1

Chapter 1:
Moles and equations
Learning outcomes
you should be able to:
■■ define and use the terms: ■■ perform calculations, including use of the mole
– relative atomic mass, isotopic mass and concept involving:
formula mass based on the 12C scale – reacting masses (from formulae and equations)
– empirical formula and molecular formula – volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of
– the mole in terms of the Avogadro constant hydrocarbons)
■■ analyse and use mass spectra to calculate the – volumes and concentrations of solutions
relative atomic mass of an element ■■ deduce stoichiometric relationships from
■■ calculate empirical and molecular formulae using calculations involving reacting masses, volumes of
combustion data or composition by mass gases and volumes and concentrations of solutions.
■■ write and construct balanced equations
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

Introduction
For thousands of years, people have heated rocks and
distilled plant juices to extract materials. Over the
past two centuries, chemists have learnt more and
more about how to get materials from rocks, from
the air and the sea, and from plants. They have also
found out the right conditions to allow these materials
to react together to make new substances, such as
dyes, plastics and medicines. When we make a new
substance it is important to mix the reactants in the
correct proportions to ensure that none is wasted. In
order to do this we need to know about the relative
masses of atoms and molecules and how these are
used in chemical calculations.

Figure 1.1  A titration is a method used to find the amount of

a particular substance in a solution.
2

Masses of atoms and molecules We use the average mass of the atom of a particular element
because most elements are mixtures of isotopes. For example,
Relative atomic mass, Ar the exact Ar of hydrogen is 1.0079. This is very close to 1 and
Atoms of different elements have different masses. When most periodic tables give the Ar of hydrogen as 1.0. However,
we perform chemical calculations, we need to know how some elements in the Periodic Table have values that are not
heavy one atom is compared with another. The mass of whole numbers. For example, the Ar for chlorine is 35.5. This
a single atom is so small that it is impossible to weigh it is because chlorine has two isotopes. In a sample of chlorine,
directly. To overcome this problem, we have to weigh a lot chlorine-35 makes up about three-quarters of the chlorine
of atoms. We then compare this mass with the mass of the atoms and chlorine-37 makes up about a quarter.
same number of ‘standard’ atoms. Scientists have chosen
to use the isotope carbon-12 as the standard. This has been Relative isotopic mass
given a mass of exactly 12 units. The mass of other atoms is Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons
found by comparing their mass with the mass of carbon-12 but different numbers of neutrons (see page 28). We represent
atoms. This is called the relative atomic mass, Ar. the nucleon number (the total number of neutrons plus
protons in an atom) by a number written at the top
The relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass of left-hand corner of the atom’s symbol, e.g. 20Ne, or by
naturally occurring atoms of an element on a scale where a number written after the atom’s name or symbol, e.g.
an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of exactly 12 units. neon-20 or Ne-20.
We use the term relative isotopic mass for the mass
of a particular isotope of an element on a scale where
From this it follows that: an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of exactly 12 units. For
Ar [element Y] example, the relative isotopic mass of carbon-13 is 13.00.
average mass of one atom of element Y × 12 If we know both the natural abundance of every isotope
= ​ ____________________________________
          ​
mass of one atom of carbon-12 of an element and their isotopic masses, we can calculate
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

the relative atomic mass of the element very accurately.

To find the necessary data we use an instrument called a
Accurate relative atomic masses
mass spectrometer (see box on mass spectrometry).
Mass spectrometry
Relative molecular mass, Mr Biological drawing
The relative molecular mass of a compound (Mr) is the A mass spectrometerbox 1.1: 1.2)
(Figure can be used
relative mass of one molecule of the compound on a to measure the mass of each isotope present
scale where the carbon-12 isotope has a mass of exactly in an element. It also compares how much of
12 units. We find the relative molecular mass by adding each isotope is present – the relative abundance
up the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in (isotopic abundance). A simplified diagram of a
the molecule. mass spectrometer is shown in Figure 1.3. You will
For example, for methane: not be expected to know the details of how a mass
formula CH4 spectrometer works, but it is useful to understand
atoms present 1 × C; 4 × H how the results are obtained.
add Ar values (1 × Ar[C]) + (4 × Ar[H])
Mr of methane = (1 × 12.0) + (4 × 1.0)
= 16.0

Relative formula mass

For compounds containing ions we use the term relative
formula mass. This is calculated in the same way as for
relative molecular mass. It is also given the same symbol,
Mr. For example, for magnesium hydroxide:
formula Mg(OH)2 3
ions present 1 × Mg2+; 2 × (OH–)
add Ar values (1 × Ar[Mg]) + (2 × (Ar[O] + Ar[H]))
Mr of magnesium
hydroxide = (1 × 24.3) + (2 × (16.0 + 1.0))
= 58.3 Figure 1.2  A mass spectrometer is a large and complex
instrument.

question
vaporised sample
1 
Use the Periodic Table on page 473 to calculate the positively charged
relative formula masses of the following: electrodes accelerate positive ions
a calcium chloride, CaCl2
b copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4 magnetic field
c ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4
d magnesium nitrate-6-water, Mg(NO3)2.6H2O heated
filament
Hint: for part d you need to calculate the mass of ionisation ion
produces
chamber flight tube detector
water separately and then add it to the Mr of Mg(NO3)2. high-energy
electrons

recorder

computer

Figure 1.3  Simplified diagram of a mass spectrometer.

 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

Mass spectrometry (continued) Determination of Ar from mass spectra

We can use the data obtained from a mass spectrometer
The atoms of the element in the vaporised sample to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element very
are converted into ions. The stream of ions is accurately. To calculate the relative atomic mass we follow
brought to a detector after being deflected (bent) this method:
by a strong magnetic field. As the magnetic field is ■■ multiply each isotopic mass by its percentage abundance
increased, the ions of heavier and heavier isotopes ■■ add the figures together
are brought to the detector. The detector is ■■ divide by 100.
connected to a computer, which displays the
We can use this method to calculate the relative atomic
mass spectrum.
mass of neon from its mass spectrum, shown in Figure 1.5.
The mass spectrum produced shows the relative The mass spectrum of neon has three peaks:
abundance (isotopic abundance) on the vertical
20Ne (90.9%), 21Ne (0.3%) and 22Ne (8.8%).
axis and the mass to ion charge ratio (m/e) on the
horizontal axis. Figure 1.4 shows a typical mass
Ar of neon
spectrum for a sample of lead. Table 1.1 shows (20 × 90.9) + (21.0 × 0.3) + (22 × 8.8)
how the data is interpreted. = _______________________________
   
​       ​= 20.2
100
Note that this answer is given to 3 significant figures,
3
which is consistent with the data given.
Detector current / mA

90.9 %
2 100

80
Relative abundance / %

4
1
60

40
0
204 205 206 207 208 209
20

8.8 %
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio 0.3 %
0
Figure 1.4  The mass spectrum of a sample of lead. 19 20 21 22 23
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio
For singly positively charged ions the m/e values
Figure 1.5  The mass spectrum of neon, Ne.
give the nucleon number of the isotopes detected.
In the case of lead, Table 1.1 shows that 52% of the
A high-resolution mass spectrometer can give very
lead is the isotope with an isotopic mass of 208.
accurate relative isotopic masses. For example 16O = 15.995
The rest is lead-204 (2%), lead-206 (24%) and lead-
and 32S = 31.972. Because of this, chemists can distinguish
207 (22%).
between molecules such as SO2 and S2, which appear to
Isotopic mass Relative abundance / %
have the same relative molecular mass.
204   2
206  24
207  22
208  52
total 100
Table 1.1  The data from Figure 1.4.
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

