THEORY FOR EXPERIMENTS

VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE

Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of saturated vapour in compressor

Process 2-3: Isobaric heat rejection in the condenser
Process 3-4: Isenthalpic expansion of the saturated liquid in the expansion device
Process 4-1: Isobaric heat extraction in the evaporator

1-2: Compression
The refrigerant enters the compressor at low temperature and low pressure. It is in a gaseous
state. Here, compression takes place to raise the temperature and refrigerant pressure.
The refrigerant leaves the compressor and enters the condenser. Since this process requires
work, an electric motor may be used. Compressors themselves can be a scroll, screw,
centrifugal or reciprocating type.  

2-3: Condensation
The condenser is essentially a heat exchanger. Heat is transferred from the refrigerant to a
flow of water. This water goes to a cooling tower for cooling in the case of water-cooled
condensation. Note that seawater and air-cooling methods may also play this role. As the
refrigerant flows through the condenser, it is in constant pressure. One cannot afford to ignore
condenser safety and performance. Specifically, pressure control is paramount for safety and
efficiency reasons.   
3-4: Throttling and Expansion
When the refrigerant enters the throttling valve, it expands and releases
pressure. Consequently, the temperature drops at this stage. Because of these changes, the
refrigerant leaves the throttle valve as a liquid-vapour mixture, typically in proportions of
around 75 % and 25 % respectively. Throttling valves play two crucial roles in the vapor
compression cycle. First, they maintain a pressure differential between low- and high-
pressure sides. Second, they control the amount of liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator.  

4-3: Evaporation
At this Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle stage, the refrigerant is at a lower
temperature than its surroundings. Therefore, it evaporates and absorbs the latent heat of
vaporization. Heat extraction from the refrigerant happens at low pressure and temperature.
The compressor suction effect helps maintain the low pressure. There are different evaporator
versions in the market, but the major classifications are liquid cooling and air cooling,
depending on whether they cool liquid or air respectively.

Condenser:
A condenser (or AC condenser) is the outdoor portion of an air conditioner or heat pump that
either releases or collects heat, depending on the time of the year.
Both split air conditioners and heat pump condensers are made of the same basic parts. The
condenser cabinet contains the condenser coil, a compressor, a fan, and various controls. The
condenser coil can be made of copper tubing with aluminium fins or all-aluminium tubing so
heat can be rapidly transferred.
The condenser fan is vital and circulates the air across the coil to facilitate heat transfer. The
compressor is the heart of the system since it compresses the refrigerant and pumps it to a
coil in the form of a hot gas.
In air conditioners, the refrigerant is cooled at the condenser into a warm liquid and passes
through a pipe into the evaporator coil where it expands and cools. The hot gas is pumped
directly to the evaporator coil to provide heat in heat pumps.

Compressor:
A compressor is known to be one of the most important parts of an air conditioning system.
The compressor in an HVAC system plays an important role in compressing the refrigerant as
it enters the machine to increase its overall temperature. Once the HVAC system is heated,
the gas then leaves the compressor and then goes into the condenser.
While all kinds of AC compressors perform the same job, they work in different manners. All
these HVAC compressors come with their own pros and cons. Listed below are the different
kinds of compressors that are present in the AC units.
Reciprocating air conditioner compressor:
Under this compressor, a piston helps to compress the air. This is done by the way of moving
up and down inside a cylinder. As the piston begins to move down, it then creates a vacuum-
like effect that sucks in the refrigerant. As the piston begins to move up, the gas compresses
itself and then moves into the condenser. This kind of HVAC compressor is known to be an
efficient choice of an AC compressor. This is because the AC units could have up to eight
cylinders within the compressor.

Figure 1 Reciprocating Compressor

Scroll air conditioner compressor:

Scroll air conditioner compressor is known to be the newer kind of compressor available in
the market. These compressors comprise one fixed coil known as a scroll. The scroll is
located in the centre of the unit. There is another coil which rotates around the first coil.
During the process, the second coil pushes the refrigerant towards the very centre and
compresses it. Scroll compressors are becoming one popular choice of HVAC compressors at
the present time. This is because they do not come with a lot many moving parts. They make
one reliable choice of compressors for an air conditioner. 

Figure 2 Scroll Compressor

Screw air conditioner compressor:
This compressor is used in large buildings where a vast amount of air requires continuous
cooling. This kind of air compressor comes with two different helical rotors moving the air
from one end to the other. As the refrigerant begins to move through the compressor, the
space gets small and gets compressed.

