to double, click on the Line spacing drop down arrow, and choose
double. You can also choose options from the Formatting Tool Bar to format paragraphs.
2.10. Header and Footer

A header or footer is text or other information such as graphics that is stored at the top or
bottom of the page throughout your document. You can use the same header and footer
throughout a document or change for part of the document. For example, you can use your
corporate logo in the first-page header, and then include the document's file name in the header
for subsequent pages.
To view Headers and Footers in Normal View, click View > Header and Footer. If you are in
Page Layout View (Word 97) or Print Layout View (Word 2000), simply double click the visible
header or footer that appears as gray text.
In either case, the Header/Footer toolbar appears.
Figure
2.10
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UNIT-I
2.11. Bullets and Numbering:

Word has a feature of giving automatic numbers and bullets for paragraphs or for points. For
bullets fist select the paragraph or points to be bulleted and then select bullets icon form the
standard toolbar or select Format from menu bar and opt for Bullets and numbering. Select
different types of symbols as bullets.
2.12. Zooming:
The level of magnification of the text can be controlled by this zooming control. Choose
percentage value from the zoom popup menu and size of magnification of text.
2.13. Page Break:

After allowing certain number of lines MS Word automatically inserts a dotted line in the
document called page break. We can insert a page break at any line in the document. Select
Insert Menu from menu bar and click break. Now the page break dialog box appears. Here
select page break button and click on it. Then page break will be inserted at the current cursor
position.
2.14. Auto Correct and Auto Text:

Auto Correct
Auto Correct is used to correct the repeated typing mistakes. Select Tools menu from the menu
bar and click Auto Correct option, then activate Auto correct tab. Here type frequently
misspelled words in ‘Replace box’ and the correct one’s in ‘with box’. Click the Add button to
add this to the dictionary. Afterwards if we misspell a word, which was added to the dictionary,
word will automatically correct the mistake.
Auto Text
Frequently typed text can be placed into an Auto Text entry. First type the text what we want to
put into an Auto Text entry and then select it. Select Tools menu and Click Auto Correct and
then activate Auto Text Tab. Now, enter the abbreviation for the selected text and click OK.
Afterwards, if we want to type the text that is there in the Auto Text, simply type the abbreviation
and click OK. Then automatically the text will be typed without actually typing.
2.15. Page Setup:

Page Margins
The page margins of the document can be changed using the rulers on the page and the Page
Setup window. The ruler method is discussed,
Figure 2.15a
first move the mouse over the area where the white ruler changes to gray.
When the cursor becomes a double-ended arrow, click with the mouse and drag the margin
indicator to the desired location. Release the mouse when the margin is set.
Figure 2.15b
The margins can also be changed using the Page Setup dialog box:
Select File/Page Setup and choose the Margins tab in the dialog box.
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UNIT-I
Enter margin values in the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right boxes. The Preview window will reflect
the changes. If the document has Headers and/or Footers, the distance this text appears from
the edge of the page can be changed. Click OK when finished.
Page Size and Orientation

Change the orientation page within the Page Setup dialog box.
Select File/Page Setup and choose the Paper Size tab.
Figure 2.15c
Select the proper paper size from the drop-down menu.
Change the orientation from Portrait or Landscape by checking the corresponding radio button.
Page Numbers
Follow these instructions to add page numbers to a document.
Select Insert/Page numbers from the menu bar and the following dialog box will appear.
Figure 6.15d
Select the position of the page numbers by choosing "Top of page" or "Bottom of page" from the
Position drop-down menu. Select the alignment of the page numbers in the Alignment drop-
down menu. If you do not want the page number to show on the first page (if it is a title page, for
example), uncheck the Show number of first page box. Click OK when finished.
2.16. Print Preview and Printing:

Preview your document by clicking the Print Preview button on the standard toolbar or by
selecting File/Print Preview. When the document is ready to print, click the Print button from the
Print Preview screen or select File|Print.
2.17.Summary:
At the end of this lesson you have learnt the important features of Ms-Word. We started
with procedure to invoke Ms-Word. We have identified toolbars available in the word. You learnt
the procedure of creating a new document and opening an existing document. Now you are in a
position to create a new document and can make corrections like deleting a character, word,
line or paragraph and replace with required text by using replace option. You can also move the
selected part of the text to another place by the “cut” and “paste” commands. At the end of the
lesson we discussed the procedure of saving a document and exit from word.
You have gained the knowledge of formatting a document using different formatting options like
setting margins, changing the font size, and alignment to the text. The headers, footers, tabs,
indents make the document in presentable format.

Font
Font refers to the combination of a typeface (eg. Times Roman, Arial, Century Schoolbook) and
its attributes (bold, italics, size (12pts).
Bullets
Bullets are special characters or symbols that are used to set off a paragraph. Typically, each
bulleted paragraph is an item in a list, and it consists of the bullet symbol and indenting to set
the bullet apart from the text.
Document
A document is any data file that is created by a specific application.
Current Document
The current, or active document is the document you see on the Word screen.
Drag-and-drop
Drag-and-drop is a feature that allows you to move or copy information without using the
Windows Clipboard. To use it, you simply drag a selected item from one location to another. It is
best used for moving or copying small items short distances.
Footer
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A Footer is the contents of an area located within the bottom margin of a page.
Header
A header is the contents of an area located within the top margin of a page.
Justification
Justification determines how lines and characters within those lines are printed. With full
justification, all lines start at the left margin and end at the right margin.
Margin
The margin is the amount of blank space, usually measured in inches or characters, above and
below and to the right and left of the main body of a document.
Menu Bar
The menu bar contains the names of Word's menus and is used to navigate through their
commands.
Paragraph
A paragraph in Word begins where you start typing, and it ends where you press [ENTER].
2.12. Model Questions:

1. Explain about different components of MS-Word window.
2. Explain Find, Replace & Go To?
3. Explain Header and Footer?
4. What is the difference between Auto Correct and Auto Text
5. Explain the text formatting features in MS-Word
2.20. References:
Y. SURESH BABU, M.Com., M.C.A.,

Lecturer, Dept.Of Computer Science,
JKC College, GUNTUR.
UNIT – II
Microsoft Word
2.0.2 Objectives:
This lesson provides an introduction to the Views, Spell Checking, Tables, Macros and Mail
merge.

2.1. Views
2.2. Spell Checker
2.3. Word Count
2.4. Macro
2.5. Graphics
2.6. Lines and Shapes
2.7. Word art
2.2. Tables
2.2. Borders and Shading
2.10.Footnote and Endnote
2.11.Tabs
2.12.Mail merge
2.13.Format Painter
2.14.Summary
2.15.Technical Terms
2.16.Model Questions
2.17.References
2.1.Views:
Any document can be viewed in different fashions. These views can be selected from the view
menu of the menu bar.
Normal view is a default view for all new documents. However saved document will be opened
last saved view. For example a document is opened in normal view and saved in page layout
view, when saved document is reopened, the document will be opened in page layout view.
Normal View
You can create and edit text or graphics normally. To work with header and footers you
invoked select item/Header and Footer. Footer details will not be displayed on screen.
This view will not show side-by-side column positioning, footers and headers. Automatic page
breaks are shown as dotted lines. Manual page breaks containing the words “ Page Break”.
Page layout View
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In this view headers & footers can be seen and edited. You can modify the Header/Footer by
the selecting the matter itself. It will display the left side scale also.
Outline View
This view is used to see entire contents of the document, chapter headlines and sections
headings if your document is properly formatted. It is useful if the document is large.
Print Preview
Print preview is another way to view a document. Choose file  print preview or Ctrl +F2. You
can see one page to six pages at a time in print preview.
Split Screen View

You can see two parts of your document at once. This feature is useful to make copying,
cutting and pasting quickly in both the documents simultaneously.
2.2. Spelling Checker:

To start the spelling checker, select Spelling and Grammar from the Tools menu. MS Word will
begin to check for misspellings. If a word is found that is not in its dictionary, it pauses, displays
the word, and if possible, suggests alternatives (see figure below).
Figure 2.2
You have several choices at this point described in the table below. If the word is spelled
correctly, you can Ignore it or add it to a custom dictionary by selecting the options. If the word
is incorrect, you can use Replace it with one of its suggestions or with a spelling you type in the
Change To: box.
If the word is spelled correctly...

To ignore only this occurrence of the word, click Ignore
To ignore all occurrences of the word, click Ignore All
To add the word to a custom dictionary, click Add
If the word is misspelled...
First, click correct spelling in Suggestions list or type the correction in the Change To:
box. Then...
To change only this occurrence of the word, click Change
To change all occurrence of the word, click Change All
2.3. Word Count:

Word count displays the number of words, paragraphs, lines, characters, pages in the
document. Select Tools menu from the menu bar and click on the word count.
2.4. Macro:
Macros are advanced features that can speed up editing or formatting you may perform often in
a Word document. They record sequences of menu selections that you choose so that a series
of actions can be completed in one step.
Recording A Macro
To record a macro, follow these steps:
Figure 2.4a
Click Tools/Macro/Record New Macro on the menu bar.
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Name the macro in the Macro name field. This name cannot contain spaces and or begin with a
number.
From the Store macro in drop-down box, select the document you would like the macro to be
associated with or choose "All Documents" enabling to use the macro in any document. Enter a
description of the macro in the Description field. This is for your reference only so you
remember what the macro does. Click OK to begin recording.
Select options from the drop-down menus and Word will record the options you choose from the
dialog boxes, such as changing the margins on the Page Setup window. Select only options
that modify the document. Word will not record toggle actions such as View/Toolbars that have
no effect on the document itself.
The recording toolbar will allow you to stop, pause, and resume recording.
Click the Stop button in the recording toolbar. The macro is now saved.
Figure 2.4b
Running A Macro
To run an existing macro, follow these steps:
Figure 2.4c
Select Tools/Macro/Macros from the menu bar.
From the Macros window, highlight the Macro name in the list and click Run.
If the macro is long and you want to stop it while it is running, press BREAK (hold CTRL and
press PAUSE).
Figure 2.5.
2.5.Graphics:
Microsoft Word contains a full set of graphic tools. You can:
Create graphics from scratch.
Import graphics from other programs.
Place graphics within text.
Manipulate graphics on a page.
Word comes with some pre-designed graphics that are normally installed in the MS
OFFICE\CLIP ART folder. These graphics can be resized and placed within text.
Inserting a Graphic in your Document
To insert a graphic in a document position the insert point where you want to place the graphic
in the text. Select Picture from the insert menu. Click on Clip art, and double-click the graphic
you want to insert.
Choose Insert, Picture, Clip Art or click the Insert Clip Art button on the Drawing toolbar.
Word opens the Clip Art Task Pane.
Search for a specific clip image by entering what you are looking for within the Search field in
the Task Pane.
Alternately, click on the Clip Organizer button toward the bottom of the Task Pane to open up
the Clip Art Organizer.
Select a clip and when Word shows a control palette, select the first option, Insert Clip. The clip
is inserted where your insertion point is positioned.
You can also drag the clip art into your document.
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Wrapping Text around a Graphic
By default text does not wrap around a graphic. To get text to wrap around a graphic, do the
following:
Right click on the graphic to get the short cut menu.
Choose Format Picture from the list displayed.
Select the Layout tab.
Choose the style of wrap that you like and click OK.
Resizing a Picture
Select the inserted picture by clicking once on it.
Click the Cropping tool on the Picture toolbar.
Notice that the mouse cursor has changed.
Drag one of the corners with the pointer to reduce its size and eliminate it.
2.6. Lines and Shapes

Use the Drawing toolbar to create lines, shapes, text boxes, AutoShapes, WordArt, or Clip Art.
Drawing a Line or Arrow
Open a new Word document. Click the Drawing tool in the Standard toolbar or right click in any
toolbar on your screen to display a list of available toolbars. Select the Drawing toolbar. Click a
line or arrow on the Drawing toolbar. When the cross hair (+) appears, point to a spot in your
document where you want the line or shape and draw a shape.
Drawing an AutoShape
Click AutoShapes on the Drawing toolbar. Select Stars and Banners from the drop down list of
categories. Select the shape you want. Click in your document and drag the cross hair that
appears to draw the shape.
Adding a Text Box:
Click the Text Box icon on the Drawing toolbar. When the cross hair appears, point to a spot in
your document where you want the text box and drag. The box appears with an insertion point
in it. Type "Microsoft Word Graphics" within the box.
2.7. WordArt :
To display the Word Art Gallery, choose Insert, Picture, WordArt or click the WordArt icon on
the Drawing toolbar. Double-Click a WordArt style. Word opens the Edit WordArt dialog box.
Type the text you want and it will replace the sample text. Choose a font, font size, and style.
Click OK to close the WordArt Gallery and see your text.
Figure 2.7
2.2. Tables:
Creating Tables Using the Menu
A table is a grid of rows and columns on the page, like a spreadsheet. The area where a row
and column intersect is called a cell. The number and width of columns can vary from row to
row. Cells are separated by gridlines, which are non-printing separators. To display the table
gridlines, select Gridlines from the Table menu.
Each cell can contain a paragraph, multiple paragraphs of text, or graphics. Microsoft Word
wraps text within a cell in the same way that text is wrapped at the end of a line of normal text.
Text within cells can be formatted, copied, cut, and pasted. You can add text, edit text, change
its size, add borders, or add and delete columns and rows.
To create a table, select the Insert Table command from the Table menu. The Table Dialog box
appears: enter the number of columns and rows you want to include in the table and click on the
OK button. A table with the number of columns and rows that you specified is inserted in your
document and the cursor is positioned in the first cell of the table. You can move from cell to cell
using the <Tab> key, to move forward to the next cell and the <Shift Tab> keys to move back to
the previous cell.
Creating a Table Using the Table Button in the Standard Toolbar
The Table button on the Toolbar provides another way to create a table. To use the Table
button, place the mouse on the Table button and press the mouse button. The Table button
selection box pops down. Drag the mouse down to select the number of rows you want and to
the right to select the number of columns. When you have selected the correct number of rows
and columns, release the mouse button. A table with the number of cells you have specified is
inserted in your document.
Selecting Tables
Cells in a table can be selected using the click-and-drag method or one of the following
techniques:
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To select a Click in the lower left corner of the cell. (The mouse pointer shape
cell: becomes a right pointing arrow.)
To select a Single Click in the selection bar to the left of the row.
row:
To select a Place the mouse on the top border of the column and click. (The mouse
column: pointer becomes a black down pointing arrow.)
To select the On a Macintosh hold down the Option button and double-click in the
entire table: table. On a Windows machine Press the <Alt> key and the number 5 key
on the numeric keypad . (The NumLock must be turned off.)
To select more Drag the mouse across the desired cell selection.
than one cell:
Inserting Columns and Rows
To insert a row or column within a table, select Insert Row or Column options from the Table
menu and position the insertion point in the row/column you want to insert.
Changing Column Width
You can adjust the width of a column, or you can adjust the width of all the cells in a column. To
change the column width, click on the column width button. Drag the button to the left or right
according to your needs. To change the width of all the columns select the entire table and drag
the column width button you wish to change.
Click and drag the first column width button to the 1.5-inch mark. Click on the Next Column
width button to the 3-inch mark. The mouse can also be used to change column widths. To
select the column that you want to change, place the mouse pointer on the right border of the
column. As you move the mouse pointer on top of the column border the pointer becomes a
two-headed arrow (see example). When the mouse pointer is displayed as the two-headed
arrow, press the mouse button and drag to reposition the column width. As you drag the mouse,
an outline of the new border shows the border position. When you have resized the column to a
satisfactory width, release the mouse button. The entire column is resized accordingly.
Deleting Columns and Rows
To delete a column or row, select the column or row you want to delete then select Delete
column or row from the Table menu. Notice that if you select a column, the command is Delete
Columns. If you select a row, the command is Delete Rows.
2.2. Borders and Shading:

You can add a border to any or all sides of each page in a document, to pages in a section, to
the first page only, or to all pages except the first. You can add page borders in many line styles
and colors, as well as a variety of graphical borders.
2.10. Footnote and Endnote:

Footnotes and Endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment on, or provide
references for text in a document. You can include both Footnotes and Endnotes in the same
document — for example, you might use Footnotes for detailed comments and Endnotes for
citation of sources. Footnotes appear at the end of each page in a document. Endnotes typically
appear at the end of a document.
1. In print layout view, click where you want to insert the note reference mark.
2. On the Insert menu, click Footnote.
3. Click Footnote or Endnote.
4. Under Numbering, click the option you want.
5. Click OK.
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Word inserts the note number and places the insertion point next to the note number.
6. Type the note text.
7. Scroll to your place in the document.
2.11. Tabs:
By using tab key on the keyboard we can move the cursor by a fixed distance in the
document. By default, every tab press, the cursor moves half-inch. But we can create our own
tab positions. For creating customized tab positions first we have to select the tab alignment
button at the left hand side corner of the ruler line. Tabs can also be created, by using the tab
dialog box. Select Format menu from the menu bar and click tabs option. Then we get Tabs
dialog box. Here we select the type of the tab and distance and click OK. button. Then the tabs
will be set accordingly. Here by using tab dialog box we can also create one more tab i.e., bar
tab. By this we can create a vertical line in the text at the specified bar tab position.
2.12. Mail Merge:

Mail Merge is used to quickly create form letters, mailing labels, envelops and catalogs by
merging the information from two different files. Those two files are generally the Main
Document and Data Source File. After creating those two files, they are merged to get the
desired result. Generally mail merge is used to print multiple copies of a particular letter
addressed to many members. For example Circulars, Greetings & Invitations will come under
mail merging.
Main Document
The main document contains the subject matter of the letter to be printed. It can contain text,
graphics objects and fields (data), which are to be inserted in to the letter. When merging, data
will be merged with the main document.
Data Source
Data Source file contains the information in the form of records, which is to be inserted to the
main document. In one record, one member’s information is stored – for example one person’s
address. The individual information in the records is called a field. Actually the data written in
these fields will be inserted in the main document during merge.
Merge requires 3 steps
Creating Main Document
Creating Data Source
Merging two files.
Creating Main Document
First, Open a new document to create a main document by selecting FileNew. Then select
ToolsMail Merge. The following dialog box will be displayed on screen:
Click on the “Create” button to display the available formats (form letter, mailing labels,
envelopes or catalog) of the main document. Then a dialog will be displayed prompting where to
create the main document (whether the active window or a new document). Click on “active
window” to create the main document in the active window.
Creating Data Source
To create a data source file click on Get Data in Data Source. The following will be displayed.
Click on Create Data Source to specify the fields to be included in the address, like name, place
etc.,
The existing field names will be displayed on the screen to the right. Unwanted fields can be
removed by clicking on the field name and by clicking on the field name and by clicking on the
button “remove field name”. If any new fields are to be added, type the field name on the left
side. After specifying the field names, to type the contents, click on ok. A dialog box will be
displayed to specify a name for the data source. Type the name and click on “Save”. A dialog
box is displayed asking to edit the data source or edit the master document. The following
diagram specifies the same:
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Type the details by pressing enter after typing the first name, job title etc., for this, click
on “Add new”. After typing all the details click on OK. Add contents to the document. Insert the
merge fields in the window document. Finally select toolsmail merge. Merge dialog box will
again get displayed, click on “Merge”.
2.13. Format Painter:

The Format Painter is a button on the Standard toolbar. It makes it easy to copy all the
formatting features of one paragraph to one or more paragraphs.
To copy the paragraph formatting using the Format Painter you will:
1. Highlight the paragraph whose format you want to copy.
2. Now click the Format Painter button on the Standard toolbar.
o If you press the button once, you will be allowed to copy the format to only one
paragraph.
o If you double-click the button, the button will stay depressed and allow you to
copy the format to as many paragraphs as you want. When you are finished you
must then click the Format Button once in order to turn off the feature.
3. Notice that your insertion point now has a Paint Brush attached to it. This indicates that
the format of the selected paragraph may be painted or copied onto another paragraph.
4. Place your insertion point anywhere within the paragraph that is to receive the format
and click the left mouse button. At this point the format of this paragraph will change.
2.14.Summary:
In this lesson we discussed the procedure of inserting a table in the document. You can insert a
table of required number of rows and columns. In this lesson you have learnt the concept of
mail merge and its usefulness. The mail merge feature supports many word processors that
enable you to generate form letters. The mail merge feature of Ms-Word requires mainly two
components: the main document and the data file. The main document is the body of the letter
that has to be sent. The data file contains the list of names and addresses in the form of rows.
You have learnt the procedures of creating the main document and the data file, and combining
them.
You have observed how to use spell checker, the macro capability, and working with the
graphics like ClipArt, WordArt, Format Painter, Footnote and Endnote features.
ClipArt
ClipArt consists of pre-designed images that can be placed within a document.
Data Form
A data form is a dialog box that allows you to view and edit individual records in a database.
Data Source
A data source contains the information from which a merged document is created. The data
source is merged with a main document, which specifies the kind of output required.
Database
A database is a collection of organized information.
Dictionary
Word uses two kinds of dictionaries, a main dictionary and a custom dictionary. The main
dictionary cannot be altered; we can add words to the custom dictionary.
Mail Merge
Mail Merge refers to the process of combining a data source, and a main document to produce
a unique output.
Wizard
A wizard is a feature of Microsoft applications that lets you work through a series of dialog
boxes to help you complete a task.