We often refer to the mass of a mole of substance as its

question
molar mass (abbreviation M). The units of molar mass
–1
2 
Look at the mass spectrum of germanium, Ge. are g mol .
The number of atoms in a mole of atoms is very large:
6.02 × 1023 atoms. This number is called the Avogadro

36.7 %
40
constant (or Avogadro number). The symbol for the

27.4 %
Avogadro constant is L (the symbol NA may also be used).
30
20.6 % The Avogadro constant applies to atoms, molecules, ions
Abundance / %

and electrons. So in 1 mole of sodium there are 6.02 × 1023

20
sodium atoms and in 1 mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) there
are 6.02 × 1023 sodium ions and 6.02 × 1023 chloride ions.
7.7 %

7.6 %
10
It is important to make clear what type of particles
we are referring to. If we just state ‘moles of chlorine’, it is
0
70 75 80 not clear whether we are thinking about chlorine atoms

Mass/charge (m/e) ratio or chlorine molecules. A mole of chlorine molecules, Cl2,
Figure 1.6  The mass spectrum of germanium.
contains 6.02 × 1023 chlorine molecules but twice as many
chlorine atoms, as there are two chlorine atoms in every
a Write the isotopic formula for the heaviest isotope
chlorine molecule.
of germanium.
b Use the % abundance of each isotope to calculate
the relative atomic mass of germanium.

Amount of substance 5

The mole and the Avogadro constant

The formula of a compound shows us the number of
atoms of each element present in one formula unit or one
molecule of the compound. In water we know that two
atoms of hydrogen (Ar = 1.0) combine with one atom of
oxygen (Ar = 16.0). So the ratio of mass of hydrogen atoms
to oxygen atoms in a water molecule is 2 : 16. No matter Figure 1.7  Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856) was an Italian
how many molecules of water we have, this ratio will scientist who first deduced that equal volumes of gases
always be the same. But the mass of even 1000 atoms is contain equal numbers of molecules. Although the Avogadro
constant is named after him, it was left to other scientists to
far too small to be weighed. We have to scale up much
calculate the number of particles in a mole.
more than this to get an amount of substance that is easy
to weigh.
The relative atomic mass or relative molecular mass of Moles and mass
a substance in grams is called a mole of the substance. So a The Système International (SI) base unit for mass is the
mole of sodium (Ar = 23.0) weighs 23.0 g. The abbreviation kilogram. But this is a rather large mass to use for general
for a mole is mol. We define the mole in terms of the laboratory work in chemistry. So chemists prefer to use
standard carbon-12 isotope (see page 28). the relative molecular mass or formula mass in grams
(1000 g = 1 kg). You can find the number of moles of a
One mole of a substance is the amount of that substance
substance by using the mass of substance and the relative
that has the same number of specific particles (atoms, atomic mass (Ar) or relative molecular mass (Mr).
molecules or ions) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of the
 mass of substance in grams (g)
carbon-12 isotope. number of moles (mol) = ​ __________________________
        ​
molar mass (g mol–1)
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

worked example worked example

1 How many moles of sodium chloride are present in 2 What mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is present in
117.0 g of sodium chloride, NaCl? 0.25 mol of sodium hydroxide?
( Ar values: Na = 23.0, Cl = 35.5) ( Ar values: H = 1.0, Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)
molar mass of NaCl = 23.0 + 35.5 molar mass of NaOH = 23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0
= 58.5 g mol–1 = 40.0 g mol–1
mass mass = number of moles × molar mass
number of moles = ​ ___________
   ​ 
molar mass = 0.25 × 40.0 g
117.0
= ​ _____ ​   = 10.0 g NaOH
58.5
= 2.0 mol

question

Use these Ar values: C = 12.0, Fe = 55.8, H = 1.0,

4 
O = 16.0, Na = 23.0.
Calculate the mass of the following:
a 0.20 moles of carbon dioxide, CO2
b 0.050 moles of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
c 5.00 moles of iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2

6
Mole calculations
Reacting masses
Figure 1.8  From left to right, one mole of each of copper, When reacting chemicals together we may need to know
bromine, carbon, mercury and lead. what mass of each reactant to use so that they react exactly
and there is no waste. To calculate this we need to know
the chemical equation. This shows us the ratio of moles
question
of the reactants and products – the stoichiometry of the
3 a Use these Ar values (Fe = 55.8, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, equation. The balanced equation shows this stoichiometry.
S = 32.1) to calculate the amount of substance in For example, in the reaction
moles in each of the following:

i 
10.7 g of sulfur atoms
Fe2O3  +  3CO 2Fe  +  3CO2

ii 
64.2 g of sulfur molecules (S8) 1 mole of iron(III) oxide reacts with 3 moles of carbon

iii 
60.45 g of anhydrous iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3. monoxide to form 2 moles of iron and 3 moles of carbon
b Use the value of the Avogadro constant (6.02 × dioxide. The stoichiometry of the equation is 1 : 3 : 2 : 3.
1023 mol–1) to calculate the total number of atoms in The large numbers that are included in the equation
7.10 g of chlorine atoms. (Ar value: Cl = 35.5) (3, 2 and 3) are called stoichiometric numbers.
In order to find the mass of products formed in a
chemical reaction we use:
To find the mass of a substance present in a given number ■■ the mass of the reactants
of moles, you need to rearrange the equation ■■ the molar mass of the reactants
 mass of substance in grams (g) ■■ the balanced equation.
number of moles (mol) = ​ __________________________
      
–1
 ​
molar mass (g mol )
mass of substance (g)
= number of moles (mol) × molar mass (g mol–1)
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

worked example

4 Iron(III) oxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form

iron and carbon dioxide.
Fe2O3  +  3CO 2Fe  +  3CO2
Calculate the maximum mass of iron produced when
798 g of iron(III) oxide is reduced by excess carbon
monoxide.
(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0)
Step 1 Fe2O3  +  3CO 2Fe  +  3CO2
Step 2 1 mole iron(III) oxide 2 moles iron
(2 × 55.8) + (3 × 16.0) 2 × 55.8
g Fe2O3
159.6  111.6 g Fe
Figure 1.9  Iron reacting with sulfur to produce iron sulfide. 111.6
Step 3 798 g ​ _____  ​ × 798
We can calculate exactly how much iron is needed to react 159.6
with sulfur and the mass of the products formed by = 558 g Fe
knowing the molar mass of each reactant and the balanced You can see that in step 3, we have simply used ratios
chemical equation. to calculate the amount of iron produced from 798 g of
iron(III) oxide.
worked example