Figure 3 Screw Compressor

Rotary air conditioning compressor:

This compressor is small in terms of size and quiet. Thus, this one is considered a favourable
choice in all locations where noise is considered a major concern. Inside the compressor, is
located a shaft that comes with many blades attached to the same. The shaft then rotates
inside the cylinder. This helps to push the refrigerant via the cylinder, thereby compressing it
simultaneously.

Figure 4 Rotary Compressor

Centrifugal air conditioning compressor:

This kind of HVAC compressor uses centrifugal force to pull in the refrigerator's gas. After
this, it spins the gas rapidly using an impeller which helps to compress the same. This kind of
air conditioning compressor is reserved for all extra-large HVAC systems.
 Figure 5 Centrifugal Compressor:

Evaporator:
The evaporator is an important component together with other major components in a
refrigeration system such as a compressor, condenser and expansion device. The reason for
refrigeration is to remove heat from air, water or other substance.
It is here that the liquid refrigerant is expanded and evaporated. It acts as a heat exchanger
that transfers heat from the substance being cooled to a boiling temperature.
There are two types of evaporators:
 Forced Convection Type uses a fan or pump to force the liquid being cooled over the
evap.
 Natural Convection Type has the liquid being cooled flows naturally to the evap.
due to the density differences between the chilled and warm liquid.
There are 3 main factors to consider in designing an evap.
 Pressure Drop The evap. must have sufficient space for the circulation of the
refrigerant without too much pressure drop between the outlet and the inlet.
 Temperature The evap. must have enough surface to absorb the required heat load in
order to ensure the temperature difference between the substance being cooled and the
refrigerant is not excessive.
 Liquid and Refrigerant Vapor The evap. must have enough space for the liquid
refrigerant and the vapour to separate from the liquid.
There are three types of evap. construction that is commonly being used today:
 Bare-Tube and Plate Surface construction have the entire surface in contact with the
evaporating refrigerant inside.
 Finned construction are bare-tube coils upon which fins (metal plates usually
Aluminium) are being installed. A more detailed discussion of this type of design will
be provided here.
Expansion Valve:
Air conditioner and refrigeration systems contain what is known as a throttling device. There
are several different types of throttling devices, each with its own particular benefits. The
four main types of throttling devices are:
 capillary tube
 automatic throttling valve
 thermostatic expansion valve
 float valve
All are distinguished by their ability to reduce the flow of refrigerant at key points in its
circulation, thus achieving two principal goals:
Lowering Refrigerant Pressure
A throttling device acts to restrict the flow of refrigerant at a point between the condenser
unit and the evaporator. The refrigerant coming out of the condenser is characterized by the
fact that it is in a state of high pressure, yet only medium temperature. The throttling valve,
by restricting the flow of refrigerant, acts to lower both its pressure and its temperature.
This change in pressure is what allows the refrigerant to absorb the maximum amount of heat
once it has entered the evaporator. You see, at high pressure, the refrigerant will have a more
difficult time vaporizing in the presence of heat. By reducing pressure, this process of
vaporization will be more easily able to occur at the desired temperature. The pressure
reduction is achieved by passing refrigerant through the tiny orifice of the throttling device.
Meeting The Refrigeration Load
The second purpose of the throttling device is to carefully control the amount of refrigerant
entering the evaporator at any given time. This helps to ensure peak efficiency, regardless of
the particular refrigeration load. Refrigeration load simply refers to the amount of cooling
power needed to perform a given task.
 EXPERIMENT 1

To determine the Coefficient of Performance of heat pump and production of

heat pump performance curves over a range of source and delivery
temperatures

Theory:

Instead of producing heat directly, as a furnace does, a heat pump is an HVAC system that
moves heat from one place to another. Since they can be more economical and energy-
efficient than conventional heating and cooling systems, heat pumps are a popular choice for
heating and cooling houses.

There are several types of heat pumps, including:

 Air source heat pumps: These are the most common type of heat pump and work by
extracting heat from the outdoor air and transferring it inside your home.
 Ground source heat pumps (also known as geothermal heat pumps): These heat
pumps extract heat from the ground or a nearby water source, such as a pond or lake.
 Water source heat pumps: These heat pumps extract heat from a nearby water source,
such as a lake or river.
 Ductless mini-split heat pumps: These are air-source heat pumps that do not require
ductwork. Instead, they have an outdoor unit that connects to one or more indoor units
that are mounted on the wall

Apparatus:

 Mechanical Heat Pump

Procedure:

 Switch on the vapour-compression refrigeration apparatus after taking care of all

necessary precautions.
 Allow running of the apparatus for a while so that the readings shown become stable.
 Change the condenser water flow rate using the knob provided, for each set of
readings.
 Insert the values in the table of observations.

Calculations:

Work input rate across compressor Wcom=15000 / X

Heat output across condenser q=Mw∗Cp(T 6 — T 5)
Coefficient of Performance COP=Heat Output / Work Input
Specimen Calculations:

The energy meter installed on the apparatus is based on the following relationship:
 240 revs. Per kilo-watt-hour (kWh) corresponds 3.6 x 10° Joules (J) i.e. 1 kWh
 1 revolution. Per kilo-watt-hour (kWh) corresponds (3.6 x 10°) / 240 Joules (J) and
that equals 15000 J.
If ‘X’ is time to complete one revolution of Energy Meter disk then
Power Input = 15000/X J/s
Hence
Work Input rate (Wcom) = 15000/X. Hence for X = 58.1 s
Work input rate (Wcom) = 15000/58.1
giving:
(Wcom)= 258.2 kW
Heat output rate = Mw∗Cp(T 6 — T 5). Hence for outlet and inlet temperatures of 27.7 and
21.5, respectively, giving:
q = 1036.6 KW
Now
COP = 1036.6 / 258.2 = 4.01

Observations:

Condenser Time per

Condenser Compressor Heat output COP of
Water revolution
Sr. No. Water flow work input across the heat
Temperature of energy
rate rate condenser pump
Inlet/Outlet meter
# g/s C s kW kW
mw T6 T5 X W comp Qcond
1. 36.5 39.9 32.3 44.48 337.23 1159.5 3.44
2. 40 27.7 21.5 58.1 258.2 1036.6 4.01
3. 30 30.9 22.6 54.1 277.2 1040.8 3.75
4. 20 35.1 22.7 51.1 291.3 1036.7 3.55
5. 15 39.0 23.1 49.3 304.3 996.9 3.28
Graphs:

1200

1150

1100
Heat output rater

1050

1000

950

900
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41
Condenser water outlet temperature

4.6

4.4

4.2

3.8
COP

3.6

3.4

3.2

3
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41

Condenser Out let Temp.

 310

300

290
Compressor Work input

280

270

260

250

240

230
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41

Condenser outlet temperrature

Comments:

The first graph shows that as the condenser outlet temperature increases, the COP (coefficient
of performance) of the heat pump decreases. This is because the water flow rate decreases as
the condenser outlet temperature increases, which reduces the heat output. The second graph
shows that as the condenser water outlet temperature increases, the compressor work input
also increases. This is because the power delivered to the refrigerant increases, which raises
the temperature of the condenser water outlet. Finally, the third graph shows that as the
condenser water outlet temperature increases, the heat output rate (condenser output)
decreases. This is because the temperature difference increases, but the flow rate decreases
more strongly, resulting in a decrease in the product of the temperature difference, the
specific heat capacity of water, and the flow rate of water. In summary, all three graphs
demonstrate a relationship between the condenser water outlet temperature and the
performance of the heat pump.
 EXPERIMENT 2

Comparison of Practical and Ideal Cycles on a P-H Diagram and

determination of energy balance for Condenser and Compressor

Theory:

P-H diagrams show pressure as a y-axis and enthalpy as an x-axis. Enthalpy is typically
measured in Btu/lb and pressure is measured in pounds per square inch (psi). As illustrated in
the diagram, the refrigerant changes phase at the locations where the upside-down U shape is
displayed. Vertical curves on the left and right represent saturated liquids and vapours,
respectively. A combination of liquid anvapouror refrigerant states exists in the area between
the two curves. Wherever the saturated liquid curve crosses the saturated vapor curve, the
refrigerant is in liquid form, and when it crosses the saturated vapor curve, it is in vapor
form.The criterionn point is the point at which two curves meet. Because of this, any extra
pressure will not convert thevapourr into a liquid at any point above this one. Below is a
simplified pressure-enthalpy diagram that explains this information in more detail.

Apparatus:

 Mechanical Heat Pump

Procedure:

 Switch on the vapour-compression refrigeration apparatus after taking care of all

necessary precautions.
 Allow running of the apparatus for a while so that the readings shown become stable.
 Change the condenser water flow rate using the knob provided, for each set of
readings.
 Insert the values in the table of observations.

Calculations:

Heat transfer from refrigerant (Condenser) ¿ mref ( h2−h 3)

Heat transfer to water (Condenser) ¿ m w∗C p ∗(T 6−T 5)
w

Electric power input to the Compressor = 15000 / X

Enthalpy change of R134a ¿ mref (h2−h1)

Specimen Calculations:

Draw the points on p-h diagram as follows

 Is located by the intersection of P1 = 410 kNm-2 and T1 = 13.8°C

 Is located by the intersection of P2 = 1075 kNm-2 and T2= 59.3°C
 Is located by assuming constant entropy compression from state point (1) and
 P2= 1075 kNm-2, (S2 = S1)
 Is located by the intersection of P3= 1075 kNm-2 and T3= 39.5°C
 Is located by the intersection of T4= 10.9°C and h3=h,

The following readings were taken from p-h diagram

 h1 = 305 kJ/kg
 h2 = 338 KJ/kg
 h2s= 326 kJ/kg
 h3 = h4 = 148 kJ/kg
 v1 = 0.050 m^3/kg

Energy Balance:

Condenser
Heat Transfer from Refrigerant = mr (h2 –h3) = 1102 W
Heat Transfer to water  = mw Cp,w (T6 – T5) = 1003 W

Compressor
Electrical Power input to Compressor = 4500/ X = 304 W
Enthalpy change of R134a = mr  (h2 –h1) = 191 W
Observations:

Mas Mas
Temp Temp Temp
Pressur Pressur Temp flow s
Sr. . at . at . at Tim Cond.
e at e at . at rate flow
No Comp Cond Exp. e per Water
Comp. Comp. Comp of rate
. . . valve rev. temp.
inlet outlet . inlet wate of
outlet outlet outlet
r ref.
# P1 P2 T1 T2 T3 T4 mw mref X T5 T6
1. 410 1075 13.8 59.3 39.5 10.9 15 5.8 49.3 23 39

Comments:

According to the calculations, only 323.9W of the electrical energy used to power the
compressor gets transmitted to the refrigerant, leaving a 13.3W energy gap that is lost to the
environment, presumably as heat from friction. Similar energy loss occurs in the condenser,
where the refrigerant loses 11% of its energy as it transitions from superheated vapours to
saturated liquid. As a result, only 1207W of energy is transferred to the water flowing
through the condenser tubes, compared to the refrigerant's 1356W of energy loss. These
losses are irreversible in the system, but they can be minimized by insulating the surrounding
area and making sure the water flows smoothly. Basically, the system has inefficiencies that
lead to energy losses, and steps can be taken to minimize losses
 EXPERIMENT 3

Production of Heat Pump performance curves based on the R134a properties

at a variety of Evaporating and Condensing temperatures.

Theory:

Properties of R134a
The properties of R134a are
 1,430 times more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide
 No harmful effects on the ozone layer
 Mainly found in fridges and freezers
 Found in approximately 30% of fridges/freezers at transfer stations and
scrap yards
 Venting from the average fridge or freezer is the equivalent of 1 month of
emissions from the average home.
Toxic or combustible gases such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide, methyl chloride or propane
were used in the earliest air conditioners and freezers, which might lead to terrible mishaps if
they leaked.
A non-flammable, non-toxic chlorofluorocarbon gas was invented in 1928 by Thomas
Midgley Jr. (R-12). 'CFC', 'HCFC', and 'HFC' are trademarked names owned by DuPont (now
Chemours). CFCs such as R-11, R-12, R-123 and R-502 dominated the market following the
discovery of improved synthesis techniques

Apparatus:

 Mechanical Heat Pump

Procedure:

 Switch on the vapor-compression refrigeration apparatus after taking care of all

necessary precautions.
 Allow running of the apparatus for a while so that the readings shown become stable.
 Change the condenser water flow rate using the knob provided, for each set of
readings. Insert the values in the table of observations.

Calculations:

Work input rate across Compressor wcom = 4500 / X

Heat Transfer in Condenser qcon = mr x (h2 – h3)
Heat Transfer in Evaporator qevap = mr x (h1 – h4)
Coefficient of Performance COP = qcon / wcom
Observations:

Specimen Calculation:

Draw the state points on the p-h diagram as follows:

Is located by the intersection of P1 = 410 kN/m2 and T1= 13.8 O C
Is located by the intersection of P2 = 1075 kN/m2 and T2= 59.3 O C
Is located by the intersection of P3 = 1075 kN/m2 and T3= 39.3 O C
Is located by the intersection of T4 = 10.9 O C and h3=h4

The following readings were taken from p-h diagram

h1 = 305 kJ/kg h2 = 343 kJ/kg h3 = h4 = 157 kJ/kg
 Work input rate across Compressor wcom = 15000 / X
 wcom = 304 W
 Heat Transfer in Condenser qcon = mr x (h2 – h3)
 qcon = 1079 W
 Heat Transfer in Evaporator qevap = mr x (h1 – h4)
 qevap = 858 W
 Coefficient of Performance COP = wcom / qcon
COP = 3.5
Graphs:

4.5

3.5

2.5
COP

1.5

0.5

0
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41

Condenser Water outlet temperature

400

350

300
Compressor power input rate

250

200

150

100

50

0
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41

Condenser water outlet temperature

 1200

1000
3.5.3 Heat output rate (Condenser)

800

600

400

200

0
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41
Condenser water outlet temperature

1200

1000
Heat input rate (Evaporator)

800

600

400

200

0
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41
Condenser water outlet temperature
 1200 5

4.5
1000
4

3.5
800
3
Heat rate

600 2.5

COP
2
400
1.5

1
200
0.5

0 0
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41

Condenser water outlet temperature

Heat input rate (Evaporator) vs Condenser water outlet temperature

Heat output rate (Condenser) vs Condenser water outlet temperature
Compressor power input rate vs Condenser water outlet temperature
COP vs Condenser water outlet temperature

Comments:

The fifth graph demonstrates how the heat pump's COP (coefficient of performance) declines
as the temperature of the condenser water outlet rises. With rising condenser water outlet
temperature, both the heat input to the evaporator and the heat output to the condenser also
decrease. However, the power input to the compressor increases with increasing condenser
water outlet temperature. In summary, the COP, condenser heat transfer, and evaporator heat
transfer have an inverse relationship with the condenser water outlet temperature, while the
power input to the compressor has a direct relationship with the condenser water outlet
temperature
 EXPERIMENT 4

Estimation of the effect of Compressor Pressure Ratio on Volumetric

Efficiency

Apparatus:

 Mechanical Heat Pump

Procedure:

 Switch on the vapor-compression refrigeration apparatus after taking care of all

necessary precautions.
 Allow running of the apparatus for a while so that the readings shown become stable.
 Change the condenser water flow rate using the knob provided, for each set of
readings. Insert the values in the table of observations.

Calculations:

Volume Flow Rate at Compressor Suction V1 = mrv1

Compressor Pressure Ratio rP = P2/P1
Volumetric Efficiency ηv = V1 / Vs
Where ‘Vs’ is compressor Swept Volume

Observations:

Specimen Calculation:

Draw the state points on p-h diagram as follows:

Is located by the intersection of P1 = 410 kN/m2 and T1= 13.8 O C
Is located by the intersection of P2 = 1075 kN/m2 and T2= 59.3 O C
Is located by the intersection of P3 = 1075 kN/m2 and T3= 39.3 O C
Is located by the intersection of T4 = 10.9 O C and h3=h4

The following readings were taken from p-h diagram

h1 = 305 kJ/kg h2 = 343 kJ/kg h3 = h4 = 157 kJ/kg
State point (1) may be plotted on p-h diagram to read out v1 = 0.054 m3/kg
Volume Flow Rate at Compressor Suction V1 = mrv1
V1 = 3.24 * 10^-4 m3/s

Compressor Pressure Ratio rP = P2/P1

rP = 800/390 = 2.05

The compressor swept volume rate (assuming that it runs at 2800 rev /min)
Vs = (2800/60) x 8.855x 10-6 m3/s
Vs = 4.13 x 10-4 m3/s
Where 8.855 cm 3 is the swept volume of the compressor cylinder per revolution
 
Comments:

The efficiency of the compressor decreases as the pressure ratio increases. This is because as
the outlet pressure increases compared to the inlet pressure, the gas molecules in the
compressor get closer to each other, resulting in forces of attraction between the molecules.
These forces become stronger as the pressure ratio increases, which causes a decrease in the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor. Essentially, as the pressure increases, the gas
molecules experience more attraction and are less able to move around freely, which leads to
a less efficient compression process.