1. What is a macro? Explain the procedure for creating a macro?
2. How do you perform mail merge?
3. Explain the difference between Footnote and Endnote?
4. Explain the procedure to create a table?
5. Explain different views in Ms Word ?
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6. Explain the graphic facilities in MS-Word ?
2.17.Refereneces:

UNIT- II
Microsoft PowerPoint
2.0 Objective:
This lesson introduces the basic features of Microsoft PowerPoint, Creating Presentations, View
options, Inserting new slides and setting background color scheme to the presentation.

2.1 PowerPoint basics
2.2 Starting a presentation
2.3 PowerPoint window properties
2.4 Save a PowerPoint presentation
2.5. Copy and Move data in a PowerPoint presentation
2.6. View options
2.7 Add a slide
2.2 Add/Modify text
2.9 Bullet styles
2.10 Speaker notes
2.11 Background/Color scheme
2.12 Slide master
2.13 Headers/Footers
2.14 Summary
2.14 Technical Terms
2.15 Model Questions
2.16 References
2.1. PowerPoint Basics:

PowerPoint is an application that lets you build, print, and deliver presentations. You
have several options for the delivery of a presentation, but you only have to develop it once.
You can print slides, print handouts, print notes pages, prepare for 35mm slides, or deliver an
on-screen presentation. Only the on-screen presentation allows you to use the full range of
PowerPoint's features.
As you develop a PowerPoint presentation, it is important to remember that you should

not try to include every piece of information you wish to deliver. PowerPoint slides should
contain brief, concise, descriptive phrases that will help you remember what you want to present
and to serve as a reminder for your audience.
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2.2. Starting A Presentation:

Start PowerPoint by either of two methods:
1. Go to the Start menu. Choose Programs and then click on Microsoft PowerPoint.
2. Double-click the icon of any PowerPoint document. When you double-click a PowerPoint
document, PowerPoint opens with the document already loaded.
A PowerPoint presentation consists of slides that can contain text, graphics, charts, and other
data types. When you start PowerPoint, you can start with a blank presentation, or you can
begin from a template or use the AutoContent Wizard.
The AutoContent Wizard is series of step-by-step instructions designed to assist you. The
Template button to help accesses slide templates create a consistent, professional look for your
slide
resentation.
New Presentation Dialog Box
AutoContent Wizard walks you through a series of questions designed to elicit information
about you and the type of presentation you are making. The Wizard then builds a dummy
presentation that will guide you in developing the content of the presentation.
Design Template allows you to establish the background and color scheme from the available
templates prior to beginning work in the new presentation. Template choices are generally
easier to make after you have opened the new presentation because you can better see the
characteristics of each template before making a selection.
Blank presentation opens a new presentation with no template. Open an existing presentation
displays a list of recently opened PowerPoint presentations from which you can choose. Or, you
may choose More Files to move to the location of a previously saved presentation file and open
it.
AutoLayout
After you have opened a new presentation, PowerPoint displays the New Slide dialog box
containing several Auto Layouts. Auto Layouts provide a pre-determined layout for each specific
type of slide. They provide consistency throughout the presentation. Each layout depicted is
described in the lower right corner when you click the layout. This sample New Slide dialog box
shows the Title Slide selected (denoted with the thick border).
New Slide Layout Dialog Box
2.3. PowerPoint Window Properties:

The Microsoft PowerPoint window has many of the same attributes as other windows in
the Microsoft Office Suite. The table below lists the different features and provides a brief
description of each one.
Besides the usual window components, the PowerPoint window has several unique elements,
identified in the figure below.
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Menu Bar
The words listed atop the application window, immediately underneath the Title bar. You can
access all application commands from the Menu bar
Standard Toolbar
The Standard toolbar, located beneath the menu bar, has buttons for commonly performed
tasks like printing, saving, inserting clip art, and other operations. You can customize the toolbar
or even display multiple toolbars at the same time.
Formatting toolbar
The Formatting toolbar, located beneath the Standard toolbar bar, or possible to the side of it,
has buttons for various formatting operations like changing text size or style, changing
alignment, formatting bullets, and animation
Drawing Toolbar
The Drawing toolbar on the bottom of the PowerPoint window contains drawing and text tools
for creating graphics.
Slide Layout Task Pane
The area on the left side of the window that allow you to easily switch between the Outline and
the Slides views.
Slide Area
The area in the middle, in which you actually work on your presentation slides
Task Pane
The area on the right side of the window that allows you to easily access various commands.
You can display different Task Pane options by clicking on the dropdown arrow in the upper
right-hand corner of the pane.
2.4. Save a PowerPoint Presentation:
Changes you make to a document are not saved to disk until you issue a Save
command. Saving is quick and easy, and you should save often to minimize the loss of your
work. PowerPoint has two save commands, Save and Save As, that work similarly. Both
commands are on the File menu.
Save
When you save a new presentation for the first time, PowerPoint displays a dialog box similar to
the Open dialog box. Select the disk in which to save the presentation and specify a name for
the file. When you save an existing document that you have been editing, the newly saved
version replaces the older version.
Save As
This command displays a dialog box where you can choose a document name and destination
folder or disk. Use the Save As command whenever you want to save a copy of the current
document with a different name or in a different folder or disk. The newly saved copy becomes
the active document
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A presentation is normally saved as name.ppt file type. However, PowerPoint Show with the
extension of name.ppt is also a useful file type so that your file is able to run regardless of
operating system.
2.5. Copy and Move data in a PowerPoint Presentation:

Use the Copy and Paste commands to copy selected text and graphics from one slide to
another. If you want to move data instead, use the Cut and Paste commands. To do this:
 Select the text you want to cut or copy by highlighting it.
 Go to the Standard Toolbar to choose the Cut or Copy short cut icon.
 Move and click your mouse to the place where you want the text to go. Note the cursor
is blinking.
 Go to the Standard Toolbar to choose the Paste short cut icon.
2.6. View Options:

Power point offers different views for entering, editing and previewing your information. They
are:
 Slide view
 Outline view
 Slide Sorter view
 Notes Pages view
 Slide show view
Slide View
Slide view shows how our listed slides will work. We can move from one slide to another with
pg up and pg dn keys. We can edit text and other slide elements in slide view.
Outline view
It will display all the text in the presentation. Here we can easily rearrange line item. We
collapse items in this view so that we can see important headings or names of each slide.
Enter and Edit Text in Outline View:
PowerPoint's Outline Area lets you focus on the content of your presentation, by typing up the
outline prior to laying the presentation out. After you type an outline, you can concentrate on
how your presentation looks
The boundary of the Outline Area can be resized by dragging the vertical separation to the right.
This will make it easier to enter your outline.
Entering Slide Titles and Bullets:
Typing in PowerPoint's Outline view is similar to using a word processor. Type your slide title or
bullet point and press Return to start a new slide or bullet. To force a line break within a slide
title or bullet, press Shift-Enter. This starts a new line for the same title or bullet.
Move Slides in the Outline Area:
It's easy to change the order of your slides and bullets in the Outline Area. Press the mouse
button on the item you want to move and drag it to the desired location. You can also select the
item you want to move and click on the Move Up or Move Down buttons.
Delete Slides or Bullets:
While working in the Outline Area, you can delete a slide by clicking on the slide icon next to the
title and pressing the Delete key. Delete bullets and sub bullets similarly.
Slide Sorter view

It will show the slides in reduced size. We drop the sliders to move the slides so that we can
change the order of slides. We can make the slides appear and disappear using the effects.
Notes Page View

It is to create and see notes to the presenter. It shows miniature slide image and provides a text
area for presenters notes.
To enter notes
1.Click on the text area shown below this line. The box outline will change appearance.
2. Type and edit in the note box.
Slide show view

It will show the slides in reduced size. We drop the slides to move the slides so that we can
change the order of slides. We can make the slides appear and disappear using the effects.
When you right click on the slide it will show some options. In that we can opt ‘Pen’ to draw the
temporary lines. These lines will not be saved on the slides. To leave from the slide show press
Esc.
Zoom
The Zoom adjuster lets you alter how large your slides appear on the screen relative to full-
screen presentation mode. Click on the Zoom drop-down list (in the toolbar near the top of the
screen), or click on the View menu, and select Zoom... Select "fit", a default percentage, or type
in your own number, according to your needs.
2.7. Add a Slide:

In the Text Outline area, you can add a slide before or after an existing slide.
 To add before a slide position the cursor at the beginning of text of the slide in front of
which you would like a new slide, and press the Enter key.
 To add after a slide, position the cursor at the end of the text of the slide after which you
would like a new slide, and press the Enter key (if you had indented levels of text on the
previous slide, use the Promote (left arrow) button in the toolbar at the top of the screen
to move the text back to the left to force a new slide.
In Normal, Outline, Slide, or Slide Sorter view, select the slide after which you wish to insert a
new slide.
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 Then click on the Insert menu, and select New Slide.
 When you add a new slide this way, the New Slide window appears, asking you to
select a slide layout.
 Select whichever layout is appropriate for the content you will place on the new slide.
The one selected in the example on the right is "Bulleted List". If the provided layouts
don't meet your needs, select the bottom-right layout, "Blank", which will provide you
with a new empty slide. However, no matter which layout you choose, you will be able to
modify it later.
2.8. Add/Modify Text:

Here are a few ways to insert or modify text in PowerPoint:
 In Normal or Slide view, select the slide on which you wish to insert text. If there is
already a text box on the slide you may click your mouse on it and start typing. Familiar
word processing tools for modifying text (color, style, font, alignment, etc.) are provided.
 In Normal or Slide view, to add a new text box to a slide, click on the Insert menu, and
select Text Box. Put your mouse over the slide layout - the cursor will change to a
narrow down-arrow (as shown on the left below). Click, hold, drag, and release the
mouse to form a rectangle on the slide. Then you can type into the text box created for
you (as shown below).
 To work directly in the Text Outline area, position the cursor at the point where you
would like the new text to appear and just type it in. Use the Promote / Demote buttons
in the toolbar at the top of the screen to create different levels of indentation.
2.2. Bullet Styles:

Although you can set Bullet Styles in the Master, you also can change the bullet style
on any slide or on any bulleted point. When you change the bullet style, every subsequent bullet
on that slide, whether promoted or demoted, will have that style until you change back to the
default or change to a different slide.
To change the bullet style, make sure the cursor is in the line of text in which you wish to
change the bullet, then choose FORMAT: Bullet.
NOTE: Sometimes it is difficult to remember exactly what the default bullet style was, so pay
close attention to the selected bullet before proceeding with any changes.
Format Bullet Dialog Box

You can choose from the selections provided by PowerPoint, choosing both the size (in
percentage of text size) and the color.
Click Character to include any symbol font installed on your system. Keep in mind, however,
that if you choose a font that is not installed on the computer from which you are giving your
presentation, the presentation computer will choose the "closest" font to the one you chose and
the result may not be one you like. Both Symbol and Wingdings font are standard on most
computers and should display as you intended.
Adding / Removing Bullets
The Bullet Tool is a toggle. Click it once to place a bullet at the beginning of the current line
of text (the one in which the cursor is flashing). Click it again to remove the bullet. This way you
can add bullets to text you have typed without using the Bullet AutoLayout.
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2.10. Speaker Notes:

PowerPoint has a facility for adding speaker notes to a presentation. These can be notes that
you create for yourself — for example, to help you remember key points during a
presentation — or you can create them as additional information for your audience. After you
have completed a presentation, you can print the notes for each slide, along with a smaller
version of the slide. To add notes to a slide:
 Click on the View menu, and select Notes Page (you may want to adjust the Zoom
percentage to get a larger view).
(Notes Page)
2.11. Background / Color Scheme:

Design templates contain color schemes, slide and title masters with custom formatting, and
styled fonts, all designed to create a particular look. Not only can you specify a design template
when you begin a new presentation, you can choose a design template (for the whole
presentation, not individual slides) any time while editing a presentation. To do this, click on the
Format menu, and select Apply Design Template. A window will open asking you to choose a
design. Select one and click Apply. The name of the template chosen will be displayed in the
center of the status bar at the bottom of the PowerPoint screen. If the status bar is not visible,
click on the Tools menu, select Options, click on the View tab, and ensure that Status bar is
checked.
The background color of slides can be customized by clicking on the Format menu /
Background. Click on the drop-down list to select either another color from the subset provided
or click on More Colors and Fill Effects to see other choices. One of the Fill Effects available
is Picture (import an external image file to use as a slide background). When you are done,
click on Apply (if you wish to alter just the current slide) or Apply to All (to alter all slides at
once).
The color scheme for slides can be customized by clicking on Format / Slide Color Scheme.
Either chooses a preset scheme from the Standard tab or click the Custom tab, click on the
desired component (e.g. Background), and click Change Color (a color selection window will
appear). When you are done making color choices, click on Apply (if you wish to alter just the
current slide) or Apply to All (to alter all slides at once).
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2.12. Slide Master

The Slide Master in a template is a slide that controls the formatting, text, and objects
that appear on every slide in your presentation. For example, if you want a small picture of the
world to appear on every slide, place that picture on the Slide Master. To display the Slide
Master, choose Master/Slide Master from the View menu. You can then edit this slide. Changes
you make to the Slide Master also appear on each slide in your presentation.
It is easy to edit the text of a slide in the Outline Area. However, to modify a slide's
appearance, switch to Slide View. If you want your changes to apply to every slide in the
presentation, choose Master/Slide Master from the View menu.
In Slide View just click on an object to select it. Then use the Format menu to apply the
change you want. For example, to change the font or color of the slide title, select the slide title
and choose Font from the Format menu. The Format menu also has commands for centering or
left aligning text (Alignment), and changing colors (Colors and Lines). You can even change the
format of slide bullets using the Bullets command on the Format menu. PowerPoint also has a
Formatting toolbar to simplify basic formatting tasks.
Sample Slide Master

2.13. Headers / Footers:

 On the View menu, click Header and Footer.
 On the Slide tab, you set options, the effect of the options selected will appear at the
bottom of slides:
o Date and time can be set to Update automatically (to reflect the last date the
slides were modified) or Fixed (type a certain date such as when the
presentation will be given).
o Selecting the Slide number option will automatically insert a sequence number.
o Selecting Footer (and typing text in the box below it) inserts fixed footer text.
o Selecting Don't show on title slide will omit the footer from the title slide (but it
will appear on the other slides).
o Normally you click on the Apply to All button to make these changes throughout
the presentation, but of course you can click Apply to affect just the current slide.
 Similar options are available on the Notes and Handouts tab, plus the option of adding
a page header to your printouts.
2.14. Summary:
At the end of this lesson you have learnt the important features of Ms-PowerPoint
including creating a presentation, opening an existing presentation and working with different
kinds of slide layouts. We identified different toolbars available in PowerPoint.
You are in a position to format the text, applying background color to the presentation, working
with master slide, applying speaker notes to slide, applying header and footer to the document.

Slide: Brief, concise, descriptive phrases that will help you remember what you want to
present and to serve as a reminder for your audience.
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PowerPoint Presentation: PowerPoint presentation consists of slides that can contain text,
graphics, charts, and other data types.
Slide Master: The Slide Master in a template is a slide that controls the formatting, text, and
objects that appear on every slide in your presentation.
Speaker Notes: Speaker notes can be notes that you create for yourself, key points during a
presentation, additional information for your audience.

1. What are the features of PowerPoint?
2. What is a Slide? Explain the procedure to create a Slide?
3. What is Slide Master? Write the procedure to create Slide Master?
4. Explain the procedure to create Header and Footer in PowerPoint?
5. Explain the views available in PowerPoint?
2.16. References:
GUY HART DAVIS, ‘The ABC’S Of Microsoft Office.‘ BPB Publications, New Delhi

UNIT - II
Microsoft PowerPoint
2.0 Objective:
This lesson introduces the Drawing Objects, Images and ClipArt, Audio and Video, Slide
Transition, Rehearse Timings and Charts.

2.1 Working with Text
2.2. Drawing Objects
2.3 Images and Clip Art
2.4 Audio and Video
2.5 Creating Hyperlinks
2.6 Animating the presentations
2.7 Slide Miniature
2.8 Slide Transition
2.9 Slide Show Animation
2.10 Rehearse Timings
2.11 Slide Setup and Printing
2.12 Charts
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2.13 Summary
2.14 Technical Terms
2.15 Model Questions
2.16 References
2.1. Working with Text:

Any time you wish to make formatting changes to text, you must highlight the text to be
changed. Making a selection from the Text Toolbar affects the highlighted text only. In addition
to the standard text formatting tools of font choice and size, bold, italics, and underline, you also
can align text left, center, or right. Other special tools are described below.
Shadowed Text
The Shadow Text Tool places a slight shadow behind the text. Although the effect is not
prominent, this is an excellent tool to use to give more definition to title text. You should NOT
shadow all body text since this makes it very "muddy" to read.
Sample Shadowed Text
To shadow text,
1. Type the text to be shadowed.
2. Highlight the text.
3. Click the Shadow Tool.
Increase / Decrease Paragraph Spacing
The Increase and Decrease Paragraph Spacing Tools expand and contract paragraph
spacing, respectively.
Format Painter
The Format Painter Tool picks up any formatting applied to existing text and applies that
same formatting to any text it is "painted" over. The two pieces of text need not be on the same
slide.
To use the Format Painter,
1. Highlight the text containing the formatting you desire to "pick up".
2. Click the Format Painter Tool.
3. Press and drag over the text as you would to highlight it. The formatting will be
applied.
After the formatting is applied the Format Painter will de-select.
To apply formatting to multiple selections of text without needing to click the Format Painter
between each application, double click the Format Painter. The Painter will remain the selected
tool until you click it to de-select, allowing you to press and drag over multiple sections of text,
applying the same format to each.
Increase/Decrease Font Size
You can increase or decrease the font size of highlighted text by clicking on the
Increase Font Size or Decrease Font Size Tool, respectively. Size increments and
decrements by the standard font sizes.
Text Colors
You choose text colors with the Font Color Tool located in the Drawing Toolbar.
Highlighted text will change to the color displayed in the band beneath the A.
To make additional color choices or to see additional non-scheme colors you have used in this
presentation, click the drop-down arrow beside the A.
Font Color Choices

Word Wrap
Whether text is in a Placeholder or a textbox, you can narrow or widen the width of the box by
dragging the box border. This affects where the text wraps. Make sure the cursor looks like a
two-headed arrow to affect the Placeholder width; a four-headed arrow will move the
placeholder.
2.2. Drawing Objects:
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To draw a line, an arrow, a square, or a circle, select the appropriate tool from
the Drawing Toolbar. When you move the cursor over the slide, it will be a crosshair. Press and
drag the cursor to insert the object. The larger an area you drag, the larger the object will
become.
TIP: To draw a straight line or arrow, or a perfect square or circle, hold SHIFT as you press and
drag.
Selecting
To alter any PowerPoint object, you first must select the object. When you click the object, you
will see Handles around the perimeter of the object. This lets you know exactly which object you
will be affecting.
Sample Handles
Deleting
To delete an object, click to select it, then press DELETE.
Fill Colors
When you draw solid objects (squares and circles), they fill with the automatic color. The
underline under the Paintbucket is the current fill color.
To fill an object with the current fill color, select the object, then click the Paintbucket
Tool.
To change the current fill color, drop down the arrow beside the Paintbucket and make a new
selection. There are also additional options under Fill Effects, including choosing no fill color at
all.
Alternate Choices for Fill Colors

Fill Effects
Fill effects include Gradients where you can select one or two colors of your choice, as well as
the direction and variants of the gradient. Textures are image files similar to web page
wallpapers; you can use PowerPoint's selections or choose an image file from your workstation.
Patterns allow you to choose two colors and the pattern design with which you want to fill the
object. Picture allows you to choose an image file from your workstation; the photograph will
center itself within the selected object, hiding any parts of the image, which do not automatically
show within the object's shape.
Gradients
Textures
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Patterns
Photos
Line Effects
Each drawing object has an outline the color of the automatic color. The underline under
the Line Color Tool is the current line color. To outline an object with the current line color,
select the object, then click the Line Color Tool.
To change the line color, drop down the arrow and make a new selection. Other options with the
Line Color Tool include color and patterns similar to the Fill Tool.
To change line style, dash style, and arrow style, click on these tools, respectively,
after drawing the object and while it is still selected.
Object Effects
To place a shadow or 3D effect on an object, select the object, then click the tool
selection.
AutoShapes and WordArt
If you're not particularly artistic, AutoShapes and WordArt can come to the rescue. To use
AutoShapes,
1. From the Drawing Toolbar, click the drop-down arrow beside AutoShapes, and then
select the shape type.
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2. Click the shape you want. The cursor will change to a cross-hair as you move the
mouse across the slide.
3. Click on the slide where you want to place the shape.
4. Move the object, change its size or color, as desired.
Autoshapes Tool
To use WordArt,
1. Click the WordArt Tool.
2. From the WordArt Gallery, click the design you want, then click OK.
WordArt Gallery
3. In the Edit WordArt Text box, type your text. You can also change the font face and
type size, or add bold or italics. Then click OK.
The art will be placed in the center of the slide and is always smaller than you would like—
press and drag the handles to enlarge the object to the desired size.
Many of the WordArts also have one or more small yellow diamond-shaped handles. You can
press and drag any of these to distort the shape of the object:
Samples of Word Art
To change the colors in WordArt, make sure the object is selected, then choose FORMAT:
WordArt and make your selections.
Text Tool
To insert text on the slide other than in a Placeholder
1. Click the Text Tool.
2. Press and drag the cursor over the slide to create a Text Box.
3. Type in the box.