3 Magnesium burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide.

question
2Mg  +  O2 2MgO 7
We can calculate the mass of oxygen needed to react 5 a Sodium reacts with excess oxygen to form sodium
with 1 mole of magnesium. We can calculate the mass peroxide, Na2O2.
of magnesium oxide formed. 2Na  +  O2 Na2O2
Step 1  Write the balanced equation.
Step 2  Multiply each formula mass in g by the Calculate the maximum mass of sodium
relevant stoichiometric number in the equation. peroxide formed when 4.60 g of sodium is burnt
in excess oxygen.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
(Ar values: Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)
2 × 24.3 g 1 × 32.0 g 2 × (24.3 g  +  16.0 g)
b Tin(IV) oxide is reduced to tin by carbon. Carbon
48.6 g 32.0 g 80.6 g
monoxide is also formed.
From this calculation we can deduce that: SnO2  +  2C Sn  +  2CO
■■ 32.0 g of oxygen are needed to react exactly with
48.6 g of magnesium Calculate the mass of carbon that exactly reacts
with 14.0 g of tin(IV) oxide. Give your answer to 3
■■ 80.6 g of magnesium oxide are formed.
significant figures.
If we burn 12.15 g of magnesium (0.5 mol) we get
(Ar values: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Sn = 118.7)
20.15 g of magnesium oxide. This is because the
stoichiometry of the reaction shows us that for every
mole of magnesium burnt we get the same number of
moles of magnesium oxide. The stoichiometry of a reaction
We can find the stoichiometry of a reaction if we know the
amounts of each reactant that exactly react together and
In this type of calculation we do not always need to know the amounts of each product formed.
the molar mass of each of the reactants. If one or more of For example, if we react 4.0 g of hydrogen with 32.0 g of
the reactants is in excess, we need only know the mass in oxygen we get 36.0 g of water. (Ar values: H = 1.0, O = 16.0)
grams and the molar mass of the reactant that is not in
excess (the limiting reactant).
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

hydrogen (H2)  +   oxygen (O2) water (H2O)

worked example (continued)
4.0 32.0 36.0
​ ______
   ​ ​ 
  _______   _____________
  ​ ​      
2 × 1.0 2 × 16.0 (2 × 1.0) + 16.0
Note 1  Zeros before a number are not significant
 ​ = 2 mol = 1 mol = 2 mol
figures. For example, 0.004 is only to 1 significant
This ratio is the ratio of stoichiometric numbers in the figure.
equation. So the equation is: Note 2  After the decimal point, zeros after a number
are significant figures. 0.0040 has 2 significant figures
2H2  +  O2 2H2O and 0.004 00 has 3 significant figures.
Note 3  If you are performing a calculation with
We can still deduce the stoichiometry of this reaction several steps, do not round up in between steps.
even if we do not know the mass of oxygen that reacted. Round up at the end.
The ratio of hydrogen to water is 1 : 1. But there is only one
atom of oxygen in a molecule of water – half the amount
in an oxygen molecule. So the mole ratio of oxygen to
water in the equation must be 1 : 2.
Percentage composition by mass
We can use the formula of a compound and relative atomic
masses to calculate the percentage by mass of a particular
Question element in a compound.

6 
56.2 g of silicon, Si, reacts exactly with 284.0 g of % by mass
chlorine, Cl2, to form 340.2 g of silicon(IV) chloride, atomic mass × number of moles of particular
SiCl4. Use this information to calculate the
      element in a compound      
stoichiometry of the reaction. =  ​  ______________________________________
          ​  × 100
molar mass of compound
(Ar values: Cl = 35.5, Si = 28.1)


8
worked example
Significant figures
When we perform chemical calculations it is important 6 Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in iron(III)
that we give the answer to the number of significant oxide, Fe2O3.
figures that fits with the data provided. The examples show (Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0)
2 × 55.8
the number 526.84 rounded up to varying numbers of % mass of iron = ​ __________________
  
   ​ × 100
(2 × 55.8) + (3 × 16.0)
significant figures.
= 69.9 %
rounded to 4 significant figures = 526.8
rounded to 3 significant figures = 527
rounded to 2 significant figures = 530
When you are writing an answer to a calculation, the
answer should be to the same number of significant figures
as the least number of significant figures in the data.

worked example

5 How many moles of calcium oxide are there in 2.9 g of

calcium oxide?
(Ar values: Ca = 40.1, O = 16.0)

If you divide 2.9 by 56.1, your calculator shows

0.051 693 …. The least number of significant figures Figure 1.10  This iron ore is impure Fe2O3. We can calculate
in the data, however, is 2 (the mass is 2.9 g). So your the mass of iron that can be obtained from Fe2O3 by using
answer should be expressed to 2 significant figures, molar masses.
as 0.052 mol.
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

Question worked examples

7 
Calculate the percentage by mass of carbon in 7 Deduce the formula of magnesium oxide.
ethanol, C2H5OH.
This can be found as follows:
(Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0, O = 16.0)
■■ burn a known mass of magnesium (0.486 g) in
excess oxygen
■■ record the mass of magnesium oxide formed
Empirical formulae (0.806 g)
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole ■■ calculate the mass of oxygen that has combined

number ratio of the elements present in one molecule or with the magnesium (0.806 – 0.486 g) = 0.320 g
formula unit of the compound. The molecular formula of a ■■ calculate the mole ratio of magnesium to oxygen

compound shows the total number of atoms of each element ■■ ( Ar values: Mg = 24.3, O = 16.0)

present in a molecule. 0.486 g

moles of Mg = ​ __________  ​ 
= 0.0200 mol
Table 1.2 shows the empirical and molecular formulae 24.3 g mol–1
for a number of compounds. 0.320 g
moles of oxygen = ​ __________
  ​ = 0.0200 mol
■■ The formula for an ionic compound is always its 16.0 g mol–1
empirical formula. The simplest ratio of magnesium : oxygen is 1 : 1. So the
■■ The empirical formula and molecular formula for simple empirical formula of magnesium oxide is MgO.
inorganic molecules are often the same. 8 When 1.55 g of phosphorus is completely combusted
■■ Organic molecules often have different empirical and 3.55 g of an oxide of phosphorus is produced. Deduce
molecular formulae. the empirical formula of this oxide of phosphorus.
(Ar values: O = 16.0, P = 31.0)
Compound Empirical Molecular P O
formula formula 9
Step 1 note the mass 1.55 g 3.55 – 1.55
water H2O H2O of each element = 2.00 g
hydrogen peroxide HO H2O2 Step 2 divide by atomic 1.55 g 2.00 g
masses ​  __________  ___________
   ​ ​     ​ 
sulfur dioxide SO2 SO2 31.0 g mol–1 16.0 g mol–11
= 0.05 mol = 0.125 mol
butane C2H5 C4H10 Step 3 divide by the
0.05
____ 0.125
_____
cyclohexane CH2 C6H12 lowest figure ​  0.05  ​ = 1 ​  0.05 ​  = 2.5

Table 1.2  Some empirical and molecular formulae. Step 4 if needed, obtain P2O5
the lowest whole
number ratio
Question to get empirical
formula
8 
Write the empirical formula for:
a hydrazine, N2H4
b octane, C8H18
An empirical formula can also be deduced from data that
c benzene, C6H6 give the percentage composition by mass of the elements
d ammonia, NH3 in a compound.