NOTE: Any text you type in a placeholder will show in Outline View; text inserted via the Text
Tool is treated as an object and will not display in the outline.
Moving
To move an object on the slide, select it, then move the cursor over the object until you see the
four-headed arrow along with the cursor. Press and drag the object to the location you need it.
NOTE: Be sure it is a four-headed arrow rather than a two-headed arrow. Two-headed arrows
re-size objects.
To move a text box, select it, then move the cursor over the frame until you see the four-headed
arrow along with the cursor. Press and drag the text box to the location you need it. If you move
the cursor within the box, it will change to an insertion point so that you can type or edit text.
Rotating
To rotate any object, including a text box,

1. Click the Rotate Tool.
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2. Click the object to be rotated.
3. You will see small green disks in place of the normal handles on the object.
Sample Rotated Text

4. As you move the cursor over the disk, it will change to a looped circle. Position the
loop over one of the green disks and press and drag to the desired rotation.
5. Click the Rotate Tool to deselect it.
Grouping and Ungrouping

Often after you have created multiple objects and layered them in the sequence you need, you
want them to "stay put". By grouping multiple objects, you can move or resize them as a single
entity rather than manipulating their individual components.
To group multiple objects:
1. Size each individual object as necessary.
2. Layer objects as necessary.
3. Each object must be selected prior to grouping. To select multiple objects, hold SHIFT
then click each object. Each object clicked becomes selected and the handles of each
are displayed. Release SHIFT after you have selected each of the objects to be
grouped.
4. From the Drawing Toolbar, choose DRAW : Group. You will see that the objects'
individual handle-sets will be combined, leaving a single handle-set for the grouped
object.
Sometimes, if your object is very complex, you will find it beneficial to group your object
components incrementally. When you finish a subset of your final object, group the components
you have finished. Then you can continue building additional components, knowing you won't
accidentally move or re-size the portion you have completed.
Text that you include in a grouped object will not change point size if you re-size the grouped
object, however, word-wrapping may adjust to conform to the re-sizing.
To manipulate individual components of grouped objects, you must ungroup them. To ungroup
an object, select it, then from the Drawing Toolbar, choose DRAW : Ungroup. After editing, you
can choose Re-group.
2.3. Images and Clip Art:

PowerPoint comes with a library of "clip art" that includes traditional clip art, as well as videos,
photographs, and sounds. You can also insert graphics from other sources into a presentation.
To access PowerPoint's ClipArt Gallery, click the ClipArt Gallery Tool (located on the
Drawing Toolbar).
To use a Gallery ClipArt image, in the Insert ClipArt dialog box, select the category pertaining to
the type of image you are looking for, then select the image you want. A pop-up box will allow
you to: insert the image, preview the clip, add the clip to a different category, and/or find similar
clips.
Insert ClipArt Dialog Box
The greatest benefit of the ClipArt Gallery is that you can add multiple selections to your
presentation without leaving the Gallery.
ClipArt images will be inserted in the center of the slide. You can move, enlarge, or reduce
them.
To select multiple objects using the mouse,
1. Position your mouse cursor beyond the corner of the object to be re-grouped. Make
sure you start far enough beyond the objects to catch all of the components.
2. Press and drag diagonally across the objects to select all the components. Make sure
that you do not accidentally include an object in the selection that you do not want to
be selected. (You may have to try this step several times, it is a bit tricky to master.)
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3. After all the components are selected, from the Drawing Toolbar, choose DRAW :
Group (or Regroup).
2.4. Audio and Video:

Your presentation can link to external audio and video files.
 Select the slide on which you wish to add a link to an audio or video file.
 On the Insert menu, point to Movies and Sounds.
 To insert a sound from a file, click Sound from File. To insert a video from a file, click
Movie from File.
 A standard file directory window appears.
 Locate the folder that contains the audio/video file you want, and then double-click the
filename.
Note: In PowerPoint, by default your movie or sound will play manually. If you want it to
play automatically you will have to set Custom Animation options for the slide.
 For audio files, a sound icon appears on the slide.
 For movies, an image consisting of the first frame is displayed as a placeholder.
 To preview the audio/video in Normal view, double-click its icon.

Note: Alternatively, you may have to use the Insert / Object command since PowerPoint is not
able to play all audio/video formats inline. Insert / Object will open the media element in a new
window rather than making it appear embedded on the slide, and it will be played by an external
program.
2.5. Creating Hyperlinks:

Hyperlinks cause the selection of an object to result in a move to a new location or the
performance of an action. You can create your own object or choose an AutoShape Action
button.
To link an object with an action, select the object, then choose SLIDE SHOW: Action Settings.
In the Action Settings dialog box, choose either Mouse Click or Mouse Over. Then select the
button "Hyperlink to" then select the destination or action. You can also choose to play a built-in
PowerPoint sound during this action and/or to highlight the object as you click it.
Hyperlink Action Dialog Box
2.6. Animating the Presentation:

To animate a single object on a PowerPoint slide
1. Select the object.
2. Choose SLIDE SHOW: Preset Animation.
3. Select the animation effect you desire for the selected object.
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Preset Animation Dialog Box

Animated Layers or Slides
You may find it useful to bring a layered object into a presentation one layer at a time, building it
on-screen. To animate a layered object or to animate each object on a slide
1. Choose SLIDE SHOW: Custom Animation. (You must be in Normal, Outline, or Slide
View.)
2. In the Custom Animation dialog box, each object is identified in the Check to animate
slide objects list.
If you don't remember what a particular object is, click the object's name in the list;
that object appears selected in the preview window.
3. Click in the object's checkbox to animate that object. It will be added to the Animation
order list.
4. To change the order that the animated objects appear, select the object in the
Animation order list, then click the up or down arrow to move the object through the
list.
5. Choose whether the object appears only on a mouse click or after a specified number
of seconds.
Layer Animation Dialog Box

To choose other effects such as sound effects and how the object appears on the slide during
the on-screen presentation, click on the Effects tab.
To animate text,
1. Click on the Effects tab.
2. In the Introduce Text section, from the drop-down box, choose whether the text is
introduced all at once, by word, or by letter.
To animate charts click the Chart Effects tab. You can choose to introduce the data by series,
categories, or elements.
NOTE: Be careful of using too many effects in any single presentation because they soon
become detraction to rather than an enhancement of the presentation.
2.7. Slide Miniature:

When you have zoomed the view of your slide so that all of the slide cannot be seen on the
screen at one time, PowerPoint will create a black and white Slide Miniature in the corner. This
allows you see the overall effects of the changes you are making to the slide.
Sample Slide Miniature
You may also choose to work in black and white mode by choosing VIEW: Black and White. To
see a small color view of the current slide when you are working in black and white, choose
VIEW: Slide Miniature.
2.8. Slide Transitions:

Transitions determine the effects applied when you move from one slide to another
during an on-screen presentation. You must be in Slide Sorter View to access the Transition
Toolbar.
To choose only a transition effect, click the dropdown box beside the words "No Transition" and
select a transition. To have other transition choices available to you, click the Slide Transition
Tool.
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Sample Transition Tool and Drop-down Box
When you click the Slide Transition Tool, the Slide Transition dialog box allows you to choose
not only a transition effect from a drop-down box, but also offers other choices that affect your
on-screen presentation.
Sample Transition Dialog Box
TIP: Do not use a different transition on each slide because your audience attention should
remain focused on you and the content, not the effects. If you want to use multiple transitions, a
good rule of thumb is to apply a unique transition to each slide in a specific module of the
presentation.
Generally, you should leave the Effect Speed set to Fast. This brings in the next content slide
quickly and keeps your audience's attention focused on the presentation content.
PowerPoint contains a few built-in sounds. To play a sound as the slide is transitioning, make a
sound selection from the Sound drop-down box. Unless you have a well thought out reason for
doing so, do not choose to have the sound loop until the next sound; it can become annoying
very fast while you are giving a presentation, as well as making it difficult for you to speak over.
Also, many presentation locations do not have adequate speakers attached to the computer to
allow all of your audience to hear the sound.
 In Slide or Slide Sorter view, select the slide or slides on which you want to add a
transition.
 On the Slide Show menu, click Slide Transition.
 From the Effect drop-down list, click the transition

you want.
 Select any other options you want (speed Slow/Medium/Fast, Advance on mouse Click
or Automatically, Sound or No Sound)
 To apply the transition to the selected slide, click Apply. To apply the transition to all the
slides, click Apply to All.
 Repeat the process for each slide you want to add a transition to.
 To view the transitions, on the Slide Show menu, click Animation Preview.
2.9. Slide Show Animation:

You can control how and when text, graphics, and other objects appear on your
PowerPoint slides. For example, you can make graphics or text items appear one at a time and
add visual or sound effects. Animation can aid in focusing attention during a presentation and
make your slide show more interesting. To set slide show animation options, display the slide
that has the objects you want to animate, then on the Slide Show menu, click Custom
Animation.
Timing Tab
 In PowerPoint, ensure that you are on the Timing tab.
 Under Slide objects without animation, double-click the objects you want to animate.
(they should be moved up to the Animation Order box).
 Use the up and down arrows to the right of Animation Order to change the sequence in
which objects will appear (move objects up or down in the list).
 Under Start Animation set the timing (when objects will appear). Select each object and
then do one of the following:
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o To start the animation by clicking the object, select the On mouse click option.
o To start the animation automatically, select the Automatically option, and then
enter the number of seconds you want to have elapse since the previous
animation.
Effects Tab
 Click the Effects tab to set options for visual or sound effects.
 Under Entry animation and sound select the options you want.
 To preview the animation effects, click the Preview button.
 In the example above, the object will enter the screen with a Spiral animation and the
Chime sound will play.
Animating a text box containing bulleted text
 On the Order & Timing tab, the text box is selected with a check mark, and the On
mouse click option is chosen (to let the presenter control the slide show with mouse
clicks).
 On the Effects tab, the options set below will make each line of text enter the screen
with a Fly From Left animation, No sound will play, and when the next line of text
appears the previous line will change to a lighter color (a dimming effect). To preview
the animation effects, click the Preview button.
The series of images below show what the screen looks like after each mouse click when the
slide with the bulleted text (set with options as above) is displayed during a Slide Show. Notes
that the previous text points are dimmed as each subsequent line appears.
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2.10. Rehearse Timings:

The Rehearse Timing Tool allows you to practice giving an on-screen presentation,
regardless of any slide advance timings you may have set previously. The tool sets time not
only for the entire presentation, but also each individual slide, as you rehearse. Each time you
advance the slide, the time is recorded. You must be in Slide Sorter View to access the
Rehearse Timing Tool.
Sample Recorded Rehearsal Timings
To use the Rehearse Timing Tool, click the Rehearse Timing Tool.
When you have completed rehearsing, PowerPoint displays the total time for the rehearsed
presentation and asks if you want to record the new timings. If you click "Yes", these new
timings will replace any slide advance timings you may have previously set for the presentation.
Sample New Timings Dialog Box
Before you print your slide presentation, make sure the slide size and orientation is correct.
Also, decide whether you want to print in color or black and white.
Change these settings using the Page Setup and Print commands on the File menu.
Slide Setup
The Slide Setup dialog box has controls for slide size and orientation. Choose the appropriate
slide size and orientation before you do significant formatting in your presentation. Changing
slide orientation from portrait to landscape or vice versa may require editing and reformatting
slides.
Printing
To print your slide presentation, choose Print from the File menu, or click the Print button on the
toolbar. In the Print dialog box you can choose how many copies you want to print. Use the
Print What: drop-down list to select whether you want to print just the slides, notes, or handouts
with multiple slides per page.
2.12. Charts:
To insert an organization chart (depicts hierarchical relationships):
 First display the slide on which you want the chart to appear.
 On the Insert menu, point to Picture, and then click Organization Chart.
 A separate Microsoft Organization Chart window appears.
 Use the buttons at the top of the Organization Chart window to add text boxes to your
chart (above, below, or beside existing boxes).
 Click your mouse inside a box to edit the text inside of it.
 As shown in the example below, you can use this type of chart for almost any type of
information you want, not just managers, workers, and other positions within a company.
To create a bar or pie chart (or similar chart based on numbers in a datasheet):
 First display the slide on which you want the chart to appear.
 On the Insert menu, click Chart - or click the Insert Chart button on the PowerPoint
toolbar.
 A sample chart and datasheet (spreadsheet) appear on the screen as shown below.
 To replace the sample data, click a cell on the datasheet, and then type the information
you want.
 To change the chart type, on the Chart menu, click

Chart Type. In the Chart Type window, which
appears, click on the desired Chart type and sub-
type and then click the OK button.
 To return to PowerPoint, where you can move and

size the chart, click outside the chart on the
PowerPoint slide.
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 If you wish to re-edit the chart, double-click the chart on

the PowerPoint slide.
2.13. Summary:
At the end of this lesson you have learnt how to insert and format text, working with the pictures
and inserting images into a slide. The concept of Slide transition, Slide animation, Rehearse
timings allows you to automatically move to next slide without manual interaction. A layman
can also know more about the data results with the help of charts.

Hyperlink: Hyperlinks cause the selection of an object to result in a move to a new location
or the performance of an action.
Slide Transition: Slide Transition determine the effects applied when you move from one
slide to another during an on-screen presentation.
Slide Show Animation: Slide Show Animation can aid in focusing attention during a
presentation and make your slide show more interesting.
Rehearse Timings: The Rehearse Timing Tool allows you to practice giving an on-screen
presentation, regardless of any slide advance timings you may have set previously.
Slide Setup: The Slide Setup controls for slide size and orientation.

1. Explain the procedure to draw the objects in PowerPoint?
2. Define Hyperlink? Explain the procedure to create Hyperlinks in PowerPoint?
3. What is a Slide Miniature?
4. Define Rehearse Timing? Explain the procedure to set the rehearse timings to
slides?
2.16. References:

70
Fundamentals of IT 3.1 UNIT-III
UNIT - III
Microsoft Access
3.0 Objective:
This lesson provides an introduction to the fundamentals of Microsoft Access. It covers starting MS-
Access, creating Data bases, Tables, Queries, Forms, Reports, and Relational Data Bases.

3.1 Microsoft Access Introduction
3.2 Starting Microsoft Access
3.3 Creating and opening Data bases
3.4 Tables
3.5 Query
3.6 Relational Data Bases
3.7 Forms
3.8 Reports
3.9 Summary
3.3.Technical Terms
3.3.Model Questions
3.3.References
3.1. Microsoft Access:

Microsoft Access is a powerful program to create and manage your databases. It has many
built in features to assist you in constructing and viewing your information. Access is much more
involved and is a more genuine database application than other programs such as Microsoft
Works.
Database File: This is your main file that encompasses the entire
database and that is saved to your hard-drive or floppy disk.
Example studentDatabase.mdb
Table: A table is a collection of data about a specific topic. There can be
multiple tables in a database.
Example #1) Students
Example #2) Teachers
Field: Fields are the different categories within a Table. Tables usually contain multiple fields.
Example #1) Student LastName
Example #2) Student FirstName
Data types: Data types are the properties of each field. A field only has 1 data type.
3.2. Starting Microsoft Access:

Starting Microsoft access in two ways.
1. Double click on the Microsoft Access icon on the desktop.
2. Click on Start --> Programs --> Microsoft Access
3.3. Creating New and Opening Existing Databases:

If you start MS Access a window will appear as below.
The above Window gives you the option to:
 Create a New Database from scratch

 Use the wizard to create a New Database
 Open an existing database
 The white box gives you the most recent databases you have used. If you do not see the
one you had created, choose the More Files option and hit OK. Otherwise choose the
database you had previously used and click OK.
Create a database using the Database Wizard
1. When Microsoft Access first starts up, a dialog box is automatically displayed with options to
create a new database or open an existing one. If this dialog box is displayed, click Access
Database Wizards, pages, and projects and then click OK.
If you have already opened a database or closed the dialog box that displays when
Microsoft Access starts up, click New Database on the toolbar.
2. On the Databases tab, double-click the icon for the kind of database you want to create.
3. Specify a name and location for the database.
4. Click Create to start defining your new database
Create a database without using the Database Wizard
1. When Microsoft Access first starts up, a dialog box is automatically displayed with options to
create a new database or open an existing one. If this dialog box is displayed, click Blank
Access Database, and then click OK.
If you have already opened a database or closed the dialog box that displays when
Microsoft Access starts up, click New Database on the toolbar, and then double-click the
Blank Database icon on the General tab.
2. Specify a name and location for the database and click Create. (Below is the screen that
shows up following this step).
3.4. Tables:
A table is a collection of data about a specific topic, such as students or contacts. Using a separate
table for each topic means that you store that data only once, which makes your database more
efficient, and reduces data-entry errors.
Tables organize data into columns (called fields) and rows (called records).
Create a Table from scratch in Design view
1. If you haven't already done so, switch to the Database Window You can press F11 to switch
to the Database window from any other window.
2. Double-Click on "Create table in Design view".

(DESIGN VIEW)
3. Define each of the fields in your table.

o Under the Field Name column, enter the categories of your table.
o Under Data Type column, enter the type you want for your categories.
 The attribute of a variable or field determines the kind of data it can hold. For
example, in a Microsoft Access database, the Text and Memo field data
types allow the field to store either text or numbers, but the Number data
type will allow the field to store numbers only. Number data type fields store
numerical data that will be used in mathematical calculations. Use the
Currency data type to display or calculate currency values. Other data types
are Date/Time, Yes/No, Auto Number, and OLE object (Picture).
o Under the Description column, enter the text that describes what your field is. (This
field is optional).
o For example
Primary Key
 One or more fields (columns) whose value or values uniquely identify each record in a table.
A primary key does not allow Null values and must always have a unique value. A primary
key is used to relate a table to foreign keys in other tables.
 In the above example, the Stdid # field the primary key, meaning that every student has a
student identification number.
o To do this, simply select the Stdid # field and select the primary key button.
o After you do this, Save the table
Switching Views
 Views are two types. They are Design view and Datasheet view. You can select the views
from view menu from menu bar.
Datasheet View Design View
Displays the view, which allows you Displays the view, which allows you to enter
to enter raw data into your database fields, data-types, and descriptions into your
table. database table.
Entering Data
 Click on the Datasheet View and simply start "chugging" away by entering the data into
each field.

Manipulating Data
 Adding a new row

o Simply drop down to a new line and enter the information.
 Updating a record
o Simply select the record and field you want to update, and change its data with new
contents
 Deleting a record
o Simply select the entire row and hit the Delete Key on the keyboard
3.5. Query:
Queries are questions about your database. You can design a query manually, specifying all of the
tables and fields you wish to display on your screen, or you can use a Query Wizard to create
simple displays in predefined formats.
QUERY WIZARD
Access provides several query formats
• simple - looks like the Table datasheet view
• crosstab – is similar to a spreadsheet with summary information inserted into the intersection of
each row and column
• find duplicates – lists the records which have duplicate values in any specified field
• find unmatched – compares two tables and identifies records, which do not have a match in a
related table.
Using Query Wizard
From Database window:
• Click Query Tab
• Click New
• Select Query type from list (OK)
• Follow prompts:
- select Tables / Queries (Next)
- select Fields (Next)
- create a Title
- click Finish.
In general, there are two types of query: Select and Action. A select query gathers, collates and
presents information in usable forms. An action query makes changes in specified records of an
existing table, or creates a new table. In this course, we will concentrate on select queries only.
Sometimes, information is scattered in many tables. For example, customers' information is stored
in Customers table while their ordering information is stored in Orders table. In order to retrieve
information from more than one table, queries are used. Moreover, queries are capable of
performing the functions of filters, namely adding selection criteria and sorting instructions. In
addition, queries allow calculation of new fields.
In contrast to a filter, a query is reusable. When a table is closed, the selection criteria and/or
sorting instructions will be lost. Therefore, in order to retrieve the same records again, the filter has
to be recreated. However, a query allows the selection criteria and/or sorting instructions to be
saved and reused.
Create a Query
Find all the products under the category Beverages and the total costs for each of these products.
In addition, you have to find the suppliers' information of these products.
1. Click the Query button and then the New button in the Database window.
2. Click New Query in the resulting dialog box to open the design window for a new query.
3. From the Add Table dialog box, select Categories, Products and Suppliers tables. Click
Close to close the Add Table dialog box.
4. Drag the Category Name and Description fields from the Categories field list to the first
and second column in the grid. Then drag the Product Name fields from the Products field
list to the third column. Finally, drag the * field from the Suppliers field list to the fourth
column.
5. In the fifth column of the grid, type Cost: [Unit Price]*[Units in Stock]*0.7.
6. Select the Criteria row in the Category Name column and enter Beverages.
7. Run the query by clicking the Run button (!) in the tool bar.
8. To print the result, choose Print command from the File menu.
9. To save the query, choose Save command from the File menu.
3.6. Relationships:
After you have set up multiple tables in your Microsoft Access database, you need a way of
telling Access how to bring that information back together again. The first step in this process is to
define relationships between your tables. After you have done that, you can create queries, forms,
and reports to display information from several tables at once.
A relationship works by matching data in key fields - usually a field with the same name in both
tables. In most cases, these matching fields are the primary key from one table, which provides a
unique identifier for each record, and a foreign key in the other table. For example, teachers can be
associated with the students they're responsible for by creating a relationship between the
teacher's table and the student's table using the TeacherID fields. Having met the criteria above,
follow these steps for creating relationships between tables.
1. In the database window view, at the top, click on Tools ---> Relationships
2. Select the Tables you want to link together, by clicking on them and selecting the Add
Button
3. Drag the primary key of the Parent table (Teacher in this case), and drop it into the same
field in the Child table (Student in this case.)
4. Select Enforce Referential Integrity
o When the Cascade Update Related Fields check box is set, changing a primary key
value in the primary table automatically updates the matching value in all related
records.
o When the Cascade Delete Related Records check box is set, deleting a record in
the primary table deletes any related records in the related table
5. Click Create and Save the Relationship
2.7. Forms:
A form is nothing more than a graphical representation of a table. You can add, update, and delete
records in your table by using a form.
A form is very good to use when you have numerous fields in a table. This way you can see all the
fields in one screen, whereas if you were in the table view (datasheet) you would have to keep
scrolling to get the field you desire.
Create a Form using the Wizard
It is a very good idea to create a form using the wizard, unless you are an advanced user and know
what you are doing. Microsoft Access does a very good job of creating a form using the wizard. The
following steps are needed to create a basic form:
1. Switch to the Database Window. You can do this by pressing F11 on the keyboard.
2. Click on the Forms button under Objects on the left side of screen.
3. Double click on Create Form Using Wizard
4. On the next screen select the fields you want to view on your form. Most of the time you
would select all of them.
5. Click Next.
6. Select the layout you wish.
7. Click Next.
8. Select the style you desire.
9. Click Next.
3.Give you form a name, and select Open the Form and enter information.
3.Select Finish.
3.You should see your form. To adjust the design of your form, simply hit the design button
(same as with the tables), and adjust your form accordingly.
3.8. Reports:
A report is an effective way to present your data in a printed format. Because you have control over
the size and appearance of everything on a report, you can display the information the way you
want to see it.
Create a Report using the Wizard
As with the Form, it is a very good idea to create a report using the wizard, unless you are an
advanced user. Microsoft Access does a very good job using the wizard to create reports.
1. Switch to the Database Window. You can do this by pressing F11 on the keyboard.
2. Click on the Reports button under Objects on the left side of screen.
3. Double click on Create Report Using Wizard.
4. On the next screen select the fields you want to view on your form. Most of the time you
would select all of them.
5. Click Next.
6. Select if you would like to group your files. Keep repeating this step for as many groupings
as you would like.
7. Click Next.
8. Select the layout and the paper orientation you desire.
9. Click Next.
3.Select the style you desire.
3.Click Next.
3.Give you report a name, and select Preview the Report.
3.Select Finish.
14.You should see your report. To adjust the design of your report, simply hit the design button,
and adjust your report accordingly.
3.9. Summary:
At the end of this lesson you have learnt what is a database, which contains Tables,
Queries, Forms and Reports. Table is a collection of data to a specific content which contains some
rows and columns. You have learnt the procedure how to create tables and Queries. Queries are
questionnaires to a database. A form is nothing more than a graphical representation of a table.
You can add, update, and delete records in your table by using a form. Reports are used to present
your data in a printed format.

Database: A database is a collection of information stored in a computer in a systematic way,
such that a computer program can consult it to answer questions.
Table: A table is a collection of data about a specific topic, such as students or contacts.
Primary Key: Primary Key is a field or whose value or values uniquely identify each record in a
table.
Query: Queries are questionnaires to a database.
Form: A form is nothing more than a graphical representation of a table.

Relationship: Relationship is used to bring the information back together again.
Report: Reports are used to present your data in a printed format.

1. Explain about the creation of databases in MS-Access.
2. Explain the procedure to create a Table with an example?
3. Define a Query? Explain the procedure to create query-using relationships?
4. Explain different data types in MS-Access.
5. What is a Primary Key?
6. What is a Form? Write the procedure to create a form in different ways?
3.3. References:
UNIT-III
Microsoft Excel
Objectives:
This lesson introduces the basic features of Microsoft Excel, a spreadsheet
program, entering and editing data, formatting, formulas, page setup, and printing
spreadsheets.
Structure
3.1 Excel Features
3.2 Starting Microsoft Excel
3.3. Formula Bar
3.3 Working with Excel
3.4 Entering and Editing Data
3.5 Row and Column Headings
3.6 Auto Fill
3.7 Custom Fill Lists
3.8 Row or Column Size
3.10.Inserting Rows and Columns
3.3.References
3.3.Charts
3.3.Summary
3.14.Technical Terms
3.15.Model Questions
3.16.References
3.1. Features of Excel:

Answer Wizard: Like word, excel has a new feature called answer wizard. It uses “IntelliSense” to
determine what kind of work you need, based upon your questions.
Autocalc: When we selected a group of numbers, the sum automatically appears on the status
area. We can see average, count the numbers by right clicking on the status area.
Auto Complete: Auto complete will try to figure out what you intend to type, based upon the
entries you have already made.
Auto Correct: Excel can automatically correct the mistakes. It will not allow two consecutive initial
caps, capitalizing names of days and so on. You can create your own auto correct entries.
Drag And Drop: Like other office features we can drag and drop the group of cells using mouse.
We can drag the specified portion of from one worksheet to other.
Cell tips and Scroll Tips: When you touch the scroll bar it will display the row and column number
that you are heading for. This is great for large worksheets. You can use Cell tips to read notes
you’ve made for yourself in cells.
Data Map: It is having a data map feature. We can make maps of different regions in different
countries. This can be quite impressive in presentations. This can be helping you in our business
matters.
Easier retrieval of Documents: It has greatly streamlined file management. It can quickly find
worksheets and you can easily delete or rename files from the open dialog box.
Number Formatting: It is easy to format the numbers with Excel’s new number-formatting feature.
There are many types of formats here like telephone numbers, dollar amounts, and dates.
Templates and Wizards: A variety of templates (predefined) formats available with excel for use in
business organizations. We can have a template wizard to link database with worksheets. If we
made changes in the worksheet, automatically database updated.
3.2. Starting Excel:
On the PC, select Start, Programs, and Microsoft Excel from the Start list.
Components of the Excel Window
Besides the usual window components (close box, title bar, scroll bars, etc.), an Excel window has several
unique elements identified in the figure below:
3.3. Formula Bar:
3.4. Formula Bar:

In addition to the other toolbars the formula bar is located under the formatting toolbar at the top of
the Excel worksheet. Use the formula bar to enter and edit worksheet data.
The contents of the active cell always appear in the formula bar. When you click the mouse in the
formula bar, an X and a check mark appear. You can click the check icon to confirm and complete
editing, or the X to abandon editing.
3.5. Working with Excel:

Opening and Closing worksheet
To open an existing Excel workbook, choose Open from the File menu or click the Open tool on
the toolbar. Excel will display the Open dialog box, which is similar in appearance and function to
the Save As dialog box. It contains a File Name: box for you to type a file name.
To open a file, select the appropriate location by clicking on the down pointing arrow next to the
Look In: selection box. Excel will display all Excel files found there. Select the file you wish to open
and click Open to open the file.
Saving a worksheet
To save an untitled Excel workbook, from the File menu choose Save As or click the Save button
on the toolbar. The Save As dialog box contains a text box for you to type a specific filename, a
"Save File as Type:" box to save your workbook in a different format that other programs can read,
a selection box to designate the folder and drive in which to save the file, and a "Places Bar" that
offers other locations to save your file.
Creating a New Workbook

If you are already in Excel and you want to create a new workbook, choose New from the File
menu or click the New tool on the toolbar.
Managing Multiple Workbooks
Excel enables you to have more than one workbook open simultaneously. Each open workbook
appears on the Window menu. The document with the check next to it is the active document. To
switch to another document, simply choose that document from the Window menu. To navigate
between worksheets within a workbook, click the worksheet tab you want to activate. Double-click a
worksheet tab to change its name.
3.6. Entering and Editing Data:

Entering Data
You can enter text, numbers and dates in an Excel worksheet. In Excel¹s terminology, numbers
and dates are called values and text is referred to as a label. To enter data of any type, click on
the cell you want to contain that data, and then type the information you want in the cell. When you
begin typing, your data also appears in the formula bar. When you have finished typing the data for
the active cell, press the Return or Enter key.
Editing Data
The easiest way to edit the contents of a cell is to select the cell and then retype the entry. The new
entry replaces the old contents. For example, to change the number in cell C8 to 123, select cell
C8, type 123 and press Return. This method works well with numbers, but is more difficult when
editing long text labels or formulas.
The formula bar gives you more flexibility while editing. When the mouse pointer moves into the
formula bar, it changes shape to an I-beam, signifying that you can enter or edit text. Text in the
active cell appears in the formula bar and you can edit it there. Use the mouse to select the text
you want to change in the formula bar and then type the new text. Excel automatically replaces
what is selected. Don't forget to press the Return key when you finish editing a cell.
You can also edit labels and values directly in cells. Double-click on the cell you want to edit. This
puts an insertion point in the cell. Edit the contents of that cell.
Moving the Active Cell
Cell selection and movement around the worksheet are similar operations in Excel. To select a
given cell or make it active, simply click on that cell. Use the mouse or the arrow keys to move
around the worksheet. For example, if you press the right arrow key twice you move two cells to the
right.
Name box
The Name box displays the reference of the selected cells.
3.6. Row and Column Headings:

Letters and numbers identify the rows and columns on an Excel worksheet. The intersection of a
row and a column is called a cell. Use row and column headings to specify a cell's reference. For
example, the cell located where column C and row 8 intersect is called C8.
Active cell
The active cell has a dark border around it to indicate your position in the worksheet. All text and
numbers that you type are inserted into the active cell. Click the mouse on a cell to make it active.
Fill handle
The lower right corner of the active cell has a small box called a Fill Handle. Your mouse changes
to a cross hair when you are on the Fill Handle. The Fill Handle helps you copy data and create
series of information. For example, if you type Monday in the active cell and then drag the Fill
Handle over four cells, Excel automatically inserts Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and
Saturday.
Worksheet tabs
An Excel workbook consists of 3 worksheets by default. Use the worksheet tabs at the bottom of
the screen to navigate between worksheets within a workbook.
Go To Command
A quick way to move a large distance on a worksheet is with the Go To command on the Edit
menu. When you select the Go To command, a dialog box prompts you to identify the cell. Enter
the cell reference and click OK or press Return.
Clearing Cell Contents

To clear the contents of a cell choose Clear from the Edit menu. Then, select what you want to
clear from the cell: All, Formats, Contents, or Notes. Most frequently you will want to clear the
Contents of a cell. Pressing the Delete key also clears the contents of cells.
Undoing Mistakes
If you make a terrible mistake and you accidentally delete important data. Use the Undo command
on the Edit menu or the Undo tool to correct the mistake.
Copying and Moving Data
Copy selected data from one cell to another with the Copy and Paste commands, or with the Drag
and Drop procedure. If you want to move data use the Cut and Paste commands, or the Drag and
Drop procedure.
Drag and Drop
This procedure does not involve the Clipboard and works best when moving data a short distance.
To move cells, position the mouse on the cell borders. Wait until the mouse pointer changes to a
left-pointing arrow then press and drag the data to the new location.
3.7. Auto Fill:
A series of numbers, month’s names or week names can be filled automatically in Excel.
For doing this simply type the first word in a cell then place the mouse pointer on the fill handle and
then drag it either horizontally or vertically so that Excel fills the data automatically.
3.8. Custom Fill Lists:
Excel providing a facility to create our own fill lists we can create our college courses, names, a
series of your colleague’s name. These are the steps to create custom lists.
 Select Tools/Options.
 Click on custom lists.
 Click on New list on custom area.
 Type your list of entries in list entries area.
 Select add button.
 Your new list will be created.
3.9. Row or Column Size:

The height of a row or the width of a column can be changed to any desired value.
Row height
Select the row, which you want to increase the height, select Row from format menu. Specify the
value. Then automatically the height of the Row increases.
Or
Select the row, then place the mouse pointer on the bottom boarders of the row then the mouse
pointer changes. Press left mouse button and drag the mouse downwards until the desired row
height reaches.
Column Height
Select the Column, which you want to increase the width. Select Column from format menu.
Specify the value. Then automatically the width of the column increases.
Or
Select the column, then place the mouse pointer on the top boarders of the column then the mouse
pointer changes. Press left mouse button and drag the mouse downwards until the desired column
width reaches.
3.10. Inserting Rows and Columns:
Select Insert menu form menu bar and select row option. Then automatically the row will be
inserted. Similarly select Insert menu from menu bar and select column option. Then automatically
a column will be inserted.
3.11. References:
About cell and range references

A reference identifies a cell or a range of cells on a worksheet and tells Microsoft Excel where to
look for the values or data you want to use in a formula. With references, you can use data
contained in different parts of a worksheet in one formula or use the value from one cell in several
formulas. You can also refer to cells on other sheets in the same workbook.
Relative reference
Relative cell references are references to cells relative to the position of the formula. When you
create a formula, references to cells or ranges are usually based on their position relative to the cell
that contains the formula. In the following example
cell c2 contains the formula =A2*b2; Microsoft Excel finds the value one cell above and one cell to
the left of c2. This is known as a relative reference. When you copy a formula that uses relative
references, Excel automatically adjusts the references in the pasted formula to refer to different
cells relative to the position of the formula. The formula in cell c2 =a2*b2, the formula has been
copied to cell C3. Excel has adjusted the formula in cell C3 to =A3*b3, which refers to the cell i.e.,
one cell above and to the left of cell C3.
Absolute reference
Absolute references, which are cell references that always refer to cells in a specific location. If a
dollar sign precedes the letter and/or number, such as $A$1, the column and/or row reference is
absolute. Relative references automatically adjust when you copy them, but absolute references do
not. For example:
The total amount is calculated by the formula rat*qty + vat. The fixed vat price has to be applied to
all the transactions. Here we are applying absolute reference for the cell f2. i.e., $F$2.
Named reference
You can assign names to cells or ranges of cells. When you do that, you can use the names in your
formulas. For example, if you had a column named QTY and a column named Price, you could
create a formula like = QTY * Price.
3.3. Charts:
Excel has features for preparing charts for the selected data in a worksheet. A chart can be drawn
in the same worksheet in which data is available or can be drawn as a separate chart sheet. Chart
sheets have again tabs in the tab area, which operates as worksheets tabs. All charts in Excel are
available in chart wizard so that a chart can be prepared very easily by using this special chart
wizard.
The Best Chart Types
There are a lot of different chart types out there, and it can be confusing to work out just which
chart type you need for a particular set of data. Some of the most common types of chart and their
uses are explained below. The definitions of the charts remain the same no matter what operating
system you use, or what spreadsheet program.
Pie Chart Type
Pie charts should only be used if you want to show proportions. This chart type emphasizes the
relationship between the whole and each part of that whole. A good example of this would be to
display data on what spreadsheet program is preferred by 100 of the top spreadsheet experts.
Column/Bar Chart Type
The bar chart is undoubtedly the king of all chart types. Its simplicity makes it so useful for a range
of data types. It is the best chart type to use if you need to compare values.
Scatter Chart Type
Scatter charts (also known as XY-Scatter charts) can be used when you need to display two
related sets of data on a chart, particularly if you want to make predictions based on the data.
Line Chart Type
Line charts should generally only be used where there is a period of time involved. These charts
are perfect for displaying trends. For example, if you want to chart the increase in use of open
source spreadsheets during a 5-year

5 period, the line chart would
ld be an excellent choice for your
chart type.
The first step to making our chart is to select the range of data to be charted.
The Chart Wizard can be started by using the Chart Wizard button on the Standard command bar
(left) or from the Chart... button
ton on the Insert menu.. The data can be selected prior to running the
chart wizard, filled in while running the chart wizard, or added to the chart later. The Chart Wizard
runs through a series of steps that help you set up your chart.
Step 1 - Select a Chart Type
The Standard Types tab of Step 1 of the Chart Wizard shows a list of chart types on the left side,
and several chart sub-types
types on the right. The Custom Types tab has a number of built-in
built custom
types of charts, including several combination charts.
charts. You can add your favorite custom chart types
to the User-Defined list.
Step 2 - Source Data

The Data Range tab gives you a preview of the chart style you selected in Step 1, indicating where
the chart's source data range is, and allowing you to plot by row or by column. The first dialog box
below shows a column chart, plotted by rows. The second shows an area chart plotted by columns.
If you click in the Data range box, or click on the Range selection button , the dialog box shrinks
to the size of just the data range box, obscuring less of the worksheet, so you are able to adjust this
range with your mouse.
When the Source Data dialog box is activated, a “marching ants” border, shown in unanimated
form below, highlights the source data range.
Clicking on the Series tab gives you the option to add or remove some of the data series in the
selected source data range. You can change the Name, Values (Y axis), and Category labels (X
axis) of each series, by editing the contents of the respective box,
box, or by clicking on the Range
selection button , then dragging with the mouse.
Step 3 - Chart Options
This step allows you to provide a title for the chart and for the chart axes, to select which and what
kind of axes to put in your chart, and whether
whether to show other options, such as gridlines, a legend,
and data labels.
Step 4 - Chart Location
Here you tell Excel where to place the chart. You can put the chart onto its own sheet with a name
that you enter in the box (where it says "Chart1") or you can embed the chart as a chart object in
one of the existing worksheets (or chart sheets), which you select from the drop down list.
3.3. Summary:
In this lesson you learnt the basic features of Spread Sheet. Excel is used for performing
accounting problems. In this chapter we introduced the concept of inserting, modifying and deleting
rows/columns. We have learnt the procedure of changing the size of rows/columns and changing
the data in a cell. Excel is having different types of referenc
references
es like Relative, Absolute and Named
references. The data can be represented in many ways; using the different types of charts we can
represent the data in effective manner.