The empirical formula can be found by determining

the mass of each element present in a sample of the
compound. For some compounds this can be done by
combustion. An organic compound must be very pure in
order to calculate its empirical formula. Chemists often
use gas chromatography to purify compounds before
carrying out formula analysis.
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

worked example worked example (continued)

9 A compound of carbon and hydrogen contains 85.7% Step 2  divide the relative molecular mass by
carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Deduce the 187.8
the empirical formula mass:  _____
​   ​   = 2
empirical formula of this hydrocarbon. 93.9
(Ar values: C = 12.0, O = 16.0) Step 3  multiply the number of atoms in the empirical
C H formula by the number in step 2:
2 × CH2Br, so molecular formula is C2H4Br2.
Step 1 note the % by mass 85.7 14.3
85.7 14.3
Step 2 divide by Ar values ​ ____  ​  = 7.142 ​ ____ ​   = 14.3
12.0 1.0

7.142
Step 3 divide by the lowest _____ 14.3 Question
​   ​    = 1 ​ _____  ​   = 2
figure 7.142 7.142
10 The empirical formulae and molar masses of three
Empirical formula is CH2. compounds, A, B and C, are shown in the table below.
Calculate the molecular formula of each of these
compounds.
(Ar values: C = 12.0, Cl = 35.5, H = 1.0)
Question
Compound Empirical formula Mr
9 
The composition by mass of a hydrocarbon is 10%
hydrogen and 90% carbon. Deduce the empirical A C3H5  82
formula of this hydrocarbon.
B CCl3 237
(Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0)

C CH2 112
10
Molecular formulae
The molecular formula shows the actual number of each
of the different atoms present in a molecule. The molecular
Chemical formulae and
formula is more useful than the empirical formula. We chemical equations
use the molecular formula to write balanced equations
Deducing the formula
and to calculate molar masses. The molecular formula is
The electronic structure of the individual elements in a
always a multiple of the empirical formula. For example,
compound determines the formula of a compound (see
the molecular formula of ethane, C2H6, is two times the
page 33). The formula of an ionic compound is determined by
empirical formula, CH3.
the charges on each of the ions present. The number of positive
In order to deduce the molecular formula we need
charges is balanced by the number of negative charges so that
to know:
the total charge on the compound is zero. We can work out the
■■ the relative formula mass of the compound formula for a compound if we know the charges on the ions.
■■ the empirical formula. Figure 1.11 shows the charges on some simple ions related to
the position of the elements in the Periodic Table. The form
worked example of the Periodic Table that we shall be using has 18 groups
because the transition elements are numbered as Groups
10 A compound has the empirical formula CH2Br. Its 3 to 12. So, aluminium is in Group 13 and chlorine is in
relative molecular mass is 187.8. Deduce the molecular Group 17.
formula of this compound. For simple metal ions in Groups 1 and 2, the value of
(Ar values: Br = 79.9, C = 12.0, H = 1.0) the positive charge is the same as the group number. For
Step 1  find the empirical formula mass: a simple metal ion in Group 13, the value of the positive
12.0 + (2 × 1.0) + 79.9 = 93.9 charge is 3+. For a simple non-metal ion in Groups 15 to
17, the value of the negative charge is 18 minus the group
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

18
Group worked examples
H+ none
1 2 13 14 15 16 17
2– 11 Deduce the formula of magnesium chloride.
Li+ Be2+ O F– none
Ions present: Mg2+ and Cl–.
2– –
Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ S Cl none For electrical neutrality, we need two Cl– ions for every
Mg2+ ion. (2 × 1–) + (1 × 2+) = 0
K+ Ca2+ Ga3+ Br– none
transition So the formula is MgCl2.
Rb+ Sr2+ elements I– none
12 Deduce the formula of aluminium oxide.
Ions present: Al3+ and O2–.
Figure 1.11  The charge on some simple ions is related to
their position in the Periodic Table. For electrical neutrality, we need three O2– ions for
every two Al3+ ions. (3 × 2−) + (2 × 3+) = 0
So the formula is Al2O3.
number. The charge on the ions of transition elements can
vary. For example, iron forms two types of ions, Fe2+ and
Fe3+ (Figure 1.12).
The formula of a covalent compound is deduced from the
number of electrons needed to achieve the stable electronic
configuration of a noble gas (see page 49). In general,
carbon atoms form four bonds with other atoms, hydrogen
and halogen atoms form one bond and oxygen atoms form
two bonds. So the formula of water, H2O, follows these
rules. The formula for methane is CH4, with each carbon
atom bonding with four hydrogen atoms. However, there
are many exceptions to these rules. 11
Compounds containing a simple metal ion and non-
metal ion are named by changing the end of the name of
the non-metal element to -ide.

sodium + chlorine sodium chloride

Figure 1.12  Iron(II) chloride (left) and iron(III) chloride (right). zinc + sulfur zinc sulfide
These two chlorides of iron both contain iron and chlorine,
but they have different formulae. Compound ions containing oxygen are usually called
-ates. For example, the sulfate ion contains sulfur
Ions that contain more than one type of atom are called and oxygen, the phosphate ion contains phosphorus
compound ions. Some common compound ions that you and oxygen.
should learn are listed in Table 1.3. The formula for an
ionic compound is obtained by balancing the charges of
Question
the ions.
11 a Write down the formula of each of the following
Ion Formula compounds:
ammonium NH4+ 
i 
magnesium nitrate
carbonate CO32– 
ii 
calcium sulfate
hydrogencarbonate HCO3– 
iii 
sodium iodide

hydroxide OH– 
iv 
hydrogen bromide

v 
sodium sulfide
nitrate NO3–
phosphate PO43– b Name each of the following compounds:
 Na3PO4 iii AlCl3
i 
sulfate SO42–

ii 
(NH4)2SO4 i v Ca(NO3)2
Table 1.3  The formulae of some common compound ions.
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

Balancing chemical equations worked examples (continued)

When chemicals react, atoms cannot be either created
or destroyed. So there must be the same number of each Step 3 balance the Fe2O3 + CO 2Fe + CO2
type of atom on the reactants side of a chemical equation iron
as there are on the products side. A symbol equation is a 2[Fe] + 1[C] + 2[Fe] + 1[C] +
shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction. It shows 3[O] 1[O] 2[O]
the number and type of the atoms in the reactants and the Step 4 balance the Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
number and type of atoms in the products. If these are oxygen 2[Fe] + 3[C] + 2[Fe] + 3[C] +
the same, we say the equation is balanced. Follow these 3[O] 3[O] 6[O]
examples to see how we balance an equation. In step 4 the oxygen in the CO2 comes from two places,
the Fe2O3 and the CO. In order to balance the equation,
the same number of oxygen atoms (3) must come from
worked examples the iron oxide as come from the carbon monoxide.