Active Cell:: The active cell has a dark border around it to
to indicate your position in the worksheet.
Relative Reference:: Relative cell references are references to cells relative to the position of the
formula.
Absolute Reference:: Absolute references, which are cell references that always refer to cells in a
specific location.
Formula Bar:: Use the formula bar to enter and edit worksheet data.
3.15.
15. Model Questions:
1. Explain the features o MS-Excel
MS
2. Explain different references in MS-Excel
MS
3. Explain the Chart feature in MS
MS-Excel.
4. What is Auto Fill ? Explain Custom Fill List feature MS-Excel.
MS
3.16. References:
Lesson –12
Microsoft Excel
3.0 Objectives:
This lesson introduces the basic features of Microsoft Excel, Pictures and Auto shapes,
Worksheet Formatting, Worksheet Printing, Worksheet as Database and Macro in Excel.
Structure
3.1. Pictures and Auto shapes
3.2. Worksheet Formatting
3.3. Functions
3.4. Worksheet as Data base
3.5 Worksheet Printing
3.6 Macro
3.7 Summary
3.8 Technical Terms
3.10. References
3.1. Pictures and Auto shapes:

Pictures
Excel has a feature of inserting pre-defined pictures or clipart into the worksheets. All these
features are available under Insert Menu of the menu bar.
Inserting Clipart
Select the worksheet area in which you want to insert clipart. Select insert menu from the menu
bar, click picture, and clipart. Now we see lot of pictures in a dialog box. Select Clipart tab,
category, select an image and click insert. Then automatically the selected image will be displayed
in the worksheet and then figure will have small squares around the surface. These are called
handles and are used to increase or decrease the size of the image.
Inserting picture form file

We can also insert pictures form a file. For this select insert menu from the menu bar and click
picture from file. Then we see a dialog box in that select the required folder in which the file is
available and the name of the file and click on the Insert button. Then the pictures from the file will
be inserted into the worksheet.
Inserting Auto shapes
An auto shape can be inserted into a worksheet. For this select Insert menu from the menu bar and
click picture and in it Auto shape. Then different shapes will appear in the dialog box. From that
select the required auto shape. Now place the mouse pointer in the sheet where you want to draw
the auto shape. The mouse pointer looks like a + sign. Then press the left mouse button and drag
the mouse diagonally or towards right so that the selected auto shape will appear in the worksheet.
After reaching the required auto shape then release the left mouse button. The size of the auto
shape can be increased or decreased and also you can rotate the auto shape by an angle using
the auto shape tool bar.
3.2. Worksheet Formatting:

Alignment of cells
Generally in Excel by default all the text will be aligned left and numbers to the right. But we can
align text or number in the desired fashion. Select Format menu from the menu bar, Cells, then
activate the Alignment Tab. There are two types of cell alignments they are Horizontal and Vertical
alignments.
In the case of Horizontal alignment we have default option left (contents are aligned left), right
(contents are aligned right), center (contents are aligned center), fill (contents are duplicated so that
they fill the cells), justify (aligned left and right) options available.
In the case of vertical alignment we have Top (contents are aligned top), center (contents are
aligned center), bottom (contents are aligned bottom), justify (contents are aligned top and bottom)
options are available.
Excel allows Text Wrap option. When we type text, if the text overflows then adjacent cells will be
used. But in the text wrap option there will not be any overflow instead the cell width will be
increased to accommodate the text.
Number Formatting
Entering and formatting numbers
Numbers are referred as constant values or values. In addition to the numbers 0 to 9, you can enter
the following symbols. That are
+ -( ), . $ %
It treats commas and other dolor signs correctly, and it accepts numbers entered in scientific notation
(2.5E+2)
Different Number Formats

General
Number
Currency
Accounting
Date
Time
Percentage
Fraction
Scientific
Text
Special
Custom
When we enter any number it will take the number in general format. We can change the type of cell
after entering the numbers in a cell.
For example If you activate a cell in the General format, then type a number with a dolor sign ($), the
cell’s format will change from general to currency format.
When a number is too big to be properly displayed in its cell, excel after displays a series of pound
signs (######) instead of the number. Some times excel switch to scientific notation to accommodate
a large number.
Entering Dates and Times
You can enter dates and times by typing item in most commonly accepted American formats.
11/7/97
11-Nov-97
Nov 7, 1997
The excel stores dates and times as serial numbers using January 1, 1900 at the stating date that in
one (1). The serial number 2 stand January 2, 1990. You can change the date format to number, and
number to date. If we enter 8/93, the system automatically displays accepts as Aug-93.
If we enter numbers starting with ‘ (single quote), the entered data will be treated as text.
Fonts for Cells

To change the, font size, font style, Bold, Italic and Underline, select the cells in which we want to
change the font. Select Format menu from the menu bar, Cells, then activate the Font Tab. Now
apply font style, size, bold, italic etc., and click OK. Now the selected cells will be formatted
accordingly.
Auto Format
Excel has some pre-defined formatting schemes, and those can be utilized directly instead of
formatting worksheet.
Select the cells, which are to be auto formatted and then select Format from the menu bar and click
Auto Format. Then we get auto format dialog box on the screen. Here click the required format
style, and click O.K. Then the selected cells will be formatted according to the selected pre-defined
auto format.
3.3. Functions:
The various MS-Excel functions are classified as:
1. Statistical function:
Function Purpose
SUM() It computes the sum of a particular defined range or range
names. Ex: sum(a1:a4)
Average() It computes the average of a particular defined range or range
numbers. Ex:- Average(a1:a4)
Count() It counts the number of non blank cells in a particular defined
range or range names. Ex:- count(a1:a4)
Max() It will display the maximum value from a particular defined
range or range names. Ex:- max(a1:a4)
Min() It will display the minimum value from a particular defined
range or range names. Ex:- min(a1:a4)
2. Mathematical function:
Function Purpose
ABS() It will calculate the absolute value of a number. Ex:- abs(-9) will
display as 9.
Int() It will round off the number down to its nearest integer. Ex:-
int(19.34) will display as 19
Mod() It will calculate the remainder after integer division.
Ex:-mod(5,2) will display 1
Round() It will round off the number down to a specified number of
decimal places. Ex:- round(a1,2) will display 19.34 if cell a1
contains 19.345678
Sqrt() It will calculate the square root of a positive number. Ex:-
sqrt(9) will display 3.
3. Trigonometric functions:
These functions are used for trigonometric calculations on a list of values. Some commonly
functions like SIN, COS, TAN, ACOS, ATAN, ACOSH, ATANH and DEGREES etc.
Syntax:- function (cell address/value)
4. Financial functions:
These functions are used to compute loans, depreciation, cash flow etc., Some commonly
used financial functions are RATE, FV, PMT etc.,
Rate(): It calculates the rate of interest per period. The syntax is RATE(nper, pmt, pv, fv,
type, guess). Here nper is the total payment period, pmt is payment made per period, pv is
present value of the total amount, fv is the future value, type is the number 0 or 1 depending
upon whether the payment is to be made at the end of the period or at the beginning
respectively. Guess is the guess value for the rate of interest.
For example, amount of loan = Rs.50,000 to be paid in 24 monthly installments of 3,000
each. Here nper = 24, pmt=-3,000, pv=50,000 fv=0.The default guess is 10%. Now
RATE(24,-3000,50000,0,0,10) will display 1% as rate of interest.
PMT(): The purpose of PMT() function is to compute the equal periodic payments required
to pay off a loan. The general syntax of PMT() function is PMT(rate, nper, pv, fv, type)
Here fv and type are optional. Suppose if you want to take a loan of Rs.2,00,000/-. The
annual interest rate is 14% and has to be paid in 15 years in equal monthly installments.
Here rate is 14%/12, nper is 180 (15 * 12) and pv is 2,00,000. Here fv is zero by putting all
these in the formula
Pmt(14/12,180,200000).
3.4. Worksheets as Data Bases:

Excel is a spreadsheet application but can also be a used as a database. There are two limits for
using Excel as a database. The first one is that only one person at a time can enter data into the
database.
The second limit is a matter of quantity of data. Each sheet in an Excel workbook comprises 65,000
rows and 256 columns. An Excel workbook can comprise up to 256 sheets. We are talking about
4,292,608,000 cells.
Excel needs to recognize your set of data as a database or you will not have access to any of the
database functionalities from the "Data" menu item (Sort, Filter, Form, Subtotal).
The DATABASE is a set of columns and rows in your spreadsheets without empty rows and empty
columns. Many cells can be empty but never an entire row or an entire column.
The database must have a single title row. Use "Text Wrap" in Format/Cells/Alignment to write
more than one line of text in one cell.
The DATABASE must be surrounded by empty rows and columns (row "1" and column "A" of the
worksheet are considered preceded by an empty row or column).
So anybody can develop a database in Excel. You don't need to develop complex forms to enter
data, you don't need to develop queries you just use SUMPRODUCT, INDEX/MATCH and
SUBTOTAL formulas to develop reports by yourself when you need them and that have the layout
that you need.
Excel is the most user friendly analyzing and reporting application so they don't need to train a few
analysts on other reporting applications creating a bottleneck at the report development level.
Adopting Excel also allows all the analyst and decision makers to develop significant analysis and
reports improving the bottom line of the whole corporation.
Using Data Forms
A data form is used to allow easy manipulation of information in an Excel data list. While a list is
small--for instance, when it fits on one screen--it is easier to enter or change information directly.
When you start getting a larger number of records, then you may find using a data form to be
easier. A data form is a dialog box that displays one complete record from your list at a time. Excel
considers a record to be a single row in your data list, so a data form basically extracts the
information from a row, uses the field labels from the first row of the list, and displays the
information so you can understand it easier. To utilize a data form, follow these two simple steps:
Creating Data Forms in Excel
When you have to input a data into a worksheet, using an Excel generated data form may make
the job easier. Your worksheet should contain column titles as in the example below:
Click in the first cell in the row directly below your titles, then select Data, Form. If you receive the
message below, click OK.
Your data form is created and ready for data entry.
Type your data, tabbing between fields and press Enter or click New after each record to add it to
the worksheet.
When you are done entering records, click Close.
Sorting Data:
1. Select the columns that you want to sort.

2. Click Data>Sort.
3. In the sort window choose the column or columns you want to sort by.
4. If you have a heading row make sure the Heading row option is selected.
5. Click OK.
6. The data will now be sorted.
Filter Data:
1. Click Data>Filter>AutoFilter.
2. The first row of the spreadsheet becomes the filtering row.
3. To filter for specific data, click on the down arrow next to the head of the column you want
to filter by.
4. Then select the criteria you want to filter for.
5. You may filter by multiple columns at once by repeating steps 3-4 for each column you want
to filter by.
3.5. Worksheet Printing:

Page Breaks
To set page breaks within the worksheet, select the row you want to appear just below the page
break by clicking the row's label. Then choose Insert|Page Break from the menu bar. You may
need to click the double down arrow at the bottom of the menu list to view this option.
Page Setup
Select File|Page Setup from the menu bar to format the page, set margins, and add headers and
footers.
Page
Select the Orientation under the Page tab in the Page Setup window to make the page Landscape
or Portrait. The size of the worksheet on the page can also be formatting under Scaling. To force a
worksheet to print only one page wide so all the columns appear on the same page, select Fit to 1
page(s) wide.
 Margins
Change the top, bottom, left, and right margins under the Margins tab. Enter values in the
header and footer fields to indicate how far from the edge of the page this text should appear.
Check the boxes for centering horizontally or vertically on the page.
 Header/Footer
Add preset headers and footers to the page by clicking the drop-down menus under the
Header/Footer tab.
To modify a preset header or footer, or to make your own, click the Custom Header and
Custom Footer buttons. A new window will open allowing you to enter text in the left, center, or
right on the page.
Format Text - Click this button after highlighting the text to change the font, size, and style.
Page Number - Insert the page number of each page.
Total Number of Pages - Use this feature along with the page number to create strings such as
"page 1 of 15".
Date - Add the current date.
Time - Add the current time.
File Name - Add the name of the workbook file.
Tab Name - Add the name of the worksheet's tab.
 Sheet
Check Gridlines if you want the gridlines dividing the cells to be printed on the page. If the
worksheet is several pages long and only the first page includes titles for the columns, select
Rows to repeat at top to choose a title row that will be printed at the top of each page.
Print Preview
Select File|Print Preview from the menu bar to view how the worksheet will print. Click the Next
and Previous buttons at the top of the window to display the pages and click the Zoom button to
view the pages closer. Make page layout modifications needed by clicking the Page Setup button.
Click Close to return to the worksheet or Print to continue printing.
Print
To print the worksheet, select File|Print from the menu bar.
 Print Range - Select either all pages or a range of pages to print.

 Print What - Select selection of cells highlighted on the worksheet, the active worksheet, or
all the worksheets in the entire workbook.
 Copies - Choose the number of copies that should be printed. Check the Collate box if the
pages should remain in order.
Click OK to print.
3.6. Macro:
Macros can speed up any common editing sequence you may execute in an Excel spreadsheet. In
Macro two options are there. They are Recording a Macro and Running a Macro.
Recording A Macro
In this example we will make a simple macro that will set all the margins on the page to one inch.
 Click Tools|Macro|Record New Macro from the menu bar.
 Name the macro in the Macro name field. The name cannot contain spaces and must not
begin with a number.
 If you would like to assign a shortcut key to the macro for easy use, enter the letter under
Shortcut key. Enter a lower case letter to make a CTRL+number shortcut and enter an
upper case letter to assign a CTRL+SHIFT+number shortcut key. If you select a shortcut
key that Excel already uses, your macro will overwrite that function.
 Select an option from the Store macro in drop-down menu.
 Enter a description of the macro in the Description field. This is for your reference only so
you remember what the macro does.
 Click OK when you are ready to start recording.
 Select options from the drop down menus and Excel will record the options you choose
from the dialog boxes, such as changing the margins on the Page Setup window. Select
File|Page Setup and change all the margins to 1". Press OK. Replace this step with
whatever commands you want your macro to execute. Select only options that modify the
worksheet. Toggle actions such as View|Toolbars that have no effect on the worksheet will
not be recorded.
 Click the Stop button the recording toolbar. The macro is now saved.
Running A Macro
 To run a macro you have created, select Tools|Macro|Macros from the menu bar.
 From the Macros window, highlight the Macro name in the list and click Run.
 If the macro is long and you want to stop it while it is running, press BREAK (hold CTRL
and press PAUSE).
3.7. Summary:
In this lesson we have learnt how to insert graphics in Excel. You have learnt the usage of
functions. Functions are differentiated into different types. We can use the functions with respect to
our application. It is the best way to see the output in print preview fashion before we are going for
final print. Worksheet can also be used as a Database. You have learnt the concept of using Data
Forms. By using the Data Form we can enter the data and treat it as a record. We can sort the data
and can filter the data with respect to our criteria.

Data Form: A data form is used to allow easy manipulation of information in an Excel data list.
Page Orientation: Page Orientation is used to set the page Landscape or Portrait.

1. Explain the usage of functions of Excel?
2. Explain the procedure to use the Data Forms in Excel?
3. Explain the concept of formatting data in excel?
4. How you can use the worksheet as a Database? Explain.
3.10. References:
Fundamentals of IT 1 Introduction to ‘C’
Lesson 13 – Introduction to ‘C’
Objectives:
The main objectives of this lesson are:
 To familiarize the students with the history and development

of C language.
 To clarify certain basic concepts in C language.
 To know the different elements of C like character set,
keywords etc.,
 To classify different C program entities like identifiers,
constants, statements and expressions.
 To know different types of data types available in C language.
 To understand the working and usage of input/output
statements in C language.
13.1. Introduction
13.2. History and Development of C
13.3. Features of C
13.4. Types of C compilers
13.5. Structure of a C program
13.6. C character set
13.7. Escape sequences
13.8. C reserved words
13.9. Identifiers
13.10. Data types
13.11. Constant
13.12. Variables
13.13. Expression
13.14. Statements
13.15. Symbolic constants
13.16. Operators
13.17. scanf()
13.18. printf()
13.19. Summary
13.20. Technical terms
13.21. Model questions
13.22. References
Acharya Nagarjuna University 2 Centre for Distance Education
13.1.Introduction:
The step-by-step process of solving a given problem is called an

algorithm. Using the algorithm select a programming language of your
choice, based on the type of problem. Convert the algorithm into a
program following the syntax of that language. One of such
programming languages is our C.
13.2.History and Development of C Language:
C is an offspring of the Basic Combined Programming Language (BCPL)

and B developed in 1960 at Cambridge University. The language B was
modified by Dennis Ritchie and implemented at Bell Laboratories in
1972. This modification was named as C.
'C' was then used to implement the UNIX operating system. C is a

general-purpose language, which has been closely associated with the
UNIX operating system.
ALGOL Simula 65
CPL(Combined Programming language
BCPL(Basic Combined Programming Language)
2
13. 3.Features of C language:
C is a beautiful language and provides many built-in functions that

help in problem solving. We list out certain common features of C that
have been quite useful.
 C is a powerful, flexible language that provides fast program

execution and imposes few constraints on the programmer.
 C's power and fast program execution come from it's ability to
access low level commands, similar to assembly language, but
with high level syntax.
 Another strong point of C is it's use of modularity. Sections of
code can be stored in libraries for re-use in future programs.
This concept of modularity also helps with C's portability and
execution speed.
 C is a block-structured language with fundamental flow-control
construction.
 C includes certain low-level features that are normally available
in assembly or machine languages.
 Programs written in C compile into small object programs that
execute efficiently.
 C is a largely machine independent language and programs
written in C can be easily ported from one computer to another.
 C compilers are widely available in most personal computers
minicomputers and mainframes.
13.4.Types of C compilers:
The following are the some of the compilers for C language:
 Turbo C
 Quick C
 Microsoft C
13.5.Structure of a C program:
Every C program consists of one or more functions, one of which must

be called main. The program will always begin by executing the main
function. Additional function definitions may precede or follow
main(). Hence we say that C is a function dependent language.
Structure of a C program:
Documentation section
Include libraries - Linkage section - Preprocessor Directives
Declare global variables
Declare constants
Define macros
Function Prototype Declaration Section
main()
{
Local variable declarations
------//
Main body of the program
------//
}
function-1()
{
------
}
function-2()
{
------
}
…….
Function-n()
{
-------
-------
}
4
Here
1. Comments are non-executable statements meant for remarks
regarding program. Comment lines begin with a /* and end with
a */.
2. 'C' is very case sensitive. All 'C' statements should be in lower
case except user-defined expressions.
3. Every statement in 'C' must be terminated by a semicolon
except the conditional statements like if, if-else, switch, for,
while and compile directive statements like #include, #define.
4. Every statement must be included in { and } of main().
5. Every program must include at least one function called main()
13.6.C Character Set:
Character set means the characters and symbols that can be used in a
C program. They are grouped to form the commands, expressions and
other tokens for C language. Character set is the combination of
characters, digits, special characters and blank spaces. C language
uses
Alphabets: upper case letters A to Z
Lower case letters a to z
Digits: 0 to 9
Special Characters: {,}, #, : ,;,&,? Etc.,
13.7.Escape Sequences:
A special kind of a character that allows the user to customize the

output of a program is referred as escape sequence.
\b back space
\n new line
\t horizontal tab
\a bell
\\ backslash
%% percentage
\v vertical tab
\0 NULL character
\f form feed
Ex: Program to print "Hello Ramu" on the screen.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
printf("\n\n\n\n\n\n\t\t\t Hello Ramu");
printf(“\n\a This is JKC College”);
printf(“\n\t Dept.Of Computer Science);
printf(“\n Guntur.”);
getch();
}
13.8.Keywords:
There are certain reserved words, called keywords that have standard,
predefined meanings in C. These keywords are to be used for their
intended purpose only in a C program. There are 32 words defined as
keywords in C. They are always written in lower case. A complete list
follows:
auto double int struct

Break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
Const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
In addition to this list of keywords, your compiler may define a few

more. If it does, they will be listed in the documentation that comes
along with your compiler.
6
13.9.Identifiers:
Identifiers are names given to various program elements, such as

variables, functions and arrays. Identifiers consist of letters and
digits, in any order, except that the first character must be a letter.
Both uppercase and lowercase are permitted. Upper and lowercase
letters are not interchangeable, i.e., uppercase letter is not
equivalent to the corresponding lowercase letter and vice versa. The
under score character (_) can also be included. An underscore is often
used in the middle of an identifier.
Valid Identifiers Invalid Identifiers

A, B, Stno, tax_rate etc., 4th "x"
13.10.Data Types:
C supports several different types of data, each of which may be

represented differently within the computer's memory. A data type is a
C token that tells about the type of data being assigned to an
identifier.
C supports a rich set of data types. The category follows:
 Primary data types or Primitive data types

 Secondary data types
While using the above data types, one should intimate the compiler by
providing corresponding format specifier or control string.
Primary data types: Secondary data types:

Short int Arrays
int Functions
long int Pointers
float Structures
double Unions
long double Enumeration
The % format specifiers:
The % specifies that you can use in ANSI C are:
Format Data Type

%d (%i) Int
%e (%E) float or double
%f float or double
%o Octal
%p Pointer
%s String
%u Unsigned data represen-tation
%x (%X) Hexa-decimal data repre-
sentation
%c Character (single)
%ld Long int
%lf Long double
The data size of each data type follows:
Data type Data size in bytes Range
Short int 1(8 Bits) -128 to 127

Unsigned short Int 1(8 bits) 0 to 255
Int 2(16 bits) -32768 to 32767
Unsigned int 2(16 bits) 0 to 65535
Long int 4(32 bits) -2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647
Double 8(48 bits) 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308

Long double 10(80 bits) 3.4E-4932to
1.1E+4932
Char 1( 8 bits) -128 to 127
8
13.11. Constants:
A constant is an identifier whose value can never be changed during

the program execution. C has four basic types of constants. They are
1.Integer constant
2.Floating-point constants
3.Character constant
4.String constant
Integer constant:
0 1 743 5280
Floating constants:-
0. 1. 0.2 825.602 2E-8 0.06E-3
3*105 can be represented as follows:

300000. 3E5 3E+5 3.0E+5 .3E+6 30E4
5.026*10-17 can be represented as follows:

5.026E-17
.5026E-16
Character constants:-
'A', 'X', '3', '$'
String Constants:
A string consists of any number of consecutive characters enclosed in
double quotations.
Ex: "green", "jkc college"
13.12.Variable:
A variable is an identifier that is used to represent some specified type

of information. Or a variable is an identifier whose value may or may
not be changed during the program execution.
int a, b, c;
char d; a=3; b=4; d = 'a';
All variables must be declared before they can appear in
executable statements.
int a, b, c; float root1, root2;

char flag;
13.13.Expression:
An expression represents a single data item, such as a number or a

character. It may also consist of a combination of entities
interconnected by one or more operators.
Ex: c=a+b
x=y;
x<=y
x==y
++i;
13.14.Statements:
A statement causes the computer to carry out some action. There are
three different classes of statements in C.
 Expression Statement
 Compound Statement
 Control Statement
An expression statement consists of an expression followed by a

semicolon.
a=3;
c=a+b;
a++;
printf("jkc college");
A compound statement consists of several individual statements

enclosed within a pair of braces {}.
{
pi=3.1415;
area=pi*radius*radius;
}
Control statements are used to create special program features, such

as logical tests, loops and branches.
10
Ex: Program to add two numbers 10 and 20.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <co nio.h>
main()
{
int a, b, sum;
clrscr();
a = 10;
b = 20;
sum = a + b;
printf("\n\t Sum of %d and %d is %d", a, b, sum);
}
13.15. Symbolic constants:
A symbolic constant is a name that substitutes for a sequence of

characters. The characters may represent a numeric constant, a
character constant or a string constant.
# define name text
Where name represents a symbolic name, typically written in upper-

case letters, and text represents the sequence of characters
associated with the symbolic name. Note that text does not end
with a semicolon.
# define TAXRATE 0.25

# define PI 3.1415
# define TRUE 1
# define FALSE 0
Notice that the symbolic names are written in uppercase, to

distinguish them from ordinary C identifiers.
13.16. Operators:
An operator performs an operation over one or more operands. C

supports a rich set of operators. The following are the some of the
examples.
Unary Operator:
An unary operator performs operation on one operand. The unary

operators are: ++, - -
Ex:
 ++a or a++ is equivalent to a=a+1
 --a or a—is equivalent to a=a-1.
Here ++a - Pre-incrementation
a++ - Post-incrementation
- -a - Pre-decrementation
a- - - Post-decrementation
 In Pre-incrementation the value is incremented first, then

assigned.
 In Post-incrementation, the value is assigned first, then
incremented.
 In Pre-decrementation, the value is decremented first, then
assigned.
 In Post-decrementation, the value is assigned first, then
decremented.
For example:
int i = 5;
printf ("%d\n",i);  5
printf ("%d\n",i++);  5
printf ("%d\n",++i);  7
printf ("%d\n",i--);  7
printf ("%d\n",--i);  5
12
Binary Operators:
A binary operator is an operator that performs operations on two

operands or values. There are many binary operators in C. Some of
them are: +, -,*, /, %, +=,-=,*=,/= etc.,
Arithmetic operators are the regular operators that can be used to

perform basic arithmetic operations like addition subtraction,
multiplication and division in a program in order to solve a problem.
Operators Purpose
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Reminder
Suppose a and b are integer variables such as a=10 b=3

Expression Value
a+b 13
a-b 7
a*b 30
a/b 3
a%b 1
v1 v2 are floating points variables whose values are 12.5 and 2.0
Expression Value
v1+v2 14.5
v1-v2 10.5
v1*v2 25.0
v1/v2 6.25
The value of an expression can be converted to a different data type if
desired. To do so the expression must be preceded by the name of
the desired data type, enclosed in parentheses.
(Data type) expression

int a=10;
int b=3;
a/b becomes 3
(float)a/(float)b becomes 3.33
int 10+15.5 becomes 25
Relational Operators:
Operators Meaning
< less than
<= less than or equal to
> greater than
>= greater than or equal to
== equal to
!= not equal to
Logical Operators:
Operator Meaning
&& and
|| or
! not
Assignment Operators:
In C there are different assignment operators available. They are: =,

+=, -=, *=, /=, %=.
Syntax: identifier = expression;
Example: a=3;
x=y;
sum=a+b;
a += 4; // a = a+4;
a -= 4; // a = a- 4;
a *= 4; // a = a4;
a /= 4; // a = a/4;
a %= 4; // a = a%4;
14
13.17.Scanf function:
In order to provide input to any program one has to use a standard

input statement in C. Another way to input data into the computer is
through a standard input device using C library function scanf(). This
function can be used to enter any combination of numerical values,
single characters and strings.
scanf(control-string, arg1,arg2,.... argn);

Where control string refers to a string containing certain required
formatting information and arg1, arg2...argn are arguments that
represent the individual input data items.
%c single character
%d decimal integer
%e floating point value
%f floating point value
%s string
%x hexa decimal
%o octal
Each variable name must be preceded by an ampersand (&). The

arguments are actually pointers that indicate where the data items are
stored in the computers memory.
Example: int a;
float b;
char c;
scanf("%d%f%c",&a,&b,&c);
char name[20];
scanf("%s", name);
13.18.printf Function:
A standard output statement with which the user is able to display or

view the result or output of a program is nothing but a printf()
statement. printf() is a C library function. This function can be used to
output any combination of numerical values, single characters, and
strings.
printf( control-string,arg1,arg2,...);
Where control string refers to a string that contains formatting

information, and arg1, arg2 are arguments that represent individual
output data items.
%c single character
%d decimal integer
%e floating point value
%f floating point value
%s string
%x Hexa decimal
%o Octal
However, both printf() and scanf() are the standard input and output
statements, they can be referred as formatted I/O statements or
standard I/O.
Ex:Program to accept integer, float and character

values and display them back.
main()
{
int a;
float f;
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter an integer : ");
scanf("%d", &i);
printf("\n Enter a floating number : ");
scanf("%f ", &fl);
printf("\n Enter a character : ");
scanf("%c", &ch);
printf("\n Integer value : %d", i);
printf("\n Floating value : %f ", f );
printf("\n Character value : %c", ch);
}
16
Program to add, subtract, multiply and divide two

numbers
#include <stdio.h>
#include <co nio.h>
main()
{
int num1, num2, sum, diff, prod;
float division;
printf(“Enter any two numbe s”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&num1,&num2);
sum = num1 + num2;
diff = num1 - num2;
prod = num1 * num2;
division = num1 / num2 ;
printf(“\n Sum is %d“,sum);
printf(“\n Differe nce is %d. “,diff );
printf(“\n\n\t Product is %d. “,prod);
printf(“\n\n\t Division is %d. “,division);
}
Program to find area and perimeter of a rectangle

given its length as 5 units and breadth as 10 units.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <co nio.h>
main()
{
int length, breadth;
int area, perimeter;
area = length * breadth;
perimeter = 2 * (length + breadth);
clrscr();
printf("\n\n\t Le ngth o f Rectangle :%d ",length);
printf("\n\n\t Breadth of Rectangle :%d
",breadth);
printf("\n\n\t Area of Rectangle :%d ",area);
printf("\n\n\t Pe rimeter of Rectangle :%d
",perimeter);
}
13.19. Summary:
In this lesion you learned history and development of C language and

basics required to write a C program: character set, keywords, data
types, operators and input/output functions. You learnt that there are
three basic data types in C: integer, float and character. You have
learnt how to declare a variable, how to define a constant and how to
use the arithmetic statements.
Input/output statements you have learnt in this lesson are scanf() and
pritnf().You have also learnt how to use these functions for input and
output of different types of variable like integer, float, character, string
etc.
Algorithm: A step- by- step procedure for solving a problem or

accomplishing a task.
Structured programming: Is a design approach where complex
systems are broken down into smaller, more manageable pieces.
ANSI[American National Standards Institute]:This organization
produces many standards, among them the standard for the C
programming language.
Escape Sequences: A special sequence of characters used for
describing nonprinting characters, such as `\n' for new line.
Keyword: A keyword is a word that has special meaning. Keywords
are reserved for specific purpose and not to be used as variable
names.
Built-in Function: The language provides built-in functions that
perform various numerical and string computations.
Variable: A name used to represent data that can be changed while
the program or procedure is running.
Constant: A specific quantity that does not or cannot change or vary;
the opposite of a variable.
Token: it is a smallest individual program element of a C program.
Preprocessor: It is a program, which processes the source code
before it passes through the compiler.
18
13.21.Model questions:
1. What is C? Explain the history of C language?

2. Explain the features of C language?
3. Write about the structure of a C language program?
4. Explain various data types in C?
5. Explain different types of operators available in C?
6. Write about printf() and scanf() statements?
13.22. References:
Byron C. Gottfried “Programming with C”
Kelly & Pohl “ A book on C “
Yeshavanth kanethkar “Let us C”
Ravi Chandran “Programming in C”
Yeshavanth kanethkar “Working with C”
Blaguruswamy “ANSI C”
AUTHOR:
G.RAMANJAIAH.,M.Sc(Computers)
Lecturer,
Dept.Of Computer Science,
JKC College,
GUNTUR.
Fundamentals of IT 1 Control Structures
Lesson 14 - Control Structures
Objectives:
 To use control structures to write effective programs

 To understand various types of control structures
To develop C programs using decision making constructs Objectives:

 To develop C programs using iterative constructs
 To understand break, continue, goto and label statements
14.1. Introduction
14.2. What are Control structures?
14.3. Conditional branching
14.3.1. Simple if statement
14.3.2. if else statement
14.3.3. nested if statement
14.3.4. switch statement
14.4. Looping structures
14.4.1. while statement
14.4.2. do while statement
14.4.3. for statement
14.5. break and continue
14.6. goto and exit statements
14.7. Summary
14.10 References
14.1.Introduction:
Every C program is a sequence of instructions, which are executed, in

a sequential fashion. There are many situations in which these
sequential executions need to be altered with a few instructions being
executed only when a condition is satisfied. Sometimes it may be
necessary to execute a group of instructions for a fixed number of
times or until some condition is satisfied. In such situations
programmer may require to include control statements in programs.
These control statements allow the programmer to alter the sequential
order of execution.
14.2.Control structures:
In high-level programming languages, flow of program execution may

be changed using certain control statements called control structures.
A control structure is a control flow statement that allows you to
alter the sequential flow.
Control flow statements fall into three categories:

1. Conditional branching (or) Decision Making or Non-iterative
2. Looping or iterative or repetitive
3. Unconditional branching.
14.3.Conditional Branching (or) Decision Making:
Conditional branching is the most basic control feature of any

programming language. It enables a program to make decisions, to
decide whether or not to execute a statement or a block of statements
based on the value of an expression. The expression may result in
either true or false value. Since the value of the expression may vary
from one execution to another, this feature allows a program to react
dynamically to different data.
C supports various types of conditional branching statements. The
following categories illustrate several conditional control structures.
 Simple if
 if ..else
 else if ladder
 Nested if
 Switch
2
14.3.1.Decision Making with Simple if statement:
The simple if statement is wonderful decision making statement and

is used to control the flow of execution of a single or multiple
instructions.
Entry
The general form of “simple if” follows:
If (condition/expression)
Statement; Expres
sion
In this statement the given condition is
tested first and responds accordingly. If the
result of expression is true then the given
statement is executed. If the result is false True
the statement cannot be executed. Statement
When multiple statements are to be executed using if control structure

then it may be referred as compound if.
Syntax:
If (expression)
{
statement-block;
}
statement-x;
The statement-block may be a single statement or a group of
statements. If the expression is true statement-block will be executed,
other wise the statement-block will be skipped and the execution will
jump to the statement-x.
Ex:Program to find biggest of two numbers.

main()
{
int a, b;
printf("\n\t Enter A value : ");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("\n\t Enter B value : ");
scanf("%d", &b);
if (a>b)
printf("\n %d is Greater than %d", a, b);
if (b>a)
printf("\n %d is Greater than %d", b, a);
}
14.3.2.Decision making with if – else statement:
In if-else control statement there

Entry
exists an extension of the simple if
statement. It allows the user to
perform another block of statements Expres
in case the condition result is false. sion
syntax :
False
if (expression)
statement-x; True
else statement x
statement-y ; statement y
Here the expression is evaluated; if
the result of the expression is a true Flow graph
then statement-x is executed
otherwise statement-y will be executed.
Ex:
Program to check whether given number is even or odd
main()
{
int n;
printf("\n Enter a number..:");

scanf("%d",&n);
if (n%2==0)
printf("\n Given number is even"):
else
printf("\n Given number is odd"):
getch();
}
14.3.3.Decision making with else.. if ladder:
In else..If ladder number of conditions are checked depending on the

falsity of the previous condition. Literally, too many conditions are
evaluated in if..else ladder.
4
Syntax: If <condition1>
{
------
}
else if <condition2>
{
------ True block 1
}
else
{
------ False block
}
In this, condition1 is checked and if it is true then its corresponding
condition is executed. If the condition is false then next condition is
verified. If all the given conditions are false then false block is
executed. Only one of all the available blocks gets executed. After the
execution of any one of the blocks, control is transferred to next
statement after the construct.
Ex:
program to find biggest of three numbers

main()
{
int a,b,c;
clrscr();
printf(“enter three numbers:”);
scanf(“%d%d%d”,&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b)
if(a>c)
printf(“%d is big”,a);
else
printf(“%d is big”,c);
else if(b>c)
printf(“%d is big”,b);
else
printf(“%d is big “,c);
}
Program to award grade to a student
main()
{
int comp,mat,stat,tot;
float avg;
char gra;
printf("\n\t Enter Computers marks : ");
scanf("%d", &comp);
printf("\n\t Enter Maths marks : ");
scanf("%d", &mat);
printf("\n\t Enter Mathematics marks : ");
scanf("%d", &stat);
tot = comp+maths+stat;
avg = tot / 6.0;
if(comp>=35 && maths >= 35 && stat>=35)
{
if (avg >= 80)
gra = 'A';
else if (avg >= 70)
gra = 'B';
else if (avg >= 60)
gra = 'C';
else if (avg >= 50)
gra = 'D';
else
gra = 'E';
}
else
gra = 'F';
printf("\n| JKC COLLEGE, GUNTUR |");
printf("\n------------------------------------------------“);
printf("\n\n\tCompute rs :%d”,Comp);
printf("\n\n\tMaths: %d”,maths);
printf(“\n\n\t Statistics: %d”,stat);
printf("\n--------------------------------------------");
printf("\n\n\tTotal Marks :%d”,tot);
printf(“\n\n\tAverage : %8.2f ",avg);
printf("\n----------------------------“);
printf("\n\n\t\t\t Grade awarded : %c",gra);
printf("\n\n---------------------------------“);
}
14.3.4.Decision making with Nested if:
A nested if control structure consists of multiple if statements in one

another. Here each if statement consists of subsequent branching
6
statement. Literally a nested if consists of one if statement in another

if statement. It is used when multiple conditions are to be evaluated.
Syntax:
if(expression)
{
if(expression)
{
if(expression)
{
---
---
Here evaluations of expressions or conditions are based on the first
condition. If the first condition itself is false, then there is no way of
evaluating other conditions. At any level of expression the program
control may be altered.
Ex:
Program Biggest of 3 numbers using nested if
main()
{
int a,b,c,big;
printf("\n Enter the value of a : ");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("\n Enter the value of b : ");
scanf("%d",&b);
printf("\n Enter the value of c : ");
scanf("%d",&c);
if (a>b)
if (a>c)
big = a;
else
big = c;
else
if (b>c)
big = b;
else
big = c;
printf("\nBiggest of three numbers is:%d",big);
}
14.3.5.Switch Statement:
C provides a special kind of conditional control structure that acts as

an alternative to if..else ladder. When there are more conditions or
paths in a program, if-else branching can become more difficult. In

such situations switch may act better. The switch statement allows
the user to specify an unlimited number of execution paths based on
the value of a single expression. Each execution path is referred as a
case.
However, all the cases should be unique.
Each case must be terminated by a ‘break’ statement. The ‘default’
case is not mandatory.
In a switch statement, there are four different keywords to be used:
 switch
 case
 break
 default
Though the switch control structure enables the user to improve clarity
of the program, it causes more errors. So, it requires more attention
while implementation.
Syntax:
switch(expression)
{
case value1:
statement;
break;
case value2:
statement;
break;
:
:
:
default :
statement;
}
Among all the cases, only one case can be executed successfully
because each case is terminated by a ‘break’ statement.
Ex:
Program to accept two integer values and perform
arithmetic operation by getting the user input.(1)
Addition,2) Subtraction ,3) Multiplication,4) Division.
5) Exit ).
8
main()
{
int a, b, c, ch;
clrscr();
printf("\n\t\t\t Enter two numbe rs : ");
scanf("%d %d", &a, &b);
printf(“Enter yo ur choice:”)l
printf(“1)Addition\n2)Subtraction”);
printf(“\n3)Multiplication”);
printf(“\n4) Division. \n5) Exit”).
scanf(“%d”&ch);
switch (ch)
{
case 1:
c = a + b;
break;
case 2:
c = a - b;
break;
case 3:
c = a * b;
break;
case 4:
c = a / b;
break;
default :
printf("\n Invalid option ");
exit(0);
}
printf("\n\t\t\t Result :%d",c);
}
14.4.Looping structures:
Some times, in a program, a statement or a block of statements need

to be executed repeated number of times. In such situations decision
control structures may not be useful, as they do not transfer the
control back. Hence the user may require another form of control
structures, which perform a group of instructions for a fixed number of
times. Such control structures are named as looping control structures.
C language provides three different iterative or looping structures.
 while loop
 do…while loop
 for loop
14.4.1.While statement:
The while control structure executes a single or multiple statements

for repeated number of times based on a given condition. It executes
the statements as long as the given condition or expression results in
a true value. It terminates execution as and when the condition is
false.
Syntax: initialization statement;
while(condition)
{
…
Condition reachable statement;
}
Flow graph:
Here the condition is

tested every time, it
executes the block of
statements. The
False
keyword while verifies Condition
the trueness and falsity
of the expression and
Next Statement
responds accordingly. If
the conditio n is false True
for the first time the
minimum number of Body of loop
iterations is 0 in
while control structure . It requires three statements in order
to perform repetitive tasks.
They are
 Initialization statement
 Conditional state ment
 Condition reachable statement
10
If any of the above statements is ignored then the while may

not perform well.
Ex:
Program to print the numbers from 1 to 10

main()
{
int i;
i=1;
while (i<=10)
{
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}
}
Program to print even numbers from 2 to 100

main()
{
int a=2;
while (a<=100)
{
printf("\n %d",a);
a = a + 2;
}
}
Program to print odd numbers from 1 to 100

main()
{
int a=1;
while (a<=100)
{
if (a%2 != 0)
printf("\n %d",a);
a++;
}
}
14.4.2.Do - While statement:
C provides another form of while control structure i.e., do-

while co ntrol structure. In do-while control structure the
statements in the block get e xecutes first, later on the

condition is evaluated. Hence the user can assume that the
minimum number of iterations for do while control structure
as 1, even if the expression or condition results in false for
the first time.
Syntax:
Initialization statement;
do
{
-------------
Condition reachable statement;
} while(condition);
Flow graph:
Here the statements in

the loop will be Body of
executed until the loop
given condition
becomes false. The
while statement should
be terminated by a
semicolon (;) in do Conditi Fals
while. on e
Ex: print the Next