13 Balancing an equation
Step 1  Write down the formulae of all the reactants and
products. For example: Question
H2 + O2 H2O 12 Write balanced equations for the following reactions.
Step 2  Count the number of atoms of each reactant a Iron reacts with hydrochloric acid to form iron(II)
and product. chloride, FeCl2, and hydrogen.
H2 + O2 H2O b Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, decomposes on
2[H] 2[O] 2[H] + 1[O] heating to form aluminium oxide, Al2O3, and water.
c Hexane, C6H14, burns in oxygen to form carbon
Step 3  Balance one of the atoms by placing a number
12 dioxide and water.
in front of one of the reactants or products. In this case
the oxygen atoms on the right-hand side need to be
balanced, so that they are equal in number to those on
the left-hand side. Remember that the number in front Using state symbols
multiplies everything in the formula. For example, 2H2O We sometimes find it useful to specify the physical states
has 4 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms.
of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. This
H2 + O2 2H2O is especially important where chemical equilibrium and
2[H] 2[O] 4[H] + 2[O] rates of reaction are being discussed (see Chapter 8 and
Step 4  Keep balancing in this way, one type of atom at Chapter 9). We use the following state symbols:
a time until all the atoms are balanced.
■■ (s) solid
2H2 + O2 2H2O ■■ (l) liquid
4[H] 2[O] 4[H] + 2[O] ■■ (g) gas
Note that when you balance an equation you must not ■■ (aq) aqueous (a solution in water).
change the formulae of any of the reactants
or products.
State symbols are written after the formula of each
reactant and product. For example:
14 Write a balanced equation for the reaction of iron(III)
oxide with carbon monoxide to form iron and carbon ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
dioxide.
Step 1 formulae Fe2O3 + CO Fe + CO2
Question
Step 2 count the Fe2O3 + CO Fe + CO2
number 13 Write balanced equations, including state symbols, for
of atoms 2[Fe] + 1[C] + 1[Fe] 1[C] + the following reactions.
3[O] 1[O] 2[O] a Solid calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous
hydrochloric acid to form water, carbon dioxide
and an aqueous solution of calcium chloride.
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

with charges: Zn(s)  +  Cu2+SO42–(aq)

Question (continued)
Zn2+SO42–(aq)  +  Cu(s)
b An aqueous solution of zinc sulfate, ZnSO4,
reacts with an aqueous solution of sodium cancelling spectator ions: Zn(s)  +  Cu2+SO42–(aq)
hydroxide. The products are a precipitate of zinc Zn2+SO42–(aq)  +  Cu(s)
hydroxide, Zn(OH)2, and an aqueous solution of
sodium sulfate. ionic equation: Zn(s)  +  Cu2+(aq)
Zn2+(aq)  +  Cu(s)
In the ionic equation you will notice that:
■■ there are no sulfate ions – these are the spectator ions as
they have not changed
■■ both the charges and the atoms are balanced.

The next examples show how we can change a full

equation into an ionic equation.

worked examples

15 Writing an ionic equation

Step 1  Write down the full balanced equation.
Mg(s)  +  2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq)  +  H2(g)
Figure 1.13  The reaction between calcium carbonate and Step 2  Write down all the ions present. Any reactant
hydrochloric acid. The equation for this reaction, with all the or product that has a state symbol (s), (l) or (g) or is a
state symbols, is: molecule in solution such as chlorine, Cl2(aq), does not 13
split into ions.
CaCO3(s)  +  2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq)  +  CO2(g)  +  H2O(l)
Mg(s)  +  2H+(aq)  +  2Cl–(aq)
Mg2+(aq)  +  2Cl–(aq)  +  H2(g)
Balancing ionic equations Step 3  Cancel the ions that appear on both sides of
When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions the equation (the spectator ions).
separate from each other. For example: Mg(s)  +  2H+(aq)  +  2Cl–(aq)
Mg2+(aq)  +  2Cl–(aq)  +  H2(g)
NaCl(s)  +  aq Na+(aq)  +  Cl–(aq)
Step 4  Write down the equation omitting the
Ionic compounds include salts such as sodium bromide, spectator ions.
magnesium sulfate and ammonium nitrate. Acids and Mg(s)  +  2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq)  +  H2(g)
alkalis also contain ions. For example H+(aq) and Cl–(aq) 16 Write the ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous
ions are present in hydrochloric acid and Na+(aq) and chlorine with aqueous potassium bromide. The
OH–(aq) ions are present in sodium hydroxide. products are aqueous bromine and aqueous
Many chemical reactions in aqueous solution involve potassium chloride.
ionic compounds. Only some of the ions in solution take Step 1  The full balanced equation is:
part in these reactions. Cl2(aq)  +  2KBr(aq) Br2(aq)  +  2KCl(aq)
The ions that play no part in the reaction are called Step 2  The ions present are:
spectator ions. Cl2(aq)  +  2K+(aq)  +  2Br–(aq)
An ionic equation is simpler than a full chemical Br2(aq)  +  2K+(aq)  +  2Cl–(aq)
equation. It shows only the ions or other particles that are
Step 3  Cancel the spectator ions:
reacting. Spectator ions are omitted. Compare the full
Cl2(aq)  +  2K+(aq)  +  2Br–(aq)
equation for the reaction of zinc with aqueous copper(II)
Br2(aq)  +  2K+(aq)  +  2Cl–(aq)
sulfate with the ionic equation.
Step 4  Write the final ionic equation:
full chemical equation: Zn(s)  +  CuSO4(aq) Cl2(aq)  +  2Br–(aq) Br2(aq)  +  2Cl–(aq)
ZnSO4(aq)  +  Cu(s)
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

compound is dissolved to make 1 dm3 of solution the

Question
concentration is 1 mol dm–3.
14 Change these full equations to ionic equations.
concentration (mol dm–3)
a H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) number of moles of solute (mol)
= ___________________________
   
​       ​
b Br2(aq)  +  2KI(aq) 2KBr(aq)  +  I2(aq) volume of solution (dm3)
We use the terms ‘concentrated’ and ‘dilute’ to refer to the
relative amount of solute in the solution. A solution with a
Chemists usually prefer to write ionic equations for low concentration of solute is a dilute solution. If there is a
precipitation reactions. A precipitation reaction is a high concentration of solute, the solution is concentrated.
reaction where two aqueous solutions react to form a solid When performing calculations involving
– the precipitate. For these reactions the method of writing concentrations in mol dm–3 you need to:
the ionic equation can be simplified. All you have to do is: ■■ change mass in grams to moles
■■ write the formula of the precipitate as the product ■■ change cm3 to dm3 (by dividing the number of cm3 by 1000).
■■ write the ions that go to make up the precipitate as
the reactants.
worked example

worked example 18 Calculate the concentration in mol dm–3 of sodium

hydroxide, NaOH, if 250 cm3 of a solution contains 2.0 g
17 An aqueous solution of iron(II) sulfate reacts with an of sodium hydroxide.
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. A precipitate of (Mr value: NaOH = 40.0)
iron(II) hydroxide is formed, together with an aqueous Step 1 Change grams to moles.
solution of sodium sulfate. 2.0
​ ____  ​ = 0.050 mol NaOH
■■ Write the full balanced equation: 40.0
14
FeSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) +  Na2SO4(aq) Step 2 Change cm3 to dm3.
250
250 cm3 = ​ _____  ​  dm3 = 0.25 dm3
■■ The ionic equation is: 1000
Fe2+(aq)  +  2OH–(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) Step 3 Calculate concentration.
0.050 (mol)
​ __________ = 0.20 mol dm–3
 ​ 
 
0.25 (dm3)

Question

15 Write ionic equations for these precipitation reactions.

a CuSO4(aq)  +  2NaOH(aq)
Cu(OH)2(s)  +  Na2SO4(aq)
b Pb(NO3)2(aq)  +  2KI(aq) PbI2(s)  +  2KNO3(aq)

Solutions and concentration

Calculating the concentration of
a solution
The concentration of a solution is the amount of
solute dissolved in a solvent to make 1 dm3 (one cubic
decimetre) of solution. The solvent is usually water. There Figure 1.14  The concentration of chlorine in the water in a
are 1000 cm3 in a cubic decimetre. When 1 mole of a swimming pool must be carefully controlled.
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

We often need to calculate the mass of a substance present Question

in a solution of known concentration and volume. To do
this we: 16 a Calculate the concentration, in mol dm–3, of the
following solutions: (Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0,
■■ rearrange the concentration equation to:
Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)
number of moles (mol) 
i 
a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH,
= concentration (mol dm–3) × volume (dm3) containing 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide in 50 cm3
■■ multiply the moles of solute by its molar mass of solution
mass of solute (g) 
ii 
a solution of ethanoic acid, CH3CO2H, containing
= number of moles (mol) × molar mass (g mol–1) 12.0 g of ethanoic acid in 250 cm3 of solution.
b Calculate the number of moles of solute dissolved
worked example in each of the following:
 40 cm3 of aqueous nitric acid of concentration
i 
19 Calculate the mass of anhydrous copper(II) sulfate in 0.2 mol dm–3
55 cm3 of a 0.20 mol dm–3 solution of copper(II) sulfate.  50 cm3 of calcium hydroxide solution of
ii 
(Ar values: Cu = 63.5, O = 16.0, S = 32.1) concentration 0.01 mol dm–3.
Step 1 Change cm3 to dm3.
55
= ​ _____
   ​ = 0.055 dm3
1000
Step 2 moles = concentration (mol dm–3)
×  volume of solution (dm3)
= 0.20 × 0.055 = 0.011 mol
Step 3 mass (g) = moles ×  M
= 0.011 ×  (63.5 + 32.1 + (4 × 16.0)) 15
= 1.8 g (to 2 significant figures)

Carrying out a titration

A procedure called a titration is used to determine the ■ Record the final burette reading. The final reading
amount of substance present in a solution of unknown minus the initial reading is called the titre. This first
concentration. There are several different kinds of titre is normally known as a ‘rough’ value.
titration. One of the commonest involves ■ Repeat this process, adding the acid drop by drop
the exact neutralisation of an alkali by an acid near the end-point.
(Figure 1.15). ■ Repeat again, until you have two titres that are no
more than 0.10 cm3 apart.
If we want to determine the concentration of a solution ■ Take the average of these two titre values.
of sodium hydroxide we use the following procedure.
Your results should be recorded in a table, looking
■ Get some of acid of known concentration. like this:
■ Fill a clean burette with the acid (after having washed
the burette with a little of the acid). rough 1 2 3
■ Record the initial burette reading.
final burette 37.60 38.65 36.40 34.75
■ Measure a known volume of the alkali into a titration
reading / cm3
flask using a graduated (volumetric) pipette.
initial burette  2.40  4.00  1.40  0.00
■ Add an indicator solution to the alkali in the flask.
reading / cm3
■ Slowly add the acid from the burette to the flask,
swirling the flask all the time until the indicator changes titre / cm3 35.20 34.65 35.00 34.75
colour (the end-point).
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

Carrying out a titration (continued)

a b

c d

16

Figure 1.15  a  A funnel is used to fill the burette with hydrochloric acid. b  A graduated pipette is used to measure 25.0 cm3
of sodium hydroxide solution into a conical flask. c  An indicator called litmus is added to the sodium hydroxide solution,
which turns blue. d  12.5 cm3 of hydrochloric acid from the burette have been added to the 25.0 cm3 of alkali in the conical
flask. The litmus has gone red, showing that this volume of acid was just enough to neutralise the alkali.

You should note: 3 the concentration of the solution in the burette

■ all burette readings are given to an accuracy 4 the volume of the solution in the titration flask (in the
of 0.05 cm3 example above this is sodium hydroxide)
■ the units are shown like this ‘/ cm3’ 5 the concentration of the solution in the
■ the two titres that are no more than 0.10 cm3 apart are titration flask.
1 and 3, so they would be averaged
If we know four of these five things, we can calculate
■ the average titre is 34.70 cm3.
the fifth. So in order to calculate the concentration
In every titration there are five important pieces of of sodium hydroxide in the flask we need to know
knowledge: the first four of these points.
1 the balanced equation for the reaction
2 the volume of the solution in the burette (in the
example above this is hydrochloric acid)
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

Calculating solution concentration by Question

titration
17 a The equation for the reaction of strontium
A titration is often used to find the exact concentration
hydroxide with hydrochloric acid is shown below.
of a solution. Worked example 20 shows the steps used
to calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium Sr(OH)2  +  2HCl SrCl2  +  2H2O
hydroxide when it is neutralised by aqueous sulfuric acid
25.0 cm3 of a solution of strontium hydroxide was

of known concentration and volume. exactly neutralised by 15.00 cm3 of 0.100 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid. Calculate the concentration, in
mol dm–3, of the strontium hydroxide solution.
worked example
b 20.0 cm3 of a 0.400 mol dm–3 solution of sodium
hydroxide was exactly neutralised by 25.25 cm3
20 25.0 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide is
of sulfuric acid. Calculate the concentration, in
exactly neutralised by 15.10 cm3 of sulfuric acid of
mol dm–3, of the sulfuric acid. The equation for the
concentration 0.200 mol dm–3.
reaction is:
2NaOH  +  H2SO4 Na2SO4  +  2H2O
H2SO4  +  2NaOH Na2SO4  +  2H2O
Calculate the concentration, in mol dm–3, of the
sodium hydroxide solution.
Step 1  Calculate the moles of acid.
moles = concentration (mol dm–3)  Deducing stoichiometry by titration
×  volume of solution (dm3) We can use titration results to find the stoichiometry
15.10
_____ of a reaction. In order to do this, we need to know the
0.200 × ​   ​  = 0.003 02 mol H2SO4
1000
concentrations and the volumes of both the reactants. The
Step 2  Use the stoichiometry of the balanced example below shows how to determine the stoichiometry
equation to calculate the moles of NaOH.
of the reaction between a metal hydroxide and an acid. 17
moles of NaOH = moles of acid (from step 1) ×  2
Step 3  Calculate the concentration of NaOH.
worked example
concentration (mol dm–3)
number of moles of solute (mol)
= ​ ___________________________
         ​ 21 25.0 cm3 of a 0.0500 mol dm–3 solution of a metal
volume of solution (dm3)
0.00604
_______ hydroxide was titrated against a solution of
= ​   ​ 
 
0.0250 0.200 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid. It required 12.50 cm3
= 0.242 mol dm–3 of hydrochloric acid to exactly neutralise the metal
Note 1  In the first step we use the reagent for which hydroxide. Deduce the stoichiometry of this reaction.
the concentration and volume are both known. Step 1 Calculate the number of moles of each reagent.
Note 2  In step 2, we multiply by 2 because the moles of metal hydroxide
balanced equation shows that 2 mol of NaOH react = concentration (mol dm–3) × volume of solution (dm3)
with every 1 mol of H2SO4. 25.0
= 0.0500 × ​  _____  ​ = 1.25 × 10–3 mol
Note 3  In step 3, we divide by 0.0250 because we have 1000

(  )
25.0 moles of hydrochloric acid
changed cm3 to dm3 ​ 0.0250 = ​ _____  ​  ​. = concentration (mol dm–3) × volume of solution (dm3)
1000
12.50
= 0.200 × ​  _____ ​  = 2.50 × 10–3 mol
Note 4  The answer is given to 3 significant figures 1000
because the smallest number of significant figures in Step 2 Deduce the simplest mole ratio of metal
the data is 3. hydroxide to hydrochloric acid.
1.25 × 10–3 moles of hydroxide : 2.50 × 10–3 moles of acid
= 1 hydroxide : 2 acid
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

worked example (continued) worked examples

Step 3 Write the equation. 22 Calculate the volume of 0.40 mol of nitrogen at r.t.p.
M(OH)2  +  2HCl MCl2  +  2H2O (volume (in dm3) = 24.0 × number of moles of gas
One mole of hydroxide ions neutralises one mole of volume = 24.0 × 0.40
hydrogen ions. As one mole of the metal hydroxide = 9.6 dm3
neutralises two moles of hydrochloric acid, the metal 23 Calculate the mass of methane, CH4, present in
hydroxide must contain two hydroxide ions in each 120 cm3 of methane.
formula unit.
(Mr value: methane = 16.0)

( 
120
)
120 cm3 is 0.120 dm3 ​ ​ _____  ​ = 0.120  ​
1000
Question volume of methane (dm3)
moles of methane = ​ ______________________
       ​
24.0
18 20.0 cm3 of a metal hydroxide of concentration 0.120
_____
= ​   ​  
0.0600 mol dm–3 was titrated with 0.100 mol dm–3 24.0
hydrochloric acid. It required 24.00 cm3 of the = 5 × 10–3 mol
hydrochloric acid to exactly neutralise the metal mass of methane = 5 × 10–3 × 16.0
hydroxide.
= 0.080 g methane
a Calculate the number of moles of metal
hydroxide used.
b Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric
acid used. Question
c What is the simplest mole ratio of metal hydroxide
19 a Calculate the volume, in dm3, occupied by 26.4 g of
to hydrochloric acid?
18 carbon dioxide at r.t.p.
d Write a balanced equation for this reaction using
(Ar values: C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
your answers to parts a, b and c to help you. Use
the symbol M for the metal. b A flask of volume 120 cm3 is filled with helium gas
at r.t.p. Calculate the mass of helium present in
the flask.
(Ar value: He = 4.0)

Calculations involving gas
volumes
Using the molar gas volume
In 1811 the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro suggested
that equal volumes of all gases contain the same number
of molecules. This is called Avogadro’s hypothesis. This
idea is approximately true as long as the pressure is not
too high or the temperature too low. It is convenient to
measure volumes of gases at room temperature (20 °C)
and pressure (1 atmosphere). At room temperature and
pressure (r.t.p.) one mole of any gas has a volume of
24.0 dm3. So, 24.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide and 24.0 dm3 of
hydrogen both contain one mole of gas molecules.
We can use the molar gas volume of 24.0 dm3 at r.t.p.
to find:
■■ the volume of a given mass or number of moles of gas Figure 1.16  Anaesthetists have to know about gas volumes
■■ the mass or number of moles of a given volume of gas. so that patients remain unconscious during major operations.
 Chapter 1: Moles and equations

Gas volumes and stoichiometry We can extend this idea to experiments involving
We can use the ratio of reacting volumes of gases to combustion data of hydrocarbons. The example below
deduce the stoichiometry of a reaction. If we mix 20 cm3 shows how the formula of propane and the stoichiometry
of hydrogen with 10 cm3 of oxygen and explode the of the equation can be deduced. Propane is a hydrocarbon
mixture, we will find that the gases have exactly reacted – a compound of carbon and hydrogen only.
together and no hydrogen or oxygen remains. According
to Avogadro’s hypothesis, equal volumes of gases contain Question
equal numbers of molecules and therefore equal numbers
of moles of gases. So the mole ratio of hydrogen to oxygen 20 50 cm3 of a gaseous hydride of phosphorus, PHn reacts
is 2 : 1. We can summarise this as: with exactly 150 cm3 of chlorine, Cl2, to form liquid
phosphorus trichloride and 150 cm3 of hydrogen
hydrogen + oxygen water
chloride gas, HCl.
(H2) (O2) (H2O) a How many moles of chlorine react with 1 mole of
20 cm3 10 cm3 the gaseous hydride?
ratio of moles 2 : 1 b Deduce the formula of the phosphorus hydride.
equation 2H2 + O2 2H2O c Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

worked example

24 When 50 cm3 of propane reacts exactly with 250 cm3 of The 5 moles of oxygen molecules are used to react with
3
oxygen, 150 cm of carbon dioxide is formed. both the carbon and the hydrogen in the propane. 3 moles
propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water of these oxygen molecules have been used in forming
carbon dioxide. So 5 – 3 = 2 moles of oxygen molecules 19
(O2) (CO2) (H2O)
must be used in reacting with the hydrogen to form
50 cm3 250 cm3 150 cm3 water. There are 4 moles of atoms in 2 moles of oxygen
ratio molecules. So there must be 4 moles of water formed.
of moles 1 5 3
C3Hx  +  5O2 3CO2  +  4H2O
As 1 mole of propane produces 3 moles of carbon dioxide,
there must be 3 moles of carbon atoms in one mole of So there must be 8 hydrogen atoms in 1 molecule of
propane. propane.

C3Hx  +  5O2 3CO2  +  yH2O C3H8  +  5O2 3CO2  +  4H2O

 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

summary
■ Relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass ■ Empirical formulae may be calculated using the
of naturally occurring atoms of an element on a mass of the elements present and their relative
scale where an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of atomic masses or from combustion data.
exactly 12 units. Relative molecular mass, relative ■ Molecular formulae show the total number of atoms
isotopic mass and relative formula mass are also of each element present in one molecule or one
12
based on the C scale. formula unit of the compound.
■ The type and relative amount of each isotope in an ■ The molecular formula may be calculated from
element can be found by mass spectrometry. the empirical formula if the relative molecular mass
■ The relative atomic mass of an element can be is known.
calculated from its mass spectrum. ■ The mole concept can be used to calculate:
■ One mole of a substance is the amount of substance – reacting masses
that has the same number of particles as there are – volumes of gases
in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. – volumes and concentrations of solutions.
■ The Avogadro constant is the number of a stated ■ The stoichiometry of a reaction can be obtained
type of particle (atom, ion or molecule) in a mole of from calculations involving reacting masses,
those particles. gas volumes, and volumes and concentrations
■ Empirical formulae show the simplest whole of solutions.
number ratio of atoms in a compound.

20

end-of-chapter questions
1 a i What do you understand by the term relative atomic mass? [1]
ii A sample of boron was found to have the following % composition by mass:
10 B (18.7%), 11 B (81.3%)
5 5

Calculate a value for the relative atomic mass of boron. Give your answer to 3 significant figures. [2]
b Boron ions, B3+, can be formed by bombarding gaseous boron with high-energy electrons in a mass
spectrometer. Deduce the number of electrons in one B3+ ion. [1]
c Boron is present in compounds called borates.
i Use the Ar values below to calculate the relative molecular mass of iron(III) borate, Fe(BO2)3.
(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, B = 10.8, O = 16.0) [1]
ii The accurate relative atomic mass of iron, Fe, is 55.8. Explain why the accurate relative atomic mass
is not a whole number. [1]
Total = 6
 chapter 1: Moles and equations

2 This question is about two transition metals, hafnium (Hf) and zirconium (Zr).
a Hafnium forms a peroxide whose formula can be written as HfO3.2H2O. Use the Ar values below to
calculate the relative molecular mass of hafnium peroxide.
(Ar values: Hf = 178.5, H = 1.0, O = 16.0) [1]
b A particular isotope of hafnium has 72 protons and a nucleon number of 180. Write the isotopic symbol
for this isotope, showing this information. [1]
c The mass spectrum of zirconium is shown below.

100

80
Abundance / %

60
51.5%

40

17.4%
17.1%
11.2%

20

2.8%
0
90 95
Mass/charge (m/e) ratio

i Use the information from this mass spectrum to calculate the relative atomic mass of zirconium.
Give your answer to 3 significant figures. [2]
21
ii High-resolution mass spectra show accurate relative isotopic masses. What do you understand by
the term relative isotopic mass? [1]
Total = 5

3 Solid sodium carbonate reacts with aqueous hydrochloric acid to form aqueous sodium chloride,
carbon dioxide and water.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

a Rewrite this equation to include state symbols. [1]

b Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid required to react exactly with 4.15 g of sodium
carbonate.
(Ar values: C = 12.0, Na = 23.0, O = 16.0) [3]
c Define the term mole. [1]
d An aqueous solution of 25.0 cm3 sodium carbonate of concentration 0.0200 mol dm–3 is titrated with
hydrochloric acid. The volume of hydrochloric acid required to exactly react with the sodium carbonate
is 12.50 cm3.
i Calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate present in the solution of sodium carbonate. [1]
ii Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid. [2]
e How many moles of carbon dioxide are produced when 0.2 mol of sodium carbonate reacts with excess
hydrochloric acid? [1]
f Calculate the volume of this number of moles of carbon dioxide at r.t.p. (1 mol of gas occupies
24 dm3 at r.t.p.) [1]
Total = 10
 Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

4 Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbon Z is composed of 80% carbon
and 20% hydrogen.
a Calculate the empirical formula of hydrocarbon Z.
(Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0) [3]
b The molar mass of hydrocarbon Z is 30.0 g mol–1. Deduce the molecular formula of this hydrocarbon. [1]
c When 50 cm3 of hydrocarbon y is burnt, it reacts with exactly 300 cm3 of oxygen to form 200 cm3 of
carbon dioxide. Water is also formed in the reaction. Deduce the equation for this reaction. Explain
your reasoning. [4]
d Propane has the molecular formula C3H8. Calculate the mass of 600 cm3 of propane at r.t.p. (1 mol of
gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p.)
(Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0) [2]
Total = 10

5 When sodium reacts with titanium chloride (TiCl4), sodium chloride (NaCl) and titanium (Ti) are produced.
a Write the balanced symbol equation for the reaction. [2]
b What mass of titanium is produced from 380 g of titanium chloride? Give your answer to 3 significant
figures.
(Ar values: Ti = 47.9, Cl = 35.5) [2]
c What mass of titanium is produced using 46.0 g of sodium? Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
(Ar values: Na = 23.0) [2]
Total = 6

22 6 In this question give all answers to 3 significant figures.

The reaction between NaOH and HCl can be written as:
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

In such a reaction, 15.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was neutralised by 20.0 cm3 of 0.0500 mol dm–3 sodium
hydroxide.
a What was the volume in dm3 of:
i the acid? [1]
ii the alkali? [1]
b Calculate the number of moles of alkali. [1]
c Calculate the number of moles of acid and then its concentration. [2]
Total = 5

7 Give all answers to 3 significant figures.

Ammonium nitrate decomposes on heating to give nitrogen(I) oxide and water as follows:
NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(l)

a What is the formula mass of ammonium nitrate? [1]

b How many moles of ammonium nitrate are present in 0.800 g of the solid? [2]
c What volume of N2O gas would be produced from this mass of ammonium nitrate? [2]
Total = 5
 chapter 1: Moles and equations

8 Give all answers to 3 significant figures.

a 1.20 dm3 of hydrogen chloride gas was dissolved in 100 cm3 of water.
i How many moles of hydrogen chloride gas are present? [1]
ii What was the concentration of the hydrochloric acid formed? [2]
b 25.0 cm3 of the acid was then titrated against sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.200 mol dm–3
to form NaCl and water:
NaOH + HCl H2O + NaCl

i How many moles of acid were used? [2]

ii Calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide used. [2]
Total = 7

9 Give all answers to 3 significant figures.

4.80 dm3 of chlorine gas was reacted with sodium hydroxide solution. The reaction taking place was
as follows:
Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)

a How many moles of Cl2 reacted? [1]

b What mass of NaOCl was formed? [2]
c If the concentration of the NaOH was 2.00 mol dm–3, what volume of sodium hydroxide solution
was required? [2]
d Write an ionic equation for this reaction. [1]
23
Total = 6

10 Calcium oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation:

CaO + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O

a What mass of calcium chloride is formed when 28.05 g of calcium oxide reacts with excess
hydrochloric acid? [2]
b What mass of hydrochloric acid reacts with 28.05 g of calcium oxide? [2]
c What mass of water is produced? [1]
Total = 5

11 When ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas mix together, they react to form a solid called ammonium
chloride.
a Write a balanced equation for this reaction, including state symbols. [2]
b Calculate the molar masses of ammonia, hydrogen chloride and ammonium chloride. [3]
c What volumes of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases must react at r.t.p. in order to produce 10.7 g of
ammonium chloride? (1 mol of gas occupies 24 dm3 at r.t.p.) [3]
Total = 8
24

chapter 2:
atomic structure
Learning outcomes
You should be able to:
■■ identify and describe protons, neutrons and ■■ describe the contribution of protons and neutrons
electrons in terms of their relative charges and to atomic nuclei in terms of proton number and
relative masses nucleon number
■■ deduce the behaviour of beams of protons, neutrons ■■ distinguish between isotopes on the basis of different
and electrons in electric fields numbers of neutrons present
x
■■ describe the distribution of mass and charges within ■■ recognise and use the symbolism y A for isotopes,
an atom where x is the nucleon number and y is the
■■ deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and proton number.
electrons present in both atoms and ions given
proton and nucleon numbers and charge