Tru
numbers from 1 to 10 statment
e
main()
{
int i;
i=1;
do
{
printf("%d\n", i++);
} while (i<=10);
}
14.4.3.For Loop:
C provides a more flexible form of looping contro l structure
that improves clarity of the code. It is nothing but for
control structure. Usually the for control statement is used
12
to perform fixed number of ite rations. The major diffe rence

between for and other looping structures is the numbe r of
iterations. In case of while and do-while the numbe r of
iterations are indefinite. The user may not predict the
number of iterations. On the other hand for specifies the
number of iterations in the statement itself.
Syntax:
for(initialization; te st condition; increment/decrement part)

{
Body of the loop;
}
The initialization may contain single or multiple assignment
statements. A control variable is involved in this part of
statements.
The test co ndition verifies the validity of the control variable

for each iteration.
Increment or decrement part increments or decrements the

value of the control variable in order to reach the test
condition.
Ex:
program to print the numbers from 1 to 10
main()
{
int i;
for (i=1 ; i<=10; i++)
printf("%d\n", i);
}
14.5.Break and continue Statement:
Break:
This statement takes control out of the switch state ment or
loop structure. In other words, a break statement takes the
control out of the current block in execution. The control is
transferred to the statement that follows the block.
Syntax: break;
Continue Statement
To skip a part of the body of the loop in execution on certain
condition and for the loop to be continued fo r the next
iteration continue statement is used.
Syntax: continue;
14.6. goto and label statements:
C supports an unconditional branching statement called ‘goto’. This

‘goto’ is meant for transferring control from one part of the program to
another part a label is present. A label is a user-defined word to where
the control is supposed to be transferred. The given label must reside
in the same function and can appear before only one statement in the
same function. Although it may not be preferable to use the goto
statement in a highly structured language like C, there may be
occasions where the use of goto is desirable.
Syntax:
goto label: label:
---------------- statement;
---------------- -----------------
label: -----------------
statement; goto label:
the following example demonstrates the goto statement:

void main()
{
int x = 1;
abc:
printf(“ %d”,x);
x++;
if(x <= 5 )
goto abc;
}
14.7.Summary:
This lesson has focused the major elements of programming - control

structures in C language. You have learnt about the conditional,
looping and unconditional statements. You have also seen conditional
statements: if, if-else, nested If and switch. Also focus on three
categories of loops, available in C language: while, do – while and for
loop. Usage of break, continue, goto and exit statements, which are
very useful in loops have been covered.
14
14.8.Technical Terms:
Looping: Repeating a block of statements based on condition or a

counter.
Compound Statement: A series of statements, enclosed in curly
braces. Compound statements may be nested.
Expression: an expression is a statement in which either arithmetic
or assignment operations are performed.
Control statement: A statement, which controls the logical flow of a
program. Ex: if, goto, switch.
while: It is an entry- controlled loop in which the body of the loop is
executed only when the condition is true.
do—while: it is a loop construct, which is used to test a condition
after the body of the loop is executed once.
for loop: It is an entry-controlled loop, which provides a more concise
loop control.
14.9.Model Questions:
1. Describe the control structures of C language and explain each of

them with an example.
2. Discuss various control flow statements available in C language?
3. Explain the various loop constructs in available in C language?
4. How can the do-while loop vary from the while-loop?
5. Explain break and continue statements with example?
6. Explain goto and label statements with an example?
14.10.References:
AUTHOR:
Lecturer,
JKC College,
GUNTUR.
Fundamentals of IT 1 Functions and Storage Classes
Lesson 15 - Functions and Storage classes
Objectives:
 To understand what a function is

 To know the advantages of functions
 To understand different types of functions
 To understand the function declaration, variable
declaration and function calling in a program
 To understand the concept of recursion
 To understand the concept of storage classes
15.1.Introduction
15.2. Functions
15.3. Advantages of functions
15.4. Types of functions
15.5. Types of function calls
15.6. Recursion
15.7. Storage classes
15.7.1. Auto
15.7.2. Static
15.7.3. Extern
15.7.4. Register
15.8. Summary
15.11. References
15.1. Introduction:
A large program may be split into several sub programs in order to

reduce complexity. Bigger applications are not manageable as they
contain large code. Modular programming is the concept of splitting a
problem or program into several manageable pieces called sub
modules or sub programs. C provides such modular programming in a
extensive manner.
15.2.Functions:
A function is a self-contained block of statements to perform a sub

task in a program. It can be referred as a module or procedure or a
subtask. A function itself is not a program; rather it extends the ability
of a program.
As C is a function dependent language, it supports a rich set of

functions in a sophisticated way. Every C program starts with at least
one function called main(). There are two different categories in
functions, system defined and user defined functions.
System defined functions:
A system-defined function is a subprogram, which is prewritten by the

compiler. There is a library in C for system defined functions. For
example, printf(), scanf(), clrscr(), getchar() etc.,
User Defined Functions:
Some times, the user may require a function, which performs a

specific task of his own. In such cases, C permits user-defined
functions.
Every function has its own significance and provides a separate scope
for variables. A function requires three different types of statements to
be specified by the user. They are
 Function prototype declaration

 Function Definition
 Function calling
2
As C supports top down approach in executing the programs, explicit

declaration of the functions must be required in a program.
Every function requires definition without which the system is able to

perform nothing. Literally the user has nothing to do without defining
any function.
Unless the user makes an explicit call to the function, the function
declaration & definition have no significance and they perform nothing.
Hence the above three statements are essential for implementing

functions.
15.3. Advantages of Functions:
1. Program debugging is made easy if a C program contains

functions.
2. Functions allow a larger task to be subdivided into several
smaller tasks, so that they can be managed easily.
3. The length of the source program can be reduced to a maximum
extent using functions.
4. The same function can be used for many programs once it is
written.
5. Functions may increase program execution speed.
6. Functions improve optimum utilization of memory.
7. Functions are more reliable.
Structure of a Function:
return type function - name (data type arg1, data type arg2…..)
{
local variable declarations ;
// body of function
…………………….
return(expression);
}
return type is nothing but specifying the type of the value being
returned by the function to its parent function or caller function.
Every function requires a name (function name) so that it can be
referred or identified by the user. Function names are unique in a
program. While specifying names, make sure that the name doesn’t
posses any space in between the characters.
A function may accept any number of values as input from the caller
function in order to perform the task assigned to it. Each value is
referred as an argument or parameter. Usually parameters are
specified in the brackets ‘(‘, ‘)’.
The keyword return is not mandatory. It is the last statement of a

function. If at all, a function wants to send a value back to the caller,
return statement may be kept in use.
15.4.Types of Functions:
In C, functions are divided into the following categories:
 System Defined Functions

 User Defined Functions
Both system defined and user defined functions may fall in the
following category:
 Functions with no arguments and no return type.

 Functions with arguments and no return type.
 Functions with arguments and return type.
 Functions with no arguments and return type.
Functions with no arguments and no return type:

In this category of function, the caller function does not send any
argument to the function and the called function does not return any
value.
Functions with arguments and no return type:

In this category of function, the caller function sends one or more
values to called function but in return the called function does not
return any value.
Functions with arguments and return type:

In this category of function, the caller and called functions send values
to one another.
Functions with no arguments and return type:

This category of function doesn’t accept any value from the caller
function but returns one value back to the caller.
4
15.5.Types of Function calls:
There are two types of function calls.
1. Call by value
2. Call by reference.
Call by value:
In call by value, the actual parameters are sent to the called
functions from the caller.
Call by reference:
In call by reference, instead of copy, the address of the actual
parameter is sent to the called function from caller. Therefore, the
called function can alter the value of the actual parameters. In this
case, pointers are used.
Ex: Write a function to clear the screen.
main()
{
void screenclear();
screenclear();
getch();
}
void screenclear()
{
int i,j;
for(i=1;i<=24;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=80;j++)
{
gotoxy(j,i);
printf(" ");
}
}
gotoxy(1,1);
}
Write a program to find factorial of a given number.
main()
{
void fact();
clrscr();
fact();
getch();
}
void fact()
{
int x;
long int f=1;
printf("\n Enter a number to find factorial : ");
scanf("%d",&x);
while(x>0)
{
f = f * x;
x--;
}
printf("\n Factorial of given number is : %ld",f);
}
15.6.Recursion:
When a called function in turn calls another function, then a process of

chaining occurs. Recursion is special case of this process. In other
words, Recursion is a process by which a function calls itself
repeatedly, until some specified condition is true. The number of
recursive calls is limited to the size of the stack. A function is called
‘recursive’ if a statement within the body of a function calls the same
function. Sometimes called ‘circular definition’.
Ex: void ramu()
{
static count = 1;
printf (“%d”, count);
count++;
ramu();
}
main ()
{
ramu ();
}
6
What will the program do? First it prints the value of count, which is 1
then it increments count; then it calls itself. The second time, count
equals 2. This repeats the function infinite times. The output will be
1 2 3 4 5.
At some point, the computer will run out of stack memory, and the
program will abort with a runtime error. This illustrates an important
point about recursive programming. You must include a stop point or
the program will run forever (or until it runs out of memory). So, we
can modify the above function so that calls itself only three times.
void ramu ( )
{
static count = 1;
if ( count > 3)
return;
else{
printf(“%d\n”, count);
count++;
ramu ( );
}
}
main ( )
{ ramu ( );
}
Each time the function is called, new storage is allocated for the
parameters for the auto and register variables so that their values in
previous, unfinished calls are not overwritten. Parameters are directly
accessible to the instance of the function in which they are created.
Previous parameters are not directly accessible to ensuing instances of
the function.
Note that the program would not end if count were automatic rather
than fixed because it would dynamically create a new variable called
count and reinitialize it to 1 with each call. For each new call, the
compiler creates a whole new set of automatic variables. Even though
they have the same name, they refer to different memory areas. That
variables declared with static storage do not require new storage with
each recursive call. Their storage exists for the lifetime of the program.
Each reference to such a variable accesses the same storage area.
15.7.Storage classes:
Every variable and functions in C is associated with a data type.

We have already seen that all variables have an attribute, its type. In
addition to the data type, C associated a storage class with variables
and functions. Storage class is pertaining to the storage of the
variable.
A storage class is associated with its object certain properties such as

scope and lifetime in a program. By scope of an object we understand
that the portions of the program in which the object can be used. The
lifetime of an object is the period of time during which it is allocated
storage space in memory.
The scope and lifetime of objects are determined by storage class

specifications. There are four types of storage classes.
 Auto
 Register storage class
 Static
 Extern
15.7.1.Auto variables:
Auto is the default storage class to be used within a program or file.

For ex:
int x; (or) auto int x;
Here, The 'auto' keyword declares the storage specifier for the variable
x is automatic.
The scope of automatic variable is limited to the block in which it
appears. They are created when the function is called and destroyed
when the function is exited. Their memory locations get deallocated
when the function is existed. They are recreated when function is
called again.
Automatic variables are not initialized to any value when they are
created. They usually start with garbage values. Automatic variables
have two pleasing aspects. First, memory space used economically.
Second their local scope protects us from affecting them inadvertently
in other function. So, variable in other function need not necessarily be
given different names.
8
Ex: Auto variables

void main()
{
auto a=1;
{
auto a=2;
{
auto a=3;
printf(“%d \t”,a);
}
printf(“%d\t”,a);
}
printf(“%d\t”,a);
}
Output: 3 2 1
15.7.2.Static variables:
The static variables are defined within a function. They have the same
scope of the rules of the automatic variables, but in the case of static
variables the contents of the variables will be retained thought the
program. Static is a keyword used to define the storage class as static.
In the absence of any initialization, static variables are initialized to
zero.
Like automatic variables, static variables are also local to the function.
When they are declared.
Ex:
int myblock()
{
static float a;
static int b[]={1,2,3,4,5};
-----------
}
The variable a and the array b have been declared static. They will
start with an internal value and their value is retained when the
function is exited.
15.7.3.External variables:
The variables that are declared before the function main() are globally
existing for all the functions inside the program. These variables are
called global variables. The extern declaration of the variables makes
the variables to be available even for the external functions that are
called from the program.
The extern storage class does not create a variable. It only informs the
compiler of its existence and so the extern declaration cannot include
any initialization.
Extern int I;
Here, I is a global variable which may be defined in another file, thus
supporting multi-file communication.
External variables are declared outside the block in which it is used. It
can be declared either before the block or after the block. If it is
declared after the block, we have to declare the variable as extern
before using it. If the variable is declared before the block it is not
necessary to declare it as extern.
Ex:# include<stdio.h>
int a,b;
float x;
void main()
{
-----
-----
}
Here a, b and x are defined outside of all functions, including main.
Therefore they are external. However, the word extern should not
precede them. They are recognized as external by virtue of their
position in the program.
15.7.4. Register variables:
The keyword register is used to specify the storage class of the

variables. All the computers have a few memory locations on the
microprocessor. These memory locations are known as registers.
Storage and retrieval of data from a register can be done by a
program much faster than from a location in the main memory of the
computer.
10
The register specification is quite useful when a particular value is

frequently required, for example, index variables. Otherwise it is
stored in the RAM with the default storage class.
Ex: Register int a;
The scope and life of a register variable is similar to that of the

automatic variables. There are some restrictions on register variables.
Since a machine register is usually single word, many compilers only
allow those variables that fit into the word to be placed in registers.
15.8. Summary:
In this lesson you have learnt what is a function, how to use a

functions, how the functions interact with one another, how to send
them information using arguments, and how to use them to return
values.
In this lesson we have discussed the concepts of storage class and

scope for variables in a C program. The language provides four storage
classes: automatic, register, external, and static.
Function: In computer science, a subroutine (function, procedure, or

subprogram) is a sequence of code, which performs a specific task.
Local variable: A variable that exists only inside a particular function,
not affecting anything outside the function.
Global variable: A variable that can be accessed by all parts of a
program.
Register: Memory device that is the part of computer memory that
has a specific address and that is used to hold information of a specific
kind.
Secondary storage: Secondary storage is a category of computer
storage. It is used to store data that is not in active use. It is usually
slower and has higher capacity than primary storage, and is almost
always non-volatile.
Recursion:When a function calls itself, either directly or indirectly. If
this isn't clear, refer to the entry for "recursion."
1. What is a function? Explain advantages of functions in a

program?
2. Write short notes on different types of functions?
3. Explain recursion with an example?
4. Write about storage classes?
15.11. References:
AUTHOR:
Lecturer,
JKC College,
GUNTUR.
12
Fundamentals of IT 1 Arrays and strings
Lesson 16 - Arrays and strings
Objectives:
 To understand what an array is.

 To understand different types of arrays.
 To know the declaration and initialization process.
 To understand the concept of strings.
 To understand the declaration and initialization of strings.
 To familiarize with string manipulating functions.
16.1. Arrays
16.2. Single dimensional arrays
16.3. Two dimensional arrays
16.4. Multi dimensional arrays
16.5. Strings
16.6. String handling functions
16.7. Summary
16.10. References
16.1.Arrays:
An array is a group of related data items that shares a common name

(or) an array is a collection of identically (similarly) typed variables
stored contiguously in memory.
Each variable in an array is called an element and can be accessed by

giving the array name plus an index expression called a subscript. A
subscript value of 0 identifies the initial element; a value of 1 identifies
the next element, and so forth.
The most basic purpose of arrays is to store large amounts of related

data that share the same data type. Suppose you want to store 100
names of your relatives and friends. This requires 100 memory
locations. Obviously, it would be extremely tiresome to declare 100
variables, each with a unique name. Arrays provide a solution to this
problem.
16.2.Single dimensional arrays:
Apart from the broad spectrum of data types C supports

arrays. This data type is useful when a group of elements
are to be re presented by a common name.
An array is a group of elements that share a common name,

that are differentiated from one ano the r by their positions
within the array. An array is a collection of homogeneous
data.
Declaring arrays: -
An array must be declared, since it is basically a variable.
Syntax: type variable-name [size];
Eve ry element i n the array is manipulated using its index.

The starting index of element is 0 and e nds with n-1. A list
of data items can be given one variable name using one
subscript and such a variable is called one-dimensional
array.
2
 Declaring an Array
You can declare an array by placing a pair of brackets after the

array name. To specify the size of an array, enter the number of
elements within the brackets.
Syntax
Type variable_name[size]
int a[10];
Represents ten integers, this complete set is called an array.

Here, int specifies the type of the variable, just as it does with
ordinary variables and the word a specifies the name of the variable.
The number 10 tells how many elements of the type int will be in our
array. This number is often called the “dimension” of the array. The
bracket [ ] tells the compiler that we are dealing with an array.
 Initializing
We can initialize the elements in array in the same way as the ordinary
variables when they are declared. The general from is
Type array_name [size] = {list of values}
For example:
int a[3] = { 1, 2, 3 };
In this form the size may be omitted. In such cases, the compiler
allocates enough space for all initialized elements.
For example:
Char name[] = { ‘S’, ’S’, ’I’, ’T’};
Thus the above statement declares the name array of four characters,
initialized with the string, “SSIT”.
 Accessing Elements
You can access the elements inside the array by using array name and
index of the element to be accessed. All the array elements are
numbered, starting with 0. Thus a[2] is not the second element of the
array but the third. In our program we are using the variable i as a
subscript to refer to various elements of the array. This variable can
take different values and hence can refer to the different elements in
the array in turn. This ability to use variable as subscripts is what
makes arrays so useful.
You can access the first element by using a[0], second element a[1],
and so on.
I.e., a[0] = 11
a[1] = 21
a[2] = 31
Ex: Program to accept 5 el ements into an arra y and d ispl ay them

back.
m ain()
{
int a[5],i;
f or(i=0; i<5;i++)
{
pri ntf ("\n Enter the value of a[%d] : ",i);
scanf ("%d",&a[i]);
}
pri ntf ("\n");
f or(i=0; i<5;i++)
{
pri ntf ("\t%d",a[i]);
}
}
Prog ram to find sum of elements of an arra y w ith n elements.

m ain()
{
int a[50], i, n, sum = 0;
do
{
clrscr();
pri ntf ("\n Enter number of el em ents : ");
scanf ("%d",&n);
} while (n>50 || n<=0);
f or(i=0; i<n;i++)
{
pri ntf ("\n Enter the value of a[%d] : ",i+1);
scanf ("%d",&a[i]);
sum += a[i];
}
clrscr();
f or(i=0; i<n;i++)
{
}
pri ntf ("\n\n Sum of elem ents : %d",sum);
getch();
}
4
Prog ram to find bigg est o f elements o f an array.

m ain()
{
int a[50],i ,n,big;
do
{
clrscr();
pri ntf ("\n Enter number of el em ents : ");
scanf ("%d",&n);
} while (n>50 || n<=0);
f or(i=0; i<n;i++)
{
pri ntf ("\n Enter the value of a[%d] : ",i);
scanf ("%d",&a[i]);
}
bi g = a[0];
f or(i=1; i<n;i++)
{
if (big<a[i ])big=a[ i];
}
f or(i=0; i<n;i++)
{
}
pri ntf ("\n\n Bi ggest of elem ents : %d",bi g);
getch();
}
16.3. Two-dimensional arrays:
So far we have discussed the array variables that can store a list of
values. There will be situations where a table of values will have to be
stored.
C allows us to define such tables of items by using two-dimensional

arrays. This type of arrays can be declared as
Type array_name[row-size][column-size];
For example
int a[3][3];
This two dimensional array consists of three rows and e three columns.
 ACCESSING THE ELEMENTS
The first row first element can be accessed by a[0][0], the first
row second element can be accessed by a[0][1], similarly the third
row second by a[2][1] and soon.
Multidimensional arrays are stored in row-major order, which
means that the last subscript varies fastest.
 INITIALIZATION
Like single dimensional arrays the initialization can be done in

multidimensional arrays. When initializing a multidimensional array,
you may enclose each row in braces. If there are too few initializes,
the extra elements in the row are initialized to zero. Consider the
following example:
Int m_arr [5] [3] = {{1,2,3},

{4},
{5, 6, 7}};
This declares an array with five rows and three columns, but only the
first three rows are initialized, and only the first element of the second
row is initialized.
123
400
567
000
000
if we do not include the inner brackets, as in
int m_arr[5] [3] = {1, 2, 3,
4,
5, 6, 7};
the result is
123
456
700
000
000
6
Ex Program to accep t an m * n matrix an d displa y it.

m ain()
{
int a[10][10],i ,j,m ,n;
pri ntf ("\n\n\n\t\tEnter total num ber of rows : ");
scanf ("%d",&m);
pri ntf ("\n\n\t\tEnter total num ber of colomns : ");
scanf ("%d",&n);
f or (i=0;i<m;i++)
{
f or(j=0; j<n;j++)
{
pri ntf ("\n Enter the el em ent a[%d][%d] : ",i+1,j+1);
scanf ("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
pri ntf ("\n\n Given Matrix is....\n");
f or(i=0; i<m ;i++)
{
f or(j=0; j<n;j++)
{
pri ntf ("\t %d",a[i][j ]);
}
pri ntf ("\n");
}
}
16.4. Multi- dimensional arrays:
C allows arrays of three or more dimensions. The exact limit is

determined by the compiler.
A subscript expression can also have multiple subscripts, as follows:
Type array_name[expression1][expression2]….[expression n];
Subscript expressions associate from left to right. The leftmost
subscript expression, expression1,[expression2], is evaluated first.
The address that results from adding expression1 and expression2
forms a pointer expression; then expression3 is added to this pointer
expression to form a new pointer expression, and so on until the last
subscript expression has been added. The indirection operator (*) is
applied after the last subscripted expression is evaluated, unless the
final pointer value addresses an array type (see examples below).
Expressions with multiple subscripts refer to elements of

“multidimensional arrays”. A multidimensional array is an array whose
elements are arrays. For example, the first element of a three-
dimensional array is an array with two dimensions.
16.5. Strings:
A string is a group of characters, usually letters of the alphabet. In

order to format your printout which has meaningful names and titles,
you need the ability to output text data. Actually you have already
been using strings, the second program in this tutorial, way back in
Chapter 2, output a message that was handled internally as a string. A
complete definition of a string is a series of char type data terminated
by a null character.
When C is going to use a string of data in some way, either to compare

it with another string, output it, copy it to another string, or whatever,
the functions are set up to do what they are called to do until a null,
which is a zero, is detected. Such a string is often called an ASCII-Z
string. We will use a few ASCII-Z strings in this chapter.
One of the most common uses of arrays is to store strings of

characters. A string is an array of characters terminated by a null
character.
A null character is a character with a numeric value of zero. It is

represented in c by the escape sequence ‘\0‘. A string constant,
some times called a string literal, is any series of characters enclosed
in double quotes. It has a data type of array of char, and each
character in the string takes up one byte. In addition, the compiler
automatically appends a null character to designate the end of the
string.
Declaring and initializing strings

To store a string in memory, you need to declare an array of type
char, you may initialize an array of chars, with a string constant. For
example
char str[] = “some text”;
The array is one element longer than the number of characters in the
string to accommodate the trailing null character. str[], therefore, is
ten characters in length. If you specify an array size, you must
allocate enough characters to hold the string. In the following
example, for instance, the first four elements are initialized with the
characters ‘y’, ‘e’, ‘s’, and null ‘\0’. The remaining six elements receive
the default initial value of zero.
char str[10] = “yes”;
For example: char code[ ] = "abc";
8
Initializes code as a four-element array of characters. The fourth

element is the null character, which terminates all string literals.
The declaration
char s[] = "abc", t[4] = "abc"; is identical to

char s[] = {'a', 'b', 'c', '\0'}, t[4] = {'a', 'b', 'c' };
If the string is shorter than the specified array size, the remaining
elements of the array are initialized to 0.
 Reading and Writing Strings
You can read and write strings with the printf () and scanf () functions
by using the %s format specifier. For scanf (), the data argument
should be a pointer to an array of characters that is long enough to
store the input string. The input string is terminated by any space
character. After reading in the input characters, scanf () automatically
appends a null character to make it a proper string. On the printf ()
side, the data argument should be a pointer to a null-terminated array
of characters. Printf () outputs successive characters until it reaches a
null character.
Ex: Program to accept a string and count no.of characters.
main()
{
char s[20];
int i,charcount=0;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter any string : ");
gets(s);
for(i=0;s[i]!='\0';i++)
{
charcount++;
}
printf("\n No. of characters in the given string : %d",charcount);
getch();
}
A program to check whether a given string is palindrome or

not.
main()
{
char a[20],b[20];
int i,l=0,flag=0;
printf("\n enter any string : ");
gets(a);
l = strlen(a);
for(i=0;i<l;i++)
{
b[i]=a[l-(i+1)];
}
for(i=0;i<l;i++)
{
if(b[i]!=a[i])
flag=1;
}
if(flag==1)
printf("\n %s is not a palindrome.",a);
else
printf("\n %s is a palindrome.",a);
}
Write a program to count number of vowels in a given string.
main()
{
char s[20];
int i,l=0;
printf("\n enter any strying:");
gets(s);
for(i=0;s[i]!='\0';i++)
{
if(s[i]=='a' || s[i]=='e' || s[i]=='i' || s[i]=='o' || s[i]=='u'
|| s[i]=='A' || s[i]=='E' || s[i]=='I' || s[i]=='O' ||
s[i]=='U' )
l++;
}
printf("\n No. of vowels in a given string are : %d",l);
getch();
}
10
16.6. String handling functions:
A string in C is simply an array of characters. The following are the

basic string handling functions. All the string-handling functions are
prototyped in: #include <string.h>
stpcpy Copy one string into another.
strcmp Compare string1 and string2 to determine

Alphabetic order.
strcpy Copy string2 to stringl.
strerror Get error message corresponding to specified

error number.
strlen Determine the length of a string.
strncat Append n characters from string2 to stringl.
strncmp Compare first n characters of two strings.
strncpy Copy first n characters of string2 to stringl .
strlen() Function :
This function counts the number of characters present in a string.

Ex:
main()
{
char s[20];
int i,charcount=0;
clrscr();
gets(s);
charcount = strlen(s);
printf("\n No. of characters in the given string : %d",charcount);
getch();
}
strcpy() Function :
This function copies the contents of one sting into another. The base
address of the source and target strings should be supplied to this
function.
Ex:
main()
{
char a[20],b[20];
int i;
clrscr();
gets(a);
strcpy(b,a);
printf("\n Copied string is : ");
puts(b);
getch();
}
strrev() Function :
This function reverses the string.
Ex:
main()
{
char a[20],b[20];
int i,stringlength=0;
clrscr();
gets(a);
strrev(a);
printf("\n Reversed string is : ");
puts(a);
}
12
strcat() Function :
This function concatenates the source string into target string. It is

necessary to place ‘\0’ into the target string, to make its end.
Ex:
main()
{
char a[20],b[20],c[40];
int i,j;
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter 1st string:");
gets(a);
printf("\n Enter 2nd string :");
gets(b);
strcpy(c,a);
strcat(c,b);
printf("\n concatenated string is ");
puts(c);
}
16.7. Summary:
In this Chapter, we have introduced one form of compound data type:

the array. An array is a block of a number of data items all of the
same type allocated in contiguous memory cells.
We have seen that, in C, an array may be declared using the syntax: -
specifier identifier>[<size>];
specifying the type of the data items, and the number of elements to
be allocated in the array.
This lesson has discussed a very common data type in C programs:

the string. We have briefly introduced the concept of an abstract data
type as consisting of a data declaration and a set of operations on data
items of that type. We have defined a user-defined type, STRING, for
string data and used it throughout the chapter.
We have described the functions for string manipulation, strlen() and

strcpy() as well as string operation, strcmp() and strcat(), have been
described. Other functions described include atoi(), strncmp(), and
strncpy(). Throughout the chapter we have shown numerous examples
of programs for string processing.
Array: Arrays are a data structure that is used to store a group of

objects of the same type sequentially in memory. All the elements of
an array must be the same data type.
Character Array. A set of elements of type char. (Can be used to
store a string).
Pointer: pointer is a variable, which contains the address of another
variable.
String: a string is a sequence of characters terminated by a null
character.
Concatenation:This term is used to describe the combining of strings
14
16.9.Model Questions:
1. What is an array? Explain different types of arrays?

2. Write a program to read and display a two dimensional array?
3. Explain string-handling functions in C?
4. Write a program to check whether a given string is
palindrome or not.
16.10.References:
AUTHOR:
Lecturer,
JKC College,
GUNTUR.
Fundamentals of IT 1 Pointers
Lesson 17 - Pointers
Objectives:
 To understand what a pointer is.

 To know the abilities of pointers in C language.
 To understand pointer variable declaration and its usage in
a program.
 To know the pointer usage in functions and arrays.
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Pointer
17.3. Abilities of pointers
17.3. Summary
17.4. Pointers in functions
17.5. Function pointers
17.6. Different kinds of pointers
17.7. Summary
17.10. References.
17.1.Introduction:
‘Pointers’ is a wonderful concept provided by C in order to access data

in a better way. They provide a convenient environment where in data
may be managed by its address locations. Every data that the user
stores in memory has certain address location. Address is nothing but
a unique ID number associated with every data items placed in
memory. In some other way, a pointer provides a convenient way of
accessing a data item without referring its name or identifier directly.
17.2.Pointer:
One of the most powerful features of C, and one that makes it quite
close to assembly language, is its ability to refer to the address of
program variables. A “pointer declaration” names a pointer variable
and specifies the type of the object to which the variable points. A
variable declared as a pointer holds a memory address.
As a definition, a pointer is a variable that holds the address of another

variable. Suppose there is an integer variable, to hold its address it
requires an integer pointer. For any floating point value, it requires a
float type pointer. So is the case even with other data types.
Pointers enable the users to effectively represent complex data

structures. A pointer provides an indirect means of accessing the value
of a particular data item. In order to create a pointer, use two
different operators like indirection operator (*), address of operator
(&).
Syntax: int z=5;

int *p;
p = & z; // address of a.
printf(“%d”,*p);
Here ‘p’ means address of ‘z’ and ‘*p’ means value at address p.
Literally, p  address of z;
*p  value at address(p)
2
17.3. Abilities of Pointers:
1. To have indirect access to the data.

2. To improve capability of applications.
3. To increase the speed of program execution.
4. To develop hardware level applications.
5. To perform dynamic memory allocation & de-allocation.
6. To return more than one value from a subprogram.
7. A pointer to a pointer may be generated.
Ex:
int a, *p1;
flaot b, *p2;
char c, *p3;
a= 100; b = 23.45; c = ‘z’;
p1 = & a;
p2 = &b;
p3 = &c;
printf(“%d %u %u %d %d\n”, a, p1, &a, *(&a), *p1);
printf(“%d %u %u %d %d\n”, b, p2, &b, *(&b), *p2);
printf(“%d %u %u %d %d\n”, c, p3, &c, *(&c), *p3);
Output of above program:
100 250 250 100 100

23.5 350 350 23.5 23.5
z 450 450 z z
The above program prints the address of a, b and c. Here ‘%u’ is the
format specifier, ‘&’ it is meant for displaying unsigned integer values.
Every address location is an unsigned integer value. Hence you may
use %u or %p for pointers.
Lets see how pointers actually work: When you run the above program
variables a, b and c are kept in memory as follows:
a b c
100 23.5 ‘Z’
250 350 450
p1 p2 p3
250 350 450
1000 1050 1100
Here, a, b, c are the different variables and p1, p2, p3 are the
pointers. So the pointers hold always the addresses. Moreover, a
pointer may have its own address again i.e., a pointer also gets stored
somewhere in memory.
 100, 23.5, ‘Z’ are the data items.
 250, 350, and 450 are assumed to be the address of a, b, c in
memory respectively.
1000, 1050 and 1100 are the addresses of pointers p1, p2 & p3.
In general pointers may perform arithmetic operations like addition

and subtraction. Even relational operators may be applied on pointers.
However, multiplication and division cannot be performed. Short-hand
operators like ++, -- can also be used.
p++; //valid
p--; // valid
p-2; // valid
p+3; //valid
a = *p+2; // valid
p * 2; // invalid
p1/p2 ; // invalid
p/3; // invalid
4
Here pointer instrumentations have special meanings. Suppose p is a

pointer and it holds address of a variable k; then p+1 means the value
of p is incremented by the length of the data type that it points to,
such length is called scale factor.
In case of the following data types; length is:
Data type Length

Int 2
Char 1
Float 4
Long int 4
Double 8
For example, p has the address 2300 for a variable of double type.
P+2 means 2300+(2 * 8) = 2317; p become 2317.
Pointer to Arrays:
A pointer may be applied to arrays. Generally the compiler itself

allocates a base address to an array. Moreover, the compiler, in case
of arrays, performs implicit addressing. Suppose, we declare an array
z as follows:
statc int z[] = {11,22,33,44,55};
Assume that the above is stored in memory as follows:
0 1 2 4 5 index values
11 22 33 44 55
values
100 102 104 106 108 addresses
Consider p is a pointer to array z:

p = &z[0]; or p = z; i.e., p = 100.
This implies the address or base address of array z into p.
Hence you can assume the following representation:
11 22 33 44 55
p+0 p+1 p+2 p+3 p+4
The following program illustrates the pointers to arrays:
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
static int a[] = {11,22,33,44,55};
int *p,i;
p = a; // assigning address of base address of a
for(i = 0;i<5;i++)
{
printf(“%d\t”,++(*p));
p++;
}
}
output:
12 23 34 45 56
Here, ++(*p) means the value at address p is incremented by 1.

Hence values 11, 22, 33, 44 and will become 12, 23, 34, 45, 56
respectively.
In some other way, the array elements are represented as follows:
a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]
*(a+0) *(a+1) *(a+2) *(a+3) *(a+4)
6
In case of two dimensional arrays, suppose, int a[2][2] =

{11,22,33,44};
a[0][0]  *(*(a+0)+0)
a[0][1]  *(*(a+0)+1)
a[1][0]  *(*(a+1)+0)
a[1][1]  *(*(a+1)+1)
Ex: #include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int I,j;
int z[3][3] = {{1,2,3},{4,5,6},{7,8,9}};
for(I=0;I<2;I++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
printf ( “%4d”,*(*(a+i)+j) );
printf(“\n”);
}
}
Output: 1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
In case of strings or character arrays:
Like one-dimensional array, strings can be manipulated using pointers.

A string is always terminated by a NULL character, it becomes easy to
manage.
Ex: #include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char *str = “JKC college”;
char *p;
while(*p!=NULL)
{
printf(“%c”,*p);
p++;
}
}
Output: JKC college.

17.4. Pointers in Functions:
As ‘pointers’ is a general concept, it may be used in functions. In case

of passing arguments, pointers may be used. In fact, functions: caller
and called functions use, pointer in quite a different way.
Functions that call by value may not be useful in certain cases where
the reflections of called functions should be done on caller. The
following example illustrates the usage of pointers.
#include<stdio.h>
void swap(int, int); // prototype declaration
void main()
{
int a, b;
a = 5;
b = 9;
printf(“\n Before swapping….\n”);

printf(“%5d%5d”,a,b);
swap(a,b); // called function & is a call by value
printf(“\n After swapping….\n”);

}
void swap(int x, int y)

{
int temp;
temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
return;
}
o/p:
Before swapping….
5 9
After swapping….
5 9
8
Here, a, b in main() are the actual parameters and x, y in swap() are

the formal or dummy parameters. Though x, y hold values of a, b, the
changes made to x, y may not reflect a, b because only the copy of a,
b is placed in x, y. Updations are restricted to the called function only.
If at all, every trivial change is to be reflected in the caller function,

then user has to consider ‘pointers’ concept. The following example
illustrates the same.
#include<stdio.h>
void swap(int &, int &);
void main()
{
int a,b;
a = 5;
b = 9;
printf(“\n Before swapping….\n”);

swap (&a, &b); // called function & is a call by value
printf(“\n After swapping….\n”);

}
void swap(int *x , int *y)

{
int temp;
temp = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = temp;
return;
}
o/p:
Before swapping….
5 9
After swapping….
9 5
17.5. Function Pointer :
Like integer pointer, float pointers and other pointer types, may have
function pointers. A function pointer is a pointer that holds the address
of a function in memory. It improves program execution speed.
Syntax:
Data type (function_ptr)();
Example:
double (*p)();
The following example illustrates function pointer:
#include<stdio.h>
void test(); // proto type declaration.

void main()
{
void (*p)();
p = test; //assigning address of function to p.
(*p)(); // calling test() using function pointer.

}
void test()
{
printf(“ c “);
printf(“c++”);
printf(“vc++”);
}
10
17.6. Different kinds of Pointers:
There is a special kind of category in pointers.
 Near Pointers
 Far Pointers
 Huge Pointers
Based on the memory organization, data may be accessed in different

ways. Different microprocessors follow different data models. Based on
the data models, the above category of pointers will do the work.
Near Pointer:
It takes 2 bytes so it holds the addresses (offset) from 0 to 65535.
Far Pointer:
It takes 4 bytes of memory, it will hold both the segment address
(higher order two bytes) and offset (lower order two bytes).
In order to access CGA video memory, we normally use, far pointers.
Huge Pointer:
In this we have another type is called “Huge Pointer ’’ which is just
like far pointer except that “ the address stored in huge pointer will be
normalized”.
TSR programming or low level programming is performed using Near,

far and huge pointers.
17.7. Summary:
In this lesson we have introduced a new data type, a pointer. We

have seen how we can declare variables of this type using the * and
indicating the type of object this variable can point to, for example:
int * iptr;
float * fptr;
char * cptr;
Declare three pointer variables, iptr which can point to an integer cell,
fptr which can point to a cell holding a floating point variable, and cptr
which can point to a character cell.
We have also shown how pointer variables may be used to indirectly

access the value in a cell using the dereference operator, *: y =
*iptr;
As we have seen,, pointers are very useful in developing complex

programs. The concept of pointers may be confusing at first, however,
a useful tool for understanding the behavior of a program using
pointers is to draw the memory picture showing which to cells each
pointer is pointing.
Call by reference - passing a pointer to an argument to a function.

The function can then change the argument value. See call by value.
Call by value - passing a copy of an argument to a function. The
function cannot then change the argument value. C and C++ use call
by alue argument passing. But also see pointer and reference, also call
by reference.
Pointer to data member - a pointer that points at a data member of
a class.
Pointer to function - an address of a function or a member function.
12
1. What is a pointer? How it is declared and initialized?

2. What is function pointer? Explain with an example?
3. What are advantages of functions?
17.10. References:
Byron C. Gottfried, “Programming with C”
Kelly & Pohl, “ A book on C “
Yeshavanth kanethkar, “Let us C”
Ravi Chandran, “Programming in C”
Yeshavanth kanethkar, “Working with C”
Blaguruswamy, “ANSI C”
AUTHOR:
G.RAMABJAIAH.,M.Sc(Computers)
Lecturer,
JKC College,
GUNTUR.

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Fundamentals of IT 2.

Microsoft Office and Word Processing

Structure of the Lesson:

2.1. Introduction to MS-OFFICE:

7. Microsoft Clip Art Gallery

8. Microsoft Word Art

9. Microsoft Organization Chart

10. Microsoft Equation Editor

11. Microsoft Publisher

7. Microsoft Clip Art Gallery

2. Microsoft Word Art

2. Microsoft Organization Chart

10. Microsoft Equation Editor

2.2. Word Processing:

2.3. Features of word processing:

Copy: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.

Print: Allows you to send a document to a printer to get hardcopy.

2.5. Technical Terms:

Copy: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.

WYSIWYG: What You See Is What You Get.

2.6. Self Assessment Questions:

2. Define Word-Processing? Explain the features of Word Processing?

MS OFFICE 2000 Complete, BPB Publications, New Delhi

Y. SURESH BABU, M.Com., M.C.A.,

Structure of the Lesson:

2.1. Getting Started with Microsoft Word:

Component Functionality or Purpose of the Component

Standard Toolbar Contains icons for shortcuts to menu commands.

2.2. Creating and Saving a Document:

2.3. Adding and Modifying Text

Remember, don't press Enter at the end of the line.

Type <Ctrl + Home> to move to the very beginning of your document.

2.4. Selecting Text:

Word Double click anywhere on the word.

Line Click right-pointing arrow in the selection bar to left of line.

Sentence <Ctrl + click> anywhere in sentence.

Double-click the right-pointing arrow in the selection bar to the left

Deselect text Click anywhere outside the selection.

Shift-click an additional block. For example, if you have selected a

2.5. Cut, Copy and Paste Text:

2.6. Paste Special:

You can paste in the information in several ways:

Formatted Text, Unformatted Text, Picture Object.

2.7. Find and Replace:

Find: Find is used for searching a word in your document.

Replace: Replace is used to replace the searched word by another text.

2.2. Undo and Redo:

2.2. Formatting Text and Paragraph

Making Font Changes

Select a document of unformatted text for formatting.

To edit the font style

Using Bold, Italics and Underline

To Italicize Text in a Document

To Underline Text in a Document

You can perform paragraph formatting from the Format menu.

2.10. Header and Footer

In either case, the Header/Footer toolbar appears.

2.11. Bullets and Numbering:

2.13. Page Break: