Paper- V- Science &Technology and Data Interpretation

1a) Value Addition by Science & Technology- Current Science & Technology
developments in India

 Science and Technology hold the key to the progress and development of any nation.
Technology plays a Fundamental role in wealth creation, improvement of the quality
of life and real economic growth and transformation in any society.
 The role of Science and Technology in our daily life is altering the way people live,
behave, and communicate with profound effects on economic development. Science
and Technology are now the key elements to development as the scientific revolutions
reinforce economic progress, infrastructure and improve health and education system
 Innovation is the primary key to the technological growth and leads to better living
standards. The degrees to which developing countries can emerge as economic
powerhouse depends on their ability to apply insights from science and technology.
 The potential of Science and Technology for growth is endless. For example, the
computing is unlocking infrastructure backlogs and handling integrated supply chains
which can transform economic performances by enabling accessible and affordable
services in healthcare and education. The emerging technology of internet and cloud-
based solutions has transformed human experience.

New Science, Technology and Innovation Developments In India

 While it is the private sector that constitutes the engine of innovation, national
policies create environments that can encourage or constrain the ability of firms to
innovate.
 The more innovative firms are, the more they are profitable and the more value-added
they create in a nation. It is, therefore, vital for countries to put in place policies to
create an effective and efficient national innovation system (NIS).
 Four conditions need to be met for building an effective national innovation system.
 These are

1. strong and competitive pressures on domestic firms;

2. the presence of high quality human capital;
3. well developed links between industry, institutions and academia; and
4. openness and access to foreign technologies.

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 These determinants of an NIS indicate that innovation involves far more than science
and technology. It cannot be denied, however, that a forward-looking S&T policy can
be developed to foster an appropriate mix of these determinants.
 Indeed, the first step towards, and the necessary pre-requisite to, any good NIS is an
effective S&T policy. In recognition of this, all advanced and industrialising countries
consciously foster an S&T policy.
 The pressures of international competition have made both knowledge creation and
exploitation vital for business success. As a result, the internationalisation of R&D
has increasing relevance for strategic management of companies and the
strengthening of national innovation systems.
 The globalisation of R&D is establishing deep roots for several reasons.

1. Firstly, changing geopolitical infrastructures are creating new opportunities for

synergistic R&D activities across national frontiers.
2. Secondly, rapidly changing technologies are no longer constrained by geographical
boundaries.
3. Thirdly, increasing complexities of technological systems are making it imperative to
generate and implement knowledge in emerging fields quickly and collaboratively.
4. Fourthly, the need for brainpower with an ever-increasing sophistication is being met
by identifying and employing people with the appropriate skills at appropriate
locations wherever they may be. International R&D strategy is thus emerging to meet
these challenges.

 To this end, firms in developed countries and increasingly in some developing

countries are being driven to take advantage of world-wide science and technology
resources.
 These factors have spurred the growth of science and technology developments in
those nations, which have conducive environments.
 Israel, Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea and, to a lesser extent, Ireland, have made
substantial progress in upgrading their innovative capacity and, as a result, have
become beneficiaries of foreign investments in science and technology ventures.
 Although countries such as India, China and Malaysia, have increased investments in
areas related to science, technology and innovation at modest levels, there is little
doubt that some of these, especially China and India, are potential scientific
powerhouses

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Trends in India’s Science and Technology Policy

 It has long been recognised that investment in science and technology makes
substantial contribution to economic growth in terms of higher growth rates of an
economy’s total factor productivity.
 In addition to direct returns, huge (positive) externalities have also been found to be
associated with it.
 Taking cognisance of the importance of technology’s role in development, advanced
countries nurture continuing development of science and technology and most
developing countries adopt R&D policies in the early phases of their development.
Science and Technology policy constitutes an integral part of a nation’s overall
industrial policy
 While the former shapes the pace and direction of technology development, the latter
determines the nature of demand.
 Science and Technology policy of any nation is carved within the background of
overall industrial policy.
 If anything, S&T policy is supposed not only to give meaning to, but more
importantly, to ensure achievement of the goals of industrial policy.
 It is therefore the thrust and direction of industrial policy that determines the tenets of
any S&T policy, although it must be said that R&D may lead to results that may also
change the course of industrial policy.
 Even so, S&T policy has almost always been driven by the goals of industrial
development policy.
 Two strands of S&T policy have existed – policies related to technology transfer from
abroad through formal modes such as FDI, technology licensing and capital goods
imports and domestic technology generation policies.

Recent developments
Some of the recent developments in the field of science and technology in India are as
follows:

 Mahindra and Mahindra Ltd launched its first-ever driverless tractor on developed at
the Mahindra Research Valley hub in Chennai, which can be operated remotely via a
tablet. The tractor is expected to be available commercially from early 2018.

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  Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has 21 rocket launches in the pipeline,
along with testing of its heaviest rocket called the Geosynchronous satellite launch
vehicle (GSLV) MK-III.
 India’s space business to witness tremendous growth in the next five years, on the
back of technology advancement, global space business opportunity and a sharp rise
in Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) satellite launch capability.
 ISRO’s lunar dust mining plan focuses on generating and transporting energy to the
Earth from Helium-3 rich lunar dust from the Moon, as part of its 2030 goal of
meeting India’s energy needs.
 The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) plans to launch 2 satellites in March
and April 2017, which includes the satellite meant for the benefit of the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) nations. ISRO also targets launch of
second lunar mission Chandrayaan-2 in first quarter of 2018.
 ISRO has launched a record high of 104 satellites in one go on a single rocket from
Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.

Space Research and Discovery

1. High-thrust cryogenic engine CE20 (ISRO, India)- To be used in heavy launch

vehicle GSLV Mk-III.
2. Galactoseismology (India)            Method to detect dwarf galaxies dominated by dark
matter. Also explains ripples on outer disk of galaxy.
3. ASTROSAT(ISRO, India) India’s 1st dedicated multi wavelength space observatory.

In Defence and Combat Sector S&T Development

1st indigenously-designed and built torpedo launch and
INS Astradharini India
recovery vessel.
INS Kochi India Indigenously built largest destroyer warship.
Indigenously-built surface-to-air missile.
Akash Missile India Strike range of 25km and can carry warheads up to
60kg.
BrahMos Supersonic Cruise Successful 48th test firing of BrahMos.
India
Missile Has a range of 290km and a Mach 2.8 speed.
Akash Weapon System Indigenously developed and inducted into the Indian
India
(AWS) Army.
 

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In Health and Medicine Sector S&T Development
Bharat Biotech,
ZikaVac World’s first vaccine for Zika Virus.
India
1st Ayurvedic anti-diabetic drug.
BGR-34 India
BGR is acronym for Blood Glucose Regulator.
Artificial Liver India’s 1st artificial liver tissue using 3-D printing
India
Tissue technology.
 
In Science and Technology Sector S&T Development
First machine harvestable chickpea variety.
NBeG 47 India
To address labour shortage & reduce hard work.
Chip powers a system that can use TV White Space or
Saankhya
Pruthvi Chip wasted spectrum bandwidth to beam Internet to scores of
Labs, India
households.
30th June 2015 clocked 1 second longer as an extra
Leap Second 2015 India
second was added to the clocks world-wide at 23:59:59.
World’s first water- Synchronous computer that operates using the unique
India-America
based computer physics of moving water droplets.
 
In Research and Discovery Sector S&T Development
Discovered in the high ranges of Idukki
Tree frog Ghatixalus magnus India
district in the Western Ghats of Kerala.
Sweet banana species. Bananas of this
Musa Indandamanensis India species are very sweet and are eaten by
tribal people of the island.
4 new species of Fish; Puntius Nelsoni,
Four new species of Fish discovered in
Puntius Nigronotus, Systomus Chryseus India
Kerala.
and Systomus Rufus
Tiny butterfly species discovered in forests
Butterfly called Banded Tit India
of Changlang, Arunachal Pradesh.
Spotted the endangered snow leopards for
Snow Leopard India
the 1st time in the North Sikkim Plateau.
Discovered a new genus of tree hole-
New tree frog genus India
breeding frogs in the forests of northeast.

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 Discovered by a group of citizen scientists
Dracula Ant India
in the Western Ghats region of Kerala.
New fish species named Puntius Discovered from a small water stream in
India
Dolichopterus Kayamkulam city of Kerala.
1st time after 100 years Blue Whales were
Blue whales India
sighted off the coast of Maharashtra.
Discovered in the Kudremukh National
New species of fish called Pethia Striata India
Park, Karnataka.
New Catfish Species Glyptothorax New catfish species in the Chindwin river
India
Senapatiensis drainage in Senapati district of Manipur.
Spotted at the ruins of the World Heritage
New species of Geckos, Cnemaspis Adii India
Site of Hampi, Karnataka.
Small passerine bird species and sole
Grey Hypocolius India
member of the genus Hypocolius.
Rare Spiders Martensopoda Sanctor and The spiders belong to the Sparassidae and
India
Stenaelurillus Albus Salticidae families.
2 bloom-forming algal species, Ulva
Paschima Bast and Cladophora Goensis India Discovered off the west coast of India
Bast
Species belongs to the typical owls’ family,
Endangered forest owlet, Athene Blewitti) India
Strigidae that is on the verge of extinction.
 
 Major developments/ achievements of Department of Science and Technology
Major developments/ achievements/ Main highlights of the activities of Department of
Science and Technology (DST), Ministry of Science & Technology during the Year 2016 are
as following:

 National Initiative for Developing & Harnessing Innovation (NIDHI), a

programme to address the complete chain of innovation ecosystem right from
scouting to mentoring to scaling up  innovations launched by DST.  Establishment of
a research park at IIT Gandhinagar has been supported at a cost of Rs.90 cr.
 Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) has initiated a new scheme viz.
Visiting Advanced Joint Research (VAJRA) Faculty Scheme. The scheme envisages
to associate distinguished international faculty as Adjunct/Visiting Faculty in Indian
institutions for a period of 1-3 month in a year.

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  Overseas Doctoral Fellowship scheme aimed to impart research training of Ph.D.
Scholars in Indian institutions for collaborative research abroad was launched by
SERB. Fellowship would be for a period upto 12 months.
 ‘Technology Vision 2035’ document was released by Hon’ble Prime Minister, on
3rd January 2016 during 103rd session of Indian Science Congress, held at Mysore
University, Mysuru.
 Devasthal Optical Telescope, an Indo-Belgian venture, successfully established by
Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES), Nainital was
technically activated by Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi and
Hon’ble Prime Minister of Belgium, Mr. Charles Michel, remotely from Brussels.
 Surya Jyoti: Photovoltaic integrated Micro Solar Dome, is the simple innovative
technology developed to meet the lighting need for people who do not have access to
reliable supply of electricity. The product has been included for subsidy under Off
Grid and decentralized solar application scheme of Ministry of New and Renewable
energy. The Ministry of Rural Development has informed to all States and Union
Territories to explore the possibility of adopting this innovative technology of Surya
Jyoti for the houses constructed under Prime Minister Awas Yojana-Gramin.
 The National Award for the successful commercialization of indigenous technology
was presented to SMITA Research Lab, IIT Delhi for the commercialization of N9
Pure Silver by , the Hon’ble President of India, during the Technology Day function
on 11th May 2016. Technology was jointly developed by M/s RESIL Chemicals
Private Limited and ARCI, Hyderabad under Nano Mission of DST.
 Deployment of a mobile RO unit: DST has supported quick deployment and
demonstration of a mobile water purification unit developed by CSIR-CSMCRI for
producing portable water for drinking. It was demonstrated in Latur, Marathwada
region which  was facing severe scarcity of drinking water during this year’s drought
period.
 Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) based plasma system for portable water
purification: A technology developed at CEERI Pilani through support by DST’s
Water Technology Initiative (WTI) for Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) based
plasma system for disinfection has been successfully transferred for
commercialization to Turners Pvt. Ltd. Jaipur.

  The Water Quality Laboratory at Kohima, Nagaland: The Referral Water

Laboratory, fully equipped with the in house sophisticated analytical equipments for Water

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Quality analysis was inaugurated by the Hon’ble Union Minister of Science and Technology
Dr. Harsh Vardhan at NASTEC, Kohima, Nagaland,

 Solar Energy Research Institute for India and the United States (SERIIUS): The
Indo-US consortium has developed the crucial prototype test loop that demonstrate
the multiscale aspects of the supercritical CO2 Brayton cycle (s-CO2) at IISc
Bangalore for development of high temperature concentrated solar power in the
country.
 BRICS STI Cooperation: To further strengthen the collaboration amongst the
BRICS countries in the areas of Science, Technology and Innovation (STI), the 4th
BRICS Science, Technology and Innovation Ministerial Meeting was convened on 8
October, 2016 at Jaipur.
 DST and RC-UK have agreed to launch India-UK Clean Energy R&D Centre on
solar energy, storage and integration with an investment of £ 5 million from each side.
 Building upon the Thames-Ganga Partnership and recognising the importance of
clean and portable water, DST and RCUK have agreed to launch a new collaborative
programme on Improving Water Quality and Reusing Waste Water.
 DST-Intel Collaborative Research for Real-Time River Water and Air Quality
Monitoring: Recognizing the importance of developing the online River Water and
Air Quality Monitoring systems, DST and Intel has initiated a joint programme at a
cost of Rs.33 cr on a 50:50 cost sharing basis in Public-Private Partnership (PPP)
mode.
 A new programme on Interdisciplinary Cyber Physical Systems (ICPS) to foster and
promote R&D in this emerging field of research has been launched. A Cyber Physical
System (CPS) is a mechanism controlled or monitored by computer-based algorithms,
tightly integrated with internet and its users. It is an engineered system that are built
from and depend upon, the seamless integration of computational algorithms and
physical components
 Collaboration with the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (RAL), UK: Initiated to
access its neutron facility for carrying out research in Nano Science and Technology.
 DST constituted ‘Standing Committee for Promoting Women in Science’ to
address a low representation of women in Science & Technology (S&T) domain. To
provide opportunities to women scientists and technologists for pursuing research in
basic or applied sciences, 227 projects were recommended for support. Twenty nine
projects to women scientist were supported for finding out solutions to 
challenges/issues at the grassroots level for social benefit. To create opportunity of

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 self employment and/or also sustainable career for the women scientists, one year
internship in the domain of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) to 111 women was
provided during the year.
 Technology demonstrated for  cyber-digital-physical  reconstruction  of  Hampi
heritage  Plans for covering 100 monuments are under formulation.
 DST-STI Policy Fellowship at post-doctoral level was initiated to generate a critical
mass of policy researchers.
 In the context of Start-up India initiative of the Government, INSPIRE Awards
scheme has been revamped to foster culture of innovation among school children of
class VI to class X. The scheme has been rechristened as INSPIRE Awards-MANAK
(Million Minds Augmenting National Aspiration and Knowledge). The 6th National
Level Exhibition & Project Competition was organized during December 10-11, 2016
along with India International Science Festival (IISF) at CSIR-NPL, New Delhi.

1 b) Importance of Science & Technology as an engine for national

development- Industrial development & Urbanization
Professor Freeman J. Dyson, of Institute of Advanced Studies, Princeton, in his book
“Infinite in all Directions,” had this to say about Technology: “Technology is a gift of God.
After the gift of Life, it is perhaps the greatest of God’s gifts. It is the mother of civilization,
of Arts and of Sciences. Technology continues to grow to liberate mankind from the
constraints of the past. The most revolutionary aspect of technology is its mobility. Anybody
can learn it. It jumps easily over barriers of race and language. And its mobility is still
increasing.”

 Developments in science and technology are fundamentally altering the way people
live, connect, communicate and transact, with profound effects on economic
development.
 To promote tech advance, developing countries should invest in quality education for
youth, and continuous skills training for workers and managers.
 Science and technology are key drivers to development, because technological and
scientific revolutions underpin economic advances, improvements in health systems,
education and infrastructure.
 The technological revolutions of the 21st century are emerging from entirely new
sectors, based on micro-processors, tele-communications, bio-technology and nano-
technology.

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  Products are transforming business practices across the economy, as well as the lives
of all who have access to their effects. The most remarkable breakthroughs will come
from the interaction of insights and applications arising when these technologies
converge.
 Through breakthroughs in health services and education, these technologies have the
power to better the lives of poor people in developing countries. Eradicating malaria,
a scourge of the African continent for centuries, is now possible.
 Cures for other diseases which are endemic in developing countries are also now
possible, allowing people with debilitating conditions to live healthy and productive
lives.
 Access and application are critical. Service and technology are the differentiators
between countries that are able to tackle poverty effectively by growing and
developing their economies, and those that are not.
 The extent to which developing economies emerge as economic powerhouses depends
on their ability to grasp and apply insights from science and technology and use them
creatively. Innovation is the primary driver of technological growth and drives higher
living standards.
 As an engine of growth, the potential of technology is endless, and still largely
untapped in Africa and other developing world regions across the globe. Less
developed countries not only lack skilled labour and capital, but also use these less
efficiently.
 Inputs account for less than half of the differences in per capita income across nations.
The rest is due to the inability to adopt and adapt technologies to raise productivity.
 Computing for example, through unlocking infrastructure backlogs and managing
integrated supply chains, can transform economic performance by enabling affordable
and accessible services in education and healthcare.
 The combination of computers and the Internet, and mobile devices and the “cloud”,
has transformed human experience, empowering individuals through access to
knowledge and markets, changing the relationship between citizens and those in
authority, as well as allowing new communities to emerge in virtual worlds that span
the globe

Role of science and technology for future development

The role of science and technology in a future Indian society may be broadly stated as one of
meeting felt needs by technological innovation and scientific advancement and of realizing
long-term national goals for the next century. These goals fall under the following headings:

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To ensure national security and social stability-

 For a country like India, conserving energy and oil-substitutable energy is vital. Food
technology is similarly important to maintain social stability.
 Science and technology are expected to play a vitally important role in ensuring
national security and social stability.

To sustain the growth of the national economy and to improve its efficiency

 In the past, technological progress made only a minor contribution to the growth of
national income, and this should be changed.
 Furthermore, the technological gap with developed countries should be reduced in
certain strategically selected areas.

To prepare for a smooth transition to an information society

 Societal change to an information society will demand the development of

information-related industries centred around micro-electronics, communications,
computers, etc.
 Moreover, reducing the labour component of production systems through automation
technology will require re-education of displaced labour.

To improve the quality of life

 Technology in areas of public health such as disease control, medicine and medical
electronics needs to be developed.
 Another area is the protection of the environment for better dwelling conditions on the
one hand, and for increased productivity of the land on the other.
 Development of information technology directly related to daily living, it should be
noted, will increase social benefits, and this in turn will help reduce urbanization.
 The preference for urban living will disappear with the development of an information
system on a nationwide scale.

To create a new culture suitable for the new society

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  A conflict between traditional cultural values and progressive contemporary values
has existed in Indian society during the recent process of industrialization.
 A national consensus should be created for the development of science and
technology.
 Another far-reaching goal of science and technology is the creation of a new culture
for the next century

Long-term goal of S&T development

 The long-term goal of science and technology should be in accordance with that of
national development.
 Because of the limitation in available resources, priority areas should be established
through consideration of, among other things, national needs and comparative
advantage.
 The role of S&T is to lead national development and to support socio-economic
needs.
 The priority areas that have been identified are:
 Development of electronics, information, and communication technologies.
 Development of selected high technologies to lead the industrial structure adjustment.
 Development of key technologies to increase the international competitiveness of
existing Korean industries.
 Development of technologies related to resources, energy, and food for social and
economic stability.
 Development of technology in the area of health care, environmental protection, and
social information systems to improve the quality of life and social benefits.
 Fostering of creative basic research to promote scientific advancement and to expand
sources of technological innovation.
 These priority areas were identified using the following basic criteria:
 Economic return and growth potential in view of limited development
resources.
 Probability of success in view of development capability and experience.
 Indispensability in relation to national security and socio-economic stability.
 Industrial and technological linkage.
 Future contribution in relation to public welfare and new industrial
possibilities.

1 c) Science and Technology Role in Industrial Development

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  India is aggressively working towards establishing itself as a leader in
industrialisation and technological development.
 Significant developments in the nuclear energy sector are likely as India looks to
expand its nuclear capacity. Moreover, nanotechnology is expected to transform the
Indian pharmaceutical industry.
 The agriculture sector is also likely to undergo a major revamp, with the government
investing heavily for the technology-driven Green Revolution.
 Government of India, through the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Policy-
2013, among other things, aspires to position India among the world’s top five
scientific powers.
 Industrial development encourages the development of science and technology. The
industrial enterprises conduct research and develop new products. Ethanol in the form
of biofuel is an example of industrial development.
 Industry conducts research on its wastes and develops byproducts like biodiesel from
Jatropha seeds.
 Due to industrialisation, we have made progress in atomic science, satellite
communication and missiles etc

Government Initiatives

 A five year technology fund with US$ 4 million yearly investment, called Israel India
Innovation Initiative Fund (I4F), has been launched by India and Israel to boost
bilateral ties.
 Mr Nitin Gadkari, Minister for Road Transport, Highways and Shipping, Government
of India, is planning to introduce biofuel vehicles for road and water transportation on
a large scale and has already directed Niti Aayog to conduct a research on methanol-
powered vessels like cars and ships developed by China.
 The Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India has
launched a scheme named ‘Visiting Advanced Joint Research Faculty’ (VAJRA), in a
bid to bring together the Indian scientists abroad and India-based researchers for
conducting joint researches in India.
 The Government of India aims to develop India into a global innovation hub by 2020
on the back of effective government measures taken to provide an enabling
environment for growing research and development in India, says Mr Y. S.
Chowdary, Minister of State for Science and Technology & Earth Sciences,
Government of India.

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Developments/Investments:

 With support from the government, considerable investment and development has
incurred in different sectors such as agriculture, healthcare, space research, and
nuclear power through scientific research.
 For instance, India is gradually becoming self-reliant in nuclear technology.
 Recently, the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project Unit-1 (KKNPP 1) with 1,000 MW
capacity was commissioned, while the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project Unit-2
(KKNPP-2) with 1,000 MW capacity is under commissioning.

 
1 d) Role of Science and Technology in Urbanisation

 Urbanization is a key environmental issue as well.

 The rapid pace at which urbanization is taking place in the developing world has an
impact on climate change and other global environmental issues.
 Cities account for more than two-thirds of the global energy demand and result in up
to 80 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions.
 The urban planning and investment choices that a few large developing countries will
make therefore represent one of the most important environmental issues of the
twenty-first century.
 Entire new industries are forming with the aim of switching to clean and renewable
energies and managing the world’s resources in a more efficient manner, primarily in
developed countries but also in the developing world.

Role of science, technology and innovation in the urban context

 Science, technology and innovation are key elements of sustainable urbanization and
will play a growing role as such. Their use may not solve all urbanization problems,
yet can provide a multitude of solutions that can be leveraged by cities.
 The use of science, technology and innovation in the urban context implies the
application of both high and low technology and innovative approaches to urban
planning and institutional innovation.
 Science, technology and innovation approaches are widely available for cities to draw
upon, yet cities are complex structures that require integrated responses to their
problems and there are sometimes difficulties related to such integration.

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  Urban systems need to be designed with multiple uses in mind. Science, technology
and innovation offer a range of related options, including high technology, low
technology and innovative governance.
 Combining science, technology and innovation to solve urban problems is often
contextual, although there are several good practices to draw upon from cities across
the globe.
 Science, technology and innovation contribute to sustainable urbanization in a variety
of ways, including with regard to new capabilities in spatial planning, socioeconomic
research, and enhancing cooperation between urban departments, optimizing mobility
and enabling sustainable resource management.
 A science, technology and innovation-oriented mindset also brings about innovative
models of thinking in urban governance, such as for participatory budgeting and
regional urban planning.
 Finally, science, technology and innovation contribute to social inclusion by
improving the tools available to urban planners to respond to the needs of excluded
groups and to increase sensitivity to gender equality.
 Each urban setting faces different challenges and has different technology needs. In
some cases, inexpensive and readily available technologies may be the best solution
to urban problems.
 For example, intermodal transport services can be designed without necessarily
requiring expensive high technology means of transport.
 Promoting bicycles, an affordable, healthy, clean and energy-efficient technology,
may be the best option to improve mobility in many cities, for both younger and older
citizens.
 Furthermore, innovation, which in the urban context may refer to any new method,
business model, policy, institutional design or regulation, could meet the needs of
urban populations in a more efficient, effective and sustainable way.
 For instance, improved rules or legislation, as well as improved institutions,
stakeholder participation models and new means of delivering services, can contribute
to sustainable urbanization.
 As a final point, high technology, low technology and urban innovation can also be
integrated to address a specific urban issue in harmony

Sustainable urban resource management by Science and Technology

 Science, technology and innovation for urban energy conservation

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  Science, technology and innovation for waste management
 Science, technology and innovation for resource-efficient buildings
 Science, technology and innovation for water and agriculture– Urban farming and
market gardening, Water technologies, Phyto-remediation

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2 a) National Policy of Science & Technology: changes in Policy from time to
time
The thrust of the Scientific Policy Resolution, 1958 was on capacity-building in
advancement of science as the foundation for making a strong nation, which had just freed
itself from the shackles of colonial domination . The focus of the Technology Policy
Statement, 1983 was attainment of technological self-reliance and building of national
strength by reducing vulnerability in strategic areas .
The Science and Technology Policy, 2003 launched a massive programme for attracting our
best talents to the arena of research in basic sciences, so that India continues to earn respect in
a competitive knowledge society.
The Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STIP), 2013 has put our science, technology
an innovation (STI) system as the driver for faster, sustainable and inclusive growth .
The latest policy envisages creation of a new STI ecosystem, which finds solutions to societal
problems and facilitates the entire innovation chain from knowledge to wealth creation, while
at the same time attracting best students to this area, ensuring a premier position for India in
the scientific world.
Investments in Science and Technology

 Global investments in science, technology and innovation are estimated at $1.2

trillion as of 2009. India’s R&D investment is less than 2.5% of this and is currently
under 1 % of the GDP.
 Increasing Gross Expenditure in Research and Development (GERD) to 2% of the
GDP has been a national goal for some time.
 Achieving this in the next five years is realizable if the private sector raises its R&D
investment to at least match the public sector R&D investment from the current ratio
of around 1 :3. The new paradigm is “Science technology and innovation for the
people”.

Position in Research Publications

16
  The gross budgetary support for the science and technology sector has significantly
increased during the last decade. The impact of such increase is becoming evident.
 India ranks ninth globally in the number of scientific publications and 12th in the
number of patents filed. The Composite Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of Indian
publications is around 12±1% and India’s global share has increased from 1.8% in
2001 to 3.5% in 2011.
 But the percentage of Indian publications in the top 1 % impact making journals is
only 2.5%.
 By 2020, the global share of publications must double and the number of papers in the
top 1 % journals must quadruple from the current levels.

 
 Key Elements:

 Promoting the spread of scientific temper amongst all sections of society.

 Enhancing skill for applications of science among the young from all social strata.
 Making careers in science, research and innovation attractive enough for talented and
bright minds.
 Establishing world class infrastructure for R&D for gaining global leadership in some
select frontier areas of science.
 Positioning India among the top five global scientific powers by 2020.
 Linking contributions of science, research and innovation system with the inclusive
economic growth agenda and combining priorities of excellence and relevance.
 Creating an environment for enhanced Private Sector Participation in R&D.
 Enabling conversion of R&D outputs into societal and commercial applications by
replicating hitherto successful models as well as establishing of new PPP structures.
 Seeding S&T-based high-risk innovations through new mechanisms.
 Fostering resource-optimized, cost-effective innovations across size and technology
domains.
 Triggering changes in the mindset and value systems to recognize, respect and reward
performances which create wealth from S& T derived knowledge.
 Creating a robust national innovation system

Focus of the Policy

 Facilitating private sector investment in R&D centres in India and overseas.

17
  Promoting establishment of large R&D facilities in PPP mode with provisions for
benefits sharing.
 Permitting multi stakeholders participation in the Indian R&D system.
 Treating R&D in the private sector at par with public institutions for availing public
funds. Bench marking of R&D funding mechanisms and patterns globally.
 Modifying IPR policy to provide for marching rights for social good when supported
by public funds and for co-sharing IPRs generated under PPP.
 Launching newer mechanisms for nurturing Technology Business Incubators (TBls)
and science-led entrepreneurship.
 Providing incentives for commercialization of innovations with focus on green
manufacturing Important Observations Policy places greater thrust on innovation,
establishing research institutes and encourage women scientists with an aim to
position itself among the top five scientific powers in the world by 2020.
 It talks about modifying the intellectual property regime to provide for marching
rights for social good when supported by public funds and co-sharing of patents
generated in the public private partnership mode.
 Aims at producing and nurturing talent in science, to stimulate research in
universities, to develop young leaders in the field of science and to reward
performance.
 Seeks to create a policy environment for greater private sector participation in
research and innovation and to forge international alliances and collaborations to meet
the national agenda.
 Talks of raising gross expenditure in R&D to two per cent of GDP from the current
one per cent in this decade by encouraging enhanced private sector contribution.
 Seeks to trigger an ecosystem for innovative abilities to flourish by leveraging
partnerships among diverse stakeholders and by encouraging and facilitating
enterprises to invest in innovations.

 Criticism:
The policy hardly describes any structural or procedural changes which will achieve the
grand goal of integrating science, technology and innovation to create value in an inclusive
manner.

2 b) Technology missions – ICT

Government provides IT resources to its employees to enhance their efficiency and
productivity. These resources are meant as tools to access and process information related to

18
their areas of work. These resources help Government officials to remain well informed and
carry out their functions in an efficient and effective manner.
This policy governs the usage of IT Resources from an end user’s  perspective. This policy is
applicable to all employees of GoI and employees of those State/UT Governments that use
the IT Resources of GoI and also those State/UT Governments that choose to adopt this
policy in future.
The objective of this policy is to ensure proper access to and usage of Government’s IT
resources and prevent their misuse by the users. Use of resources provided by Government of
India implies the user’s agreement to be governed by this policy.
Access to Internet and Intranet
A user shall register the client system and obtain one time approval from the competent
authority before connecting the client system to the Government network.
It is strongly recommended that sensitive offices shall maintain two independent networks,
i.e. Internet and Intranet. Both the networks shall not have any physical connection/devices
between them. Users in such deployments shall have two access devices, i.e. desktops. One
shall be connected to the internet and the other to the intranet. End point compliance shall be
implemented on both the networks to prevent unauthorized access to data.
Filtering and blocking of sites
IA (Implementing agency) may block content over the Internet which is in contravention of
the relevant provisions of the IT Act 2000 and other applicable laws or which may pose a
security threat to the network.
IA may also block content which, in the opinion of the organization concerned, is
inappropriate or may adversely affect the productivity of the users.
Monitoring and Privacy
IA/Nodal Agency, for security related reasons or for compliance with applicable laws, may
access, review, copy or delete any kind of electronic communication or files stored on
Government provided devices under intimation to the user. This includes items such as files,
e-mails, and Internet history etc.
Use of IT Devices Issued by Government of India
IT devices issued by the Government to a user shall be primarily used for Government related
purposes and in a lawful and ethical way and shall be governed by the practices defined in the
document “Guidelines for Use of IT Devices on Government Network” available at
http://www.deity.gov.in/content/policiesguidelines/ under the caption “Policy on Use of IT
Resources”. The aforesaid document covers best practices related to use of desktop devices,
portable devices, external storage media and peripherals devices such as printers and
scanners.

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Intellectual Property
Material accessible through the IA’s network and resources may be subject to protection
under privacy, publicity, or other personal rights and intellectual property rights, including
but not limited to, copyrights and laws protecting patents, trademarks, trade secrets or other
proprietary information. Users shall not use the Government network and resources in any
manner that would infringe, dilute, misappropriate, or otherwise violate any such rights.
Security Incident Management Process
A security incident is defined as any adverse event that can impact the availability, integrity,
confidentiality and authority of Government data. IA reserves the right to deactivate/remove
any device from the network if it is deemed as a threat and can lead to a compromise of a
system under intimation to the competent authority of that organization.
 
Policy Compliance
All user organizations shall implement appropriate controls to ensure compliance with this
policy by their users. Implementing Agency shall provide necessary support in this regard.
A periodic reporting mechanism to ensure the compliance of this policy shall be established
by the competent authority of the organization. Nodal Officer of the user organization shall
ensure resolution of all incidents related to the security aspects of this policy by their users.
Implementing Agency shall provide the requisite support in this regard.
Competent Authority of the user organization shall ensure that training and awareness
programs on use of IT resources are organized at regular intervals. Implementing Agency
shall provide the required support in this regard.
Enforcement
This policy is applicable to all employees of Central and State Governments as specified in
clause 2 of this document. It is mandatory for all users to adhere to the provisions of this
policy.
Each organization shall be responsible for ensuring compliance with the provisions of this
policy. The Implementing Agency would provide necessary technical assistance to the
organizations in this regard.
Deactivation
In case of any threat to security of the Government systems or network from the resources
being used by a user, the resources being used may be deactivated immediately by the IA.
Subsequent to such deactivation, the concerned user and the competent authority of that
organization shall be informed.
Audit of NIC Network Infrastructure

20
The security audit of NIC network infrastructure shall be conducted periodically by an
organization approved by Deity.
2 c) Basics in Computers
Classifications, generations, applications and limitations of digital computers
 
Computer Classification: By Size and Power
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to
purpose, data handling and functionality.
According to functionality, computers are classified as:

 Analog Computer: A computer that represents numbers by some continuously

variable physical quantity, whose variations mimic the properties of some system
being modeled.
 Personal computer: A personal computeris a computer small and low cost. The
term”personal computer” is used to describe desktop computers (desktops).
 Workstation: A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context,
workstation is just a generic term for a user’s machine (client machine) in contrast to
a “server” or “mainframe.”
 Minicomputer: A minicomputer isn’t very mini. At least, not in the way most of us
think of mini. You know how big the personal computer is and its related family.
 Mainframe: It refers to the kind of large computer that runs an entire corporation.
 Supercomputer: Itis the biggest, fastest, and most expensive computers on earth.
 Microcomputer: A personal computer is a
 According to purpose or functionality, computers are classified as general purpose
and special purpose computers. General purpose computers solve large variety of
problems.They are said to be multi purpose for they perform a wide range of tasks.
Examples of general purpose computer include desktop and laptops.
On the other hand,special purpose computers solve only specific problems.They are
dedicated to perform only particular tasks.Examples of special purpose computers can
include calculators and money counting machine.

 
Generation of Digital Computers
According to age,computers are grouped in terms of generations. They include;1st generation
computers,2nd generation computers,3rd generation computers,4th generation computers,
and finally 5th generation.

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1st  generation computers.This is a generation of computers that were discovered between
the years 1946 and 1957.These computers had the following characteristics: They used
vacuum tubes for circuiting.They used magnetic drums as memory for data processing.Their
operating system was quite low as compared to the later generations.An operating system can
be defined as a collection of programs designed to control the computer’s interaction and
communication with the user. A computer must load the operating system like Microsoft into
memory before it can load an application program like Ms Word.These computers required
large space for installation.They were large in size and could take up the entire room.They
consumed a lot of power.They also produced huge amounts of energy and power which saw
machines breaking down oftenly. Using the computers,programming capabilities was quite
low since the computers relied on machine language.Machine language can only be
understood by the computer but not human beings .Their input was based on punched cards
and paper tapes.
2nd  generation computers. These computers existed between the years 1958 and 1964.They
possessed the following features:These computers used transistors for circuitry
purposes.They were quite smaller in size compared to the 1st generation computers. Unlike
the 1st generation computers, they consumed less power. Their operating system was
faster.During this generation, programming languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN were
developed.This phase of computers relied on punched cards too for input and printouts.
3rd generation computers.These are computers that existed between 1965 and 1971.The
computers used integrated circuits(ICs) for circuitry purposes.The computers were smaller in
size due to the introduction of the chip.They had a large memory for processing data. Their
processing speed was much higher.The technology used in these computers was small scale
integration (SSI) technology.
4th generation computers. The computers under this generation were discovered from 1972
to 1990s. The computers employed large scale integration (LSI) technology.The size of
memory was /is high/large,hence faster processing of data.Their processing speed was
high.The computers were also smaller in size and less costly in terms of installation.This
phase of computers saw introduction of keyboards that could interface well with processing
system.During this phase, there was rapid internet evolution.Other advances that were made
included the introduction of GUI(graphical user interface) and mouses.Other than GUI, there
exist other user interfaces like natural-language interface,question-and-answer
interface,command line interface(CLI).
 
5th generation computers.These are computers that are still under development and
invention. There development might have began in 1990s and continues in to the future.

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These computers use very large scale integration (VLSI) technology. The memory speed of
these computers is extremely high.The computers can perform parallel processing. It is
during this generation that Artificial Intelligence (AI) concept was generated e.g voice and
speech recognition. These computers will use quantum computation and molecular
technology.They will be able to interpret data and respond to it without direct control by
human beings.
 
Applications and Limitations of Digital Computers
In a very general way, it can be said that the advantages of the digital computer compared to
the analog computer,I are its greater flexibility and precision, while its disadvantages are its
higher cost and complexity.
Information storage can be easier in digital computer systems than in analogue ones. New
features can often be added to a digital system more easily too.
 
Computer-controlled digital systems can be controlled by software, allowing new functions to
be added without changing hardware. Often this can be done outside of the factory by
updating the product’s software. So, the product’s design errors can be corrected after the
product is in a customer’s hands.
Information storage can be easier in digital systems than in analog ones. The noise-immunity
of digital systems permits data to be stored and retrieved without degradation. In an analog
system, noise from aging and wear degrade the information stored. In a digital system, as
long as the total noise is below a certain level, the information can be recovered perfectly.
Digital computers play an important role in life today as they can be used to control industrial
processes, analyse and organize business data, assist in scientific research and designing of
automobiles and aircraf, and even help making special effects in movies. Some Main
Applications of Digital Computers are as follows –
Recording Information
Official statistics keepers and some scouts use computers to record statistics, take notes and
chat online while attending and working at a sports event.
Analyzing Movements
The best athletes pay close attention to detail. Computers can slow recorded video and allow
people to study their specific movements to try to improve their tendencies and repair poor
habits.
Writers
Many sportswriters attend several sporting events a week, and they take their computers with
them to write during the game or shortly after while their thoughts are fresh in their mind.

23
 
The main disadvantages are that digital circuits use more energy than analogue circuits to
accomplish the same tasks, thus producing more heat as well. Digital circuits are often
fragile, in that if a single piece of digital data is lost or misinterpreted, the meaning of large
blocks of related data can completely change.
 
 

Definition of digital computer, Elements of computer: Input unit, Output unit, Primary
memory, Secondary memory and Processing unit.
  Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with
Information. term computer is derived from the Latin term‘computare’, this means
to calculateor programmable machine. Computer cannot do anything without a Program.
It represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. The Word ‘Computer’
usually refers to the Center Processor Unit plus Internal memory.

 Charles Babbageis called the “Grand Father” of the computer. The First mechanical
computer designed by Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine. It uses read-
only memory in the form of punch cards.

 Digital Computer Definition

 
The basic components of a modern digital computer are: Input Device, Output
Device, Central Processor Unit (CPU), mass storage device and memory. A Typical modern
computer uses LSI Chips.
 Four Functions about computer are:
 
accepts data Input
processes data Processing
produces output Output
stores results Storage
 
Input (Data):

24
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the
collection of letters, numbers, images etc.
Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the
computer system.
Output:
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called as
Result. We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.
 
All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:
Memory: enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs.
Mass storage  device: allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data.
Common mass storage devices include solid state drives (SSDs) or disk drives and tape
drives.
Input device: usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which
data and instructions enter a computer.
Output device: a display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer
has accomplished.
Central processing unit (CPU): the heart of the computer, this is the component that actually
executes instructions.
In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to
work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data
from one part of the computer to another.
CPU (Processing Unit)
CPU (pronounced as separate letters) is the abbreviation for central processing unit.
Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly
called processor, the CPU is the brains of the computer where most calculations take place. In
terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.
Components of a CPU
The two typical components of a CPU include the following:
The  arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.
The  control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memoryand decodes
and  executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
Relationship between the elements of the CPU, input and output, and storage
Printed Circuit Boards, Microprocessors

25
On large machines, the CPU requires one or more printed circuit boards. On personal
computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called
a microprocessor. Since the 1970’s the microprocessor class of CPUs has almost completely
overtaken all other CPU implementations.
The CPU itself is an internal component of the computer. Modern CPUs are small and square
and contain multiple metallic connectors or pins on the underside. The CPU is inserted
directly into a CPU socket, pin side down, on the motherboard.
Each motherboard will support only a specific type (or range) of CPU, so you must check the
motherboard manufacturer’s specifications before attempting to replace or upgrade a CPU in
your computer. Modern CPUs also have an attached heat sink and small fan that go directly
on top of the CPU to help dissipate heat.
 
 
MEMORY
 
Memory is major part of computers that categories into several types. Memory is best storage
part to the computer users to save information, programs and etc, The computer
memory offer several kinds of storage media some of them can store data temporarily and
some them can store permanently. Memory consists of instructions and the data saved into
computer through Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Types of Computer Memory:
Memory is the best essential element of a computer because computer can’t perform simple
tasks. The performance of computer mainly based on memory and CPU. Memory is internal
storage media of computer that has several names such as majorly categorized into two types,
Main memory and Secondary memory.
1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.
2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.

 Primary Memory / Volatile Memory:

 
Primary Memory also called as volatile memory because the memory can’t store the data
permanently. Primary memory select any part of memory when user want to save the data in
memory but that may not be store permanently on that location. It also has another name i.e.
RAM.
Random Access Memory (RAM):

26
The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) due to the random
selection of memory locations. It performs both read and write operations on memory. If
power failures happened in systems during memory access then you will lose your data
permanently. So, RAM is volatile memory. RAM categorized into following types.
DRAM
SRAM
DRDRAM
Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory:
Secondary memory is external and permanent memory that is useful to store the external
storage media such as floppy disk, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and etc cache devices.
Secondary memory deals with following types of components.
Read Only Memory (ROM) :
ROM is permanent memory location that offer huge types of standards to save data. But it
work with read only operation. No data lose happen whenever power failure occur during the
ROM memory work in computers.
ROM memory has several models such names are following.

1. PROM:Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) maintains large storage media

but can’t offer the erase features in ROM. This type of RO maintains PROM chips to
write data once and read many. The programs or instructions designed in PROM can’t
be erased by other programs.
2. EPROM :Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed for recover the
problems of PROM and ROM. Users can delete the data of EPROM thorough pass on
ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed.
3. EEPROM:Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory similar to the
EPROM but it uses electrical beam for erase the data of ROM.

Cache Memory: Mina memory less than the access time of CPU so, the performance will
decrease through less access time. Speed mismatch will decrease through maintain cache
memory. Main memory can store huge amount of data but the cache memory normally kept
small and low expensive cost. All types of external media like Magnetic disks, Magnetic
drives and etc store in cache memory to provide quick access tools to the users.
 
 Software and application of PC software packages: Software definition, Type of
software and its Knowledge of Word processing, Spreadsheets and Power point
presentation software packages

27
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A
program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.
There are two types of software −
System Software
Application Software
System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as
the interface between the hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,
Assemblers, etc.
Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft’s notepad for
writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called
a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet
package.
Examples of Application software are the following −
Payroll Software
Student Record Software
Inventory Management Software
Income Tax Software
Railways Reservation Software
Microsoft Office Suite Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft PowerPoint
 
Word Processing, Spread sheet and Power presentation
WORD PROCESSING
A word processor is a software program that is used to create a document, store it
electronically, display it on a screen, modify it using commands and characters, and print it

28
on a printer. It also processes paragraph indentation, margin size, font type, font size, font
color, and spacing within the document being created. Word processors have replaced
typewriters since they allow the user to make a change anywhere in the document without
having to retype the entire page. Word processors also come equipped with “spell-check”
functions eliminating the need for multiple editors and provide an immediate tool for
grammatical correction. Some common word processors include Microsoft Word, AbiWord,
Word Perfect, and Open Office.
Three basic functions lay the foundation for most of the customization that is needed to create
many word documents.
Character Formatting
Character formatting changes the appearance of individual characters and relates to the size,
font, color, and overall style of the letters or numbers being used. Character formatting also
involves underlining, italicizing, and making bold those characters being used. This is great
for making a word stand out or for underlining book titles.
Paragraph Formatting
Paragraph formatting adjusts the spacing, alignment, and indentation of the paragraphs being
formed. Spacing refers to the amount of lines left blank in between the lines being processed.
A good example of this is double-spacing which is commonly used in an educational setting
where a student has to write a paper for a specific instructor. Commonly double-spacing is
used so that the instructor can make corrections to the document without having to mark over
the actual words on the paper. Alignment refers to the way the paragraph is positioned in
regards to the left and right margins. A left alignment is most commonly used when creating
a word document and this setting aligns the words being formed to be flush with the left
margin. A center alignment is usually used for titling a paper.
Page Formatting
Page formatting refers to the width of the margins, the size of the paper being used, and the
orientation of the page. The standard margin is 1.25 inches on both the left and right but these
can be customized to suit need and preference. The paper size options reflect what can be
used in the printer, and the orientation indicates whether the document will use the traditional
or landscape positioning on that paper. Traditional orientation is 8.5 inches wide by 11 inches
tall whereas landscape is the exact opposite at 11 inches wide by 8.5 inches tall.
 
 
Word processing tools
 

29
Some of the basic tools that are employed in word processing programs that help to make the
application more user friendly are tables, graphics, and templates. These tools allow for
minimal effort and excellent results when adding features like these to a word document.
Tables
Tables are used for organizing information and are composed of rows and columns in which
data is placed. This is great for comparing and contrasting information as it’s condensed and
presented in a straight forward fashion. Tables can also be used for laying out entire
documents, such as a resume, where information is sectioned off from one another. In this
example, the entire report is formulated to a table instead of a small section as mentioned
earlier.
Graphics
Graphics are pictures, drawings, clip art, or other images that can be inserted into a document
from other programs or from stored data on a computer. This makes for easy illustrations
where a picture, or pictures, would suffice better than words or tables to highlight a point.
Graphics tools also allow the user to manipulate the images that have been imported by
changing the color, contrast, brightness, and size of the image, among other things. The
customization process of these images in a word processor provide for an easy and quick
avenue of explanation concerning the topics at hand.
Templates
Another useful tool are Templates. These are preprogrammed arrangements of ideas and/or
illustrations that are known to serve a purpose and are already organized for the user to
interact with. Most often this means “filling in the blanks” and some common templates that
should be recognized are resumes, business cards, identification cards, fax cover sheets,
memos, invoices, and newsletters
 
SPREADSHEETS
 
A spreadsheet is a group of values and other data organized into rows and columns similar to
the ruled paper worksheets traditionally used by bookkeepers and accountants.” The
spreadsheet software is mandatory to create computerized spreadsheets. Microsoft Excel is a
form of a spreadsheet. There are many terms one must have to know to create a spreadsheet.
A worksheet is the single spreadsheet document. A workbook allows multiple worksheets to
be saved together in a single spreadsheet file. Worksheets are divided into rows and columns.
The intersection of a row is called a cell. One must enter content into the active cell, or
current cell; it has a border around it to make it be easily identified. Data is entered directly
into worksheet cells by clicking a cell to make it the active cell. Labels, constant values,

30
formulas, and functions are the data that is entered into a cell. Before one enters a formula or
function into a cell, one must begin with some type of mathematical symbol, usually the
equal sign = Spreadsheets are used to organize and calculate data. There is a maximum
number of rows and columns in a spreadsheet which varies depending on the version of
software you have. It is essential to know how to use spreadsheets for school, work, sports, or
anything that requires data!
Tables, graphics, and templates are all available to a user with application software, such as
Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and PowerPoint. Tables are ways a user can organize data
and information at their convenience. According to Microsoft Word, there are now many
different available options for users who are looking for various kinds of tables. These
different options include the following: the Graphic Grid, Insert Table, Draw Table, insert a
new or existing Excel Spreadsheet table, and Quick Tables. The concept of using tables for
data input is relatively simple. In order for a user to insert a table, the user must first open
Microsoft Word. Once they have done this, they must click the “table” button to customize
the table to achieve their needs. The overall format for a table consists of a large (or small)
grid that can be altered by the amount of information the user has, ex. four columns five
rows. Next, the user must insert the table into the word document by selecting “insert table”
from the dropdown menu. Microsoft Excel contains pivot tables that are tables that include
data from a spreadsheet with columns and rows that can be specifically selected.  Graphics in
Microsoft Word are pictures, or clip art that are able to be inserted into a Microsoft Word
document, Excel Spreadsheet, PowerPoint slide, or any other Office application. the most
common graphic used in Excel is graphs. You can create graphs based on data taken from
your spreadsheet. Graphics are inserted into these Office Applications to enhance the
information presented in a Word Document, Excel worksheet, or PowerPoint slide. A user
can insert their own picture through their office documents; add clip art, shapes, SmartArt,
screenshot, or Word Art. Templates are pre-constructed document layouts whose primary use
is to assist a user in creating a specific type of document in a convenient amount of time. The
different options of templates vary, but a few of the following are common ones used every
day: agendas, brochures, calendars, flyers, fax covers, and many more. Templates are used to
save a user time, and confusion in creating their document.
Using of Spreadsheet
Chart
A chart can be created as its own object or embedded within the sheet itself. This is helpful
when a user needs to analyze data or represent changing data. Some form of charts are: lines
graphs, scatter plot charts, bar charts, Venn diagram charts, and the list goes on.
Function

31
A function is a pre-programmed mathematical formula to allow the user to make calculations
based on the data input. The functions under spreadsheets are there to perform a simple
calculation by using a certain value, called arguments.
There are many different reasons to have functions on spreadsheets. One would be for
arithmetic functions to process numerical data. The next would be statistical functions that
use analysis tools and averaging tools. This would be useful for finding the average of the
numbers in a certain row/column on a spreadsheet. The next function is date that processes
and converts dates. This function could be used to put the sequential dates in order on the
spreadsheet.
Formulas
A formula identifies the calculation needed to place the result in the cell it is contained
within. This means a cell has two display components; the formula itself and the resulting
value. Typically, a formula consists of five expressions: value, references, arithmetic
operations, relation operations, and functions. By using these expressions, formulas can help
to make tables, solve math problems, calculate a mortgage, figure out accounting tasks, and
many other business-related tasks that use to be done tediously on paper
Cell Referencing
Cell referencing refers to the ability to utilize a cell or range of cells in a spreadsheet and is
commonly used to create formulas to calculate data. Formulas can retrieve data from one cell
in the worksheet, different areas of the worksheet, or different cells throughout an entire
workbook.
 
Pivot Tables
One the most powerful features available in the Microsoft Office spreadsheet program Excel,
is pivot tables. Pivot tables allow you to manipulate large amounts of raw data. It makes it
easy to analyze the data in different ways, with a simple click and drag. Vast quantities of
data can be summarized in a variety of ways. Calculations can be performed by row or
column. Data can be filtered or sorted automatically by any or all of the fields. Excel can
even recommend a basic layout of a pivot table based on the type of data selected.
 POWERPOINT
Powerpoint is a Microsoft Office software used to present information and work as a visual
aide. Powerpoint make it easy to organize and present information in a visually appealing
way such as charts, pictures, tables, video clips, and sounds. Various Designs and color
themes come are built in the software and ready to use. The slides themselves come with
several options of pre-loaded layouts, using features such as bullet points, pictures, captions,
and titles – These are easy to drag and drop to make rearranging very easy. The idea of a

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digital visual is to help a presenter engage their audience and display their ideas in a more
simple form. One feature that comes in handy is the ability to print the slides so either the
presenter or audience can be informed ahead of time of what to expect. Powerpoint also has a
notes feature in which you can input notes you may need for your presentation. The notes
feature also allows you to print out the notes page with the slide show on it which is known
as notes view. You can also adjust the size of the slide on the notes view so that all of your
notes fit on the page and looks presentable. If all of your notes do not fit on the notes page
provided, it will spill over to the next page. If you know their is a lot of wording, you can
make a duplicate slide and hide it in the presentation, so you will have more room for your
notes! Teachers, employers, and computer users all over the world have now become
accustomed to using PowerPoint as their “go-to” visual aide. The image on the right shows a
presenter using a powerpoint as a visual aide.
The PowerPoint presentation graphics program provides the user with several assortment
tools and operations for creating and editing slides. With those tools, one is able to add new
or delete old slides that are previewed in the slide thumbnail tab area, usually found on the
left side of the screen. One is also able to switch to the slide outline tab, which contains only
the title and the main text included in the slide. If desired, using the Insert tab, the user can
perform additional operations like exporting images, along with adding formatted tables,
shapes, symbols, charts, and much more to better express their message. Additionally, to
customize the PowerPoint to make it even more dynamic and presentable, text can
be animated, and a unique transition can be added to the slides. With animation, text can be
set to appear in a specific way in the slide during a slide show. Tons of special effects are
provided for the user, including animations to make the text to fly, dissolve, fly, float, or
bounce in. Similarly, one is also able to apply special effects to specific slides to transition
from one slide to another in a specific manner. Additionally, Microsoft PowerPoint allows
recorded narration to be played back as the slideshow is being presented, along with speaker
notes. Furthermore, most presentation graphics programs also allow the user to print those
speaker notes for the targeted audience’s convenience.
2 d) Robotics
Robotics is a branch of engineering and science that includes electronics engineering,
mechanical engineering and computer science and so on. This branch deals with the design,
construction, use to control robots, sensory feedback and information processing. These are
some technologies which will replace humans and human activities in coming years. These
robots are designed to be used for any purpose but these are using in sensitive environments
like bomb detection, deactivation of various bombs etc. Robots can take any form but many
of them have given the human appearance. The robots which have taken the form of human
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appearance may likely to have the walk like humans, speech, cognition and most importantly
all the things a human can do. Most of the robots of today are inspired by nature and are
known as bio-inspired robotics.
Robotics is that branch of engineering that deals with conception, design, operation, and
manufacturing of robots. There was an author named Issac Asimov, he said that he was the
first person to give robotics name in a short story composed in 1940’s. In that story, Issac
suggested three principles about how to guide these types of robotic machines. Later on, these
three principles were given the name of Issac’s three laws of Robotics. These three laws state
that:

 Robots will never harm human beings.

 Robots will follow instructions given by humans with breaking law one.
 Robots will protect themselves without breaking other rules.

There are some characteristics of robots given below:

Appearance
Robots have a physical body. They are held by the structure of their body and are moved by
their mechanical parts. Without appearance, robots will be just a software program.
Brain
Another name of brain in robots is On-board control unit. Using this robot receive
information and sends commands as output. With this control unit robot knows what to do
else it’ll be just a remote-controlled machine.
 Sensors
The use of these sensors in robots is to gather info from the outside world and send it to
Brain. Basically, these sensors have circuits in them that produces the voltage in them.
Actuators
The robots move and the parts with the help of these robots move is called Actuators. Some
examples of actuators are motors, pumps, and compressor etc. The brain tells these actuators
when and how to respond or move.
Program
Robots only works or responds to the instructions which are provided to them in the form of a
program. These programs only tell the brain when to perform which operation like when to
move, produce sounds etc. These programs only tell the robot how to use sensors data to
make decisions.
Behaviour

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Robots behavior is decided by the program which has been built for it. Once the robot starts
making the movement, one can easily tell which kind of program is being installed inside the
robot.
Types of Robots
These are the some types of robots given below:
Articulated: The feature of this robot is its rotary joints and range of these are from 2 to 10
or more joints. The arm is connected to the rotary joint and each joint is known as the axis
which provides a range of movements.
Cartesian: These are also known as gantry robots. These have three joints which use the
Cartesian coordinate system i.e x, y, z. These robots are provided with attached wrists to
provide rotatory motion.
Cylindrical: These types of robots have at least one rotatory joints and one prismatic joint
which are used to connect the links. The use of rotatory joints is to rotate along the axis and
prismatic joint used to provide linear motion.
Polar: These are also known as spherical robots. The arm is connected to base with a
twisting joint and have a combination of 2 rotatory joint and one linear joint.
Scara: These robots are mainly used in assembly applications. Its arm is in cylindrical in
design. It has two parallel joints which are used to provide compliance in one selected plane.
Delta: The structure of these robots are like spider-shaped. They are built by joint
parallelograms that are connected to the common base. The parallelogram moves in a dome-
shaped work area. These are mainly used in food and electrical industries.
 
Scope and limitations of robots
The advance version of machines are robots which are used to do advanced tasks and are
programmed to make decisions on their own. When a robot is designed the most important
thing to be kept in mind is that What the function is to be performed and what are the
limitations of the robot. Each robot has a basic level of complexity and each of the levels has
the scope which limits the functions that are to be performed. For general basic robots, their
complexity is decided by the number of limbs, actuators and the sensors that are used while
for advanced robots the complexity is decided by the number of microprocessors and
microcontroller used. As increasing any component in the robot, it is increasing the scope of
the robot and with every joint added, the degree of the robot is enhanced.
Applications
Different types of robots can performs different types of tasks. For example, many of the
robots are made for assembly work which means that they are not relevant for any other work
and these types of robots are called Assembly Robots. Similarly, for seam welding many

35
suppliers provide robots with their welding materials and these types of robots are known as
Welding Robots. While on the other hand many robots are designed for heavy-duty work and
are known as Heavy Duty Robots.
There are some applications given below:

 Caterpillar plans which is aiming to develop remote-controlled machines and are

expecting to develop heavy robots by 2021.
 A robot can also do Herding task.
 Robots are increasingly been used more than humans in manufacturing while in auto-
industry there are more than half of the labors are “Robots”.
 Many of the robots are used as Military Robots.
 Robots have been used in cleaning up of areas like toxic waste or industrial wastes
etc.
 Agricultural robots.
 Household robots.
 Domestic robots.
 Nano robots.
 Swarm robots.
 Space Technology- Indian space programs.
  
2 e) Nanotechnology and its applications
The concept “Nanotechnology” was first proposed by Richard Feynman on 29th December,
1959 in his talk entitled “There’s plenty of room at the bottom” at the California Institute of
Technology. Deriving its name from the Greek word “dwarf” meaning small, nanotechnology
is commonly defined as the combined art of science and technology of small things. National
Nanotechnology Initiative in US has defined the scale range for nanotechnology as 1 to 100
nm.
Particles at their nanoscale behave extremely well by acquiring new properties due to
increased surface area. For instance gold becomes a good catalyst for fuel cells and
semiconductors at nanoscopic sizes. Nanotechnology is a positive approach for manipulating
things at molecular or atomic level to create unique materials with enormous potential. It
offers endless opportunities to design smaller, cheaper, and faster devices that can perform
better at nanoscale [one nano-meter (one billionth of meter)] than the same materials being at
large scale. Because of the wide range of potential applications it is common to use the term
“nanotechnologies” or “nanoscale technologies.

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Nanotechnology is highly interdisciplinary and has a wide range of applications in solid state
physics, chemical engineering, electrical engineering, biophysics, materials science,
biochemistry and biotechnology.
Some of the important applications of the nanotechnology are as follows:
Everyday materials and processes
Many benefits of nanotechnology depend on the fact that it is possible to tailor the structures
of materials at extremely small scales to achieve specific properties, thus greatly extending
the materials science toolkit. Using nanotechnology, materials can effectively be made
stronger, lighter, more durable, more reactive, more sieve-like, or better electrical conductors,
among many other traits. Many everyday commercial products are currently on the market
and in daily use that rely on nanoscale materials and processes:

 Nanoscale additives to or surface treatments of fabrics can provide lightweight

ballistic energy deflection in personal body armor, or can help them resist wrinkling,
staining, and bacterial growth.
 Clear nanoscale films on eyeglasses, computer and camera displays, windows, and
other surfaces can make them water- and residue-repellent, antireflective, self-
cleaning, resistant to ultraviolet or infrared light, antifog, antimicrobial, scratch-
resistant, or electrically conductive.
 Nanoscale materials are beginning to enable washable, durable “smart fabrics”
equipped with flexible nanoscale sensors and electronics with capabilities for health
monitoring, solar energy capture, and energy harvesting through movement.
 Lightweighting of cars, trucks, airplanes, boats, and space craft could lead to
significant fuel savings. Nanoscale additives in polymer composite materials are
being used in baseball bats, tennis rackets, bicycles, motorcycle helmets, automobile
parts, luggage, and power tool housings, making them lightweight, stiff, durable, and
resilient. Carbon nanotube sheets are now being produced for use in next-generation
air vehicles. For example, the combination of light weight and conductivity makes
them ideal for applications such as electromagnetic shielding and thermal
management.
 Nano-bioengineering of enzymes is aiming to enable conversion of cellulose from
wood chips, corn stalks, unfertilized perennial grasses, etc., into ethanol for fuel.
Cellulosic nanomaterials have demonstrated potential applications in a wide array of
industrial sectors, including electronics, construction, packaging, food, energy, health
care, automotive, and defense. Cellulosic nanomaterials are projected to be less

37
 expensive than many other nanomaterials and, among other characteristics, tout an
impressive strength-to-weight ratio.
 Nano-engineered materials in automotive products include high-power rechargeable
battery systems; thermoelectric materials for temperature control; tires with lower
rolling resistance; high-efficiency/low-cost sensors and electronics; thin-film smart
solar panels; and fuel additives for cleaner exhaust and extended range.
 Nanostructured ceramic coatings exhibit much greater toughness than conventional
wear-resistant coatings for machine parts. Nanotechnology-enabled lubricants and
engine oils also significantly reduce wear and tear, which can significantly extend the
lifetimes of moving parts in everything from power tools to industrial machinery.
 Nanoparticles are used increasingly in catalysis to boost chemical reactions. This
reduces the quantity of catalytic materials necessary to produce desired results, saving
money and reducing pollutants. Two big applications are in petroleum refining and in
automotive catalytic converters.
 Nano-engineered materials make superior household products such as degreasers and
stain removers; environmental sensors, air purifiers, and filters; antibacterial
cleansers; and specialized paints and sealing products, such a self-cleaning house
paints that resist dirt and marks.
 Nanoscale materials are also being incorporated into a variety of personal care
products to improve performance. Nanoscale titanium dioxide and zinc oxide have
been used for years in sunscreen to provide protection from the sun while appearing
invisible on the skin.

Drug Delivery System

At present, 95% of all new therapeutic system have poor pharmokinetics and less developed
biopharmaceutical properties. There is no such medicinal system that delivers drug and
distribute therapeutically active drug molecules to the site of action or inflammation without
any side effects. This problems are overcome by nanotechnology drug delivery system which
possess multiple desirable attributes. Nanomedicine has a size such that it can be injected
without occluding needles and capillaries which enables targeted drug delivery and medical
imaging.Thus nanosized liposomes, micelles, nanoemulsions, nanogels are used for this
purpose.
Nanotransmitters and nanosensors
Implantations of nanotransmitters and nanosensors within individuals have opened gates for
monitoring and treating them at the microscopic level with the use of nanodevices. But this
crosses traditional bounderies of care in the hospitals as persons can get the treatment done

38
while siting in their homes . Pateients at home could have access to date transmitted from
biochips which will moniter the diseases like hypercholesterolemia, alerting them when
critical levels are obtained. Patients and clinicians would need to have throughout knowledge
of device interfaces as all body metabolism will be regulated by these devices. The day may
not be far than insurance deny us as money due to monitoring our health at cellular level in
early stages. Nanotechnology will make us over dependent on devices. Inaccurate and errors
with monitoring devices will be very challenging to detect. Advocates will be needed by
everyone for safe and ethical use of nanomaterials. Monitoring methods would be needed to
assure that devices are checked and caliberated within safety limits. Hence if these
implications can be managed nanotechnology is the biggest boon to mankind.
Targeted drug therapies for treatment of cancer
If scientists can load their cancer-detecting gold nanoparticles with anticancer drugs, they
could attack the cancer exactly where it lives. Such a treatment means fewer side effects and
less medication used. Nanoparticles also carry the potential for targeted and time-release
drugs. A potent dose of drugs could be delivered to a specific area but engineered to release
over a planned period to ensure maximum effectiveness and the patient’s safety. These
treatments aim to take advantage of the power of nanotechnology and the voracious
tendencies of cancer cells, which feast on everything in sight, including drug-laden
nanoparticles. One experiment of this type used modified bacteria cells that were 20 percent
the size of normal cells. These cells were equipped with antibodies that latched onto cancer
cells before releasing the anticancer drugs they contained.
From manufacturing to medicine to many types of scientific research, nanoparticles are now
rather common, but some scientists have voiced concerns about their negative health effects.
Nanoparticles’ small size allows them to infiltrate almost anywhere. That’s great for cancer
treatment but potentially harmful to healthy cells and DNA. There are also questions about
how to dispose of nanoparticles used in manufacturing or other processes. Special disposal
techniques are needed to prevent harmful particles from ending up in the water supply or in
the general environment, where they’d be impossible to track.
Gene-Silencing Nanoparticles
The researchers attach a protein (transferrin) that normally delivers iron to cells so that it
delivers short interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules to cancer cells. The main function of RNA
is protein synthesis within a cell. siRNA molecules are a class of RNA molecules that
interfere with the expression of particular genes. The researchers encased the siRNA payload
with sugar-containing polymers to create nanosized particles. Attaching transferrin molecules
to the outer surface of a nanoparticle is one of the methods used to target nanoparticles to
cancer cells. The nanoparticles will seek out cancer cells that overexpress the transferrin

39
receptor.The gene-silencing siRNA nanoparticles are injected into the bloodstream and pass
through blood vessels into the surrounding tissue. When the siRNA nanoparticles enter the
tumor cells, acidic substances cause the nanoparticles to release the siRNA. The siRNA shuts
down (silences) particular genes by leading to the degradation of the RNA transcripts of these
genes throwing a monkey wrench into the cellular machinery and halting the multiplication
of cancerous cells.To test their approach they tried it on laboratory mice with Ewing’s
sarcoma tumors. They designed the siRNA to target a specific growthpromoting gene that is
only active in Ewing’s sarcoma tumors, the EWS-FLI1 gene.
Their siRNA inhibits expression of EWS-FLI1, this shuts down part of the cellular machinery
in the cancerous Ewing’s sarcoma cells so they should stop multiplying. This treatment
technique should have fewer side-effects than traditionally administered chemotherapy
(which affects all dividing cells in the body, both healthy and cancerous) since the
nanoparticles are doubly targeted to the cells that overexpress the transferrin receptor and
have the EWS-FLI1 gene—i.e., the tumor cells. The ingested siRNA nanoparticles only exert
their effect in cells that contain the EWSFLI1 gene i.e., they have no effect when taken in by
normal cells. After three consecutive days of treating 50 mice, they observed, “strong, but
transient, inhibition of tumor growth. However, when used over longer durations (twice-
weekly injections up to four weeks), the results were striking. Long-term treatments with this
delivery system markedly inhibited tumor growth, with little or no tumor growth in many
animals.
Electronics and IT applications
Nanotechnology has greatly contributed to major advances in computing and electronics,
leading to faster, smaller, and more portable systems that can manage and store larger and
larger amounts of information. These continuously evolving applications include:

 Transistors, the basic switches that enable all modern computing, have gotten smaller
and smaller through nanotechnology. At the turn of the century, a typical transistor
was 130 to 250 nanometers in size. In 2014, Intel created a 14 nanometer transistor,
then IBM created the first seven nanometer transistor in 2015, and then Lawrence
Berkeley National Lab demonstrated a one nanometer transistor in 2016!  Smaller,
faster, and better transistors may mean that soon your computer’s entire memory may
be stored on a single tiny chip.
 Using magnetic random access memory (MRAM), computers will be able to “boot”
almost instantly. MRAM is enabled by nanometer‐scale magnetic tunnel junctions
and can quickly and effectively save data during a system shutdown or enable
resume‐play features.

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  Ultra-high definition displays and televisions are now being sold that use quantum
dots to produce more vibrant colors while being more energy efficient.
 Flexible, bendable, foldable, rollable, and stretchable electronics are reaching into
various sectors and are being integrated into a variety of products,
including  wearables, medical applications, aerospace applications, and the Internet of
Things. Flexible electronics have been developed using, for example, semiconductor
nanomembranes for applications in smartphone and e-reader displays. Other
nanomaterials like graphene and cellulosic nanomaterials are being used for various
types of flexible electronics to enable wearable and “tattoo” sensors, photovoltaics
that can be sewn onto clothing, and electronic paper that can be rolled up. Making
flat, flexible, lightweight, non-brittle, highly efficient electronics opens the door to
countless smart products.
 Other computing and electronic products include Flash memory chips for smart
phones and thumb drives; ultra-responsive hearing aids; antimicrobial/antibacterial
coatings on keyboards and cell phone casings; conductive inks for printed electronics
for RFID/smart cards/smart packaging; and flexible displays for e-book readers.
 Nanoparticle copper suspensions have been developed as a safer, cheaper, and more
reliable alternative to lead-based solder and other hazardous materials commonly used
to fuse electronics in the assembly process.
 Nanoparticle copper suspensions have been developed as a safer, cheaper, and more
reliable alternative to lead-based solder and other hazardous materials commonly used
to fuse electronics in the assembly process.

 Energy applications
Nanotechnology is finding application in traditional energy sources and is greatly enhancing
alternative energy approaches to help meet the world’s increasing energy demands. Many
scientists are looking into ways to develop clean, affordable, and renewable energy sources,
along with means to reduce energy consumption and lessen toxicity burdens on the
environment:

 Nanotechnology is improving the efficiency of fuel production from raw petroleum

materials through better catalysis. It is also enabling reduced fuel consumption in
vehicles and power plants through higher-efficiency combustion and decreased
friction.

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  Nanotechnology is also being applied to oil and gas extraction through, for example,
the use of nanotechnology-enabled gas lift valves in offshore operations or the use of
nanoparticles to detect microscopic down-well oil pipeline fractures.
 Researchers are investigating carbon nanotube “scrubbers” and membranes to
separate carbon dioxide from power plant exhaust.
 Researchers are developing wires containing carbon nanotubes that will have much
lower resistance than the high-tension wires currently used in the electric grid, thus
reducing transmission power loss.
 Nanotechnology can be incorporated into solar panels to convert sunlight to electricity
more efficiently, promising inexpensive solar power in the future. Nanostructured
solar cells could be cheaper to manufacture and easier to install, since they can use
print-like manufacturing processes and can be made in flexible rolls rather than
discrete panels. Newer research suggests that future solar converters might even be
“paintable.”
 Nanotechnology is already being used to develop many new kinds of batteries that are
quicker-charging, more efficient, lighter weight, have a higher power density, and
hold electrical charge longer.
 An epoxy containing carbon nanotubes is being used to make windmill blades that are
longer, stronger, and lighter-weight than other blades to increase the amount of
electricity that windmills can generate.
 In the area of energy harvesting, researchers are developing thin-film solar electric
panels that can be fitted onto computer cases and flexible piezoelectric nanowires
woven into clothing to generate usable energy on the go from light, friction, and/or
body heat to power mobile electronic devices. Similarly, various nanoscience-based
options are being pursued to convert waste heat in computers, automobiles, homes,
power plants, etc., to usable electrical power.
 Energy efficiency and energy saving products are increasing in number and types of
application. In addition to those noted above, nanotechnology is enabling more
efficient lighting systems; lighter and stronger vehicle chassis materials for the
transportation sector; lower energy consumption in advanced electronics; and light-
responsive smart coatings for glass.

4 a) Education, agriculture and Industry. Cliamtic change, floods,

Cylcone, Tsunami, Natural and Manmade disaster management.

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 Application of Satellites for different purposes 
 Despite being a developing economy with its attendant problems, India has effectively
developed space technology and has applied it successfully for its rapid development
and today is offering a variety of space services globally.
 Indian Space Program:
 During the formative decade of 1960s, space research was conducted by India mainly
with the help of sounding rockets. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
was formed in 1969. Space research activities were provided additional fillip with the
formation of the Space Commission and the Department of Space by the government
of India in 1972. And, ISRO was brought under the Department of Space in the same
year.
 In the history of the Indian space programme, 70s were the era of Experimentation
during which experimental satellite programmes like Aryabhatta, Bhaskara, Rohini
and Apple were conducted. The success of those programmes, led to era of
operationalisation in 80s during which operational satellite programmes
like INSAT and IRS came into being. Today, INSAT and IRS are the major
programmes of ISRO.
 For launching its spacecraft indigenously, India is having a robust launch vehicle
programme, which has matured to the state of offering launch services to the outside
world. Antrix, the commercial arm of the Department of Space, is marketing India’s
space services globally. Fruitful co-operation with other space faring nations,
international bodies and the developing world is one of the main characteristics of
India’s space programme.
 The most significant milestone of the Indian Space Programme during the year 2005-
2006 was the successful launch of PSLV-C6. On 5 May 2005, the ninth flight of Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C6) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC)
SHAR, Sriharikota successfully placed two satellites – the 1560 kg CARTOSTAR-1
and 42 kg HAMSAT – into a predetermined polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO).
Coming after seven launch successes in a row, the success of PSLV-C6 further
demonstrated the reliability of PSLV and its capability to place payloads weighing up
to 1600 kg satellites into a 600 km high polar SSO.
 The successful launch of INSAT-4A, the heaviest and most powerful satellite built by
India so far; on 22 December 2005 was the other major event of the year 2005-
06. INSAT-4A is capable of providing Direct-To-Home (DTH) television
broadcasting services.

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 Besides, the setting up of the second cluster of nine Village Resource Centres (VRCs)
was an important ongoing initiative of the Department of Space during the year. VRC
concept integrates the capabilities of communications and earth observation satellites
to provide a variety of information emanating from space systems and other IT tools
to address the changing and critical needs of rural communities.
 In October 2008, the first lunar mission launched by ISRO. The spacecraft,
Chandrayaan took off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre and it operated till
August 2009. The project was announced by former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee, as part
of his independence day speech in 2003. The greatest achievement of this lunar
project was the discovery of a large number of water molecules in moon. ISRO plans
to launch its second lunar mission, Chandrayaan 2 by 2018.
 In 2014, Mangalyaan, India’s first interplanetary mission was launched, making ISRO
the fourth space agency to reach Mars. Mangalyaan gained worldwide repute as being
the least expensive Mars mission till date.
 Recently India has launched 104 staellites at one go, which is a world record. The
previous world record is with the Russian space agency with 37 satellites at one go.
 India has been launching heavy satellites on its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV) but so far it has only been used for domestic satellites.In recent
months though, there have been queries from foreign companies for launches on the
GSLV.

 Application of satellites for different purposes:

 Satellites based on application can be categorized as follows:
 Earth Observation satellite->
 Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, ISRO has launched many operational remote sensing
satellites. Today, India has one of the largest constellations of remote sensing
satellites in operation. Currently, *thirteen* operational satellites are in Sun-
synchronous orbit – RESOURCESAT-1, 2, 2A CARTOSAT-1, 2, 2A, 2B, RISAT-1
and 2, OCEANSAT-2, Megha-Tropiques, SARAL and SCATSAT-1, and *four* in
Geostationary orbit- INSAT-3D, Kalpana & INSAT 3A, INSAT -3DR. Varieties of
instruments have been flown onboard these satellites to provide necessary data in a
diversified spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to cater to different user
requirements in the country and for global usage. The data from these satellites are
used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban planning,
rural development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, ocean resources and
disaster management.

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 Communication satellite->
 The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic
communication satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational
communication satellites placed in Geo-stationary orbit. Established in 1983 with
commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a major revolution in India’s
communications sector and sustained the same later. GSAT-18 joins the constellation
of INSAT System consisting 14 operational satellites, namely – INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A,
4B, 4CR, 3DR and GSAT-6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15 and 16.
 The INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-
bands provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite
newsgathering, societal applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search
and Rescue operations.
 Navigation satellite->
 Satellite Navigation service is an emerging satellite based system with commercial
and strategic applications. ISRO is committed to provide the satellite based
Navigation services to meet the emerging demands of the Civil Aviation requirements
and to meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on
the independent satellite navigation system. To meet the Civil Aviation requirements,
ISRO is working jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI) in establishing the
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system. To meet the user
requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services based on the
indigenous system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation system called
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
 (a) GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN):
 This is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) implemented jointly with
Airport Authority of India (AAI). The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide
Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy and integrity required for civil
aviation applications and to provide better Air Traffic Management over Indian
Airspace. The system will be interoperable with other international SBAS systems
and provide seamless navigation across regional boundaries. The GAGAN Signal-In-
Space (SIS) is available through GSAT-8 and GSAT-10.
 (b) Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) : NavIC
 This is an independent Indian Satellite based positioning system for critical National
applications. The main objective is to provide Reliable Position, Navigation and
Timing services over India and its neighbourhood, to provide fairly good accuracy to
the user. The IRNSS will provide basically two types of services

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 Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
 Restricted Service (RS)
 Space Segment consists of seven satellites, three satellites in GEO stationary orbit
(GEO) and four satellites in Geo Synchronous Orbit (GSO) orbit with inclination of
29° to the equatorial plane. This constellation of seven satellites was named as
“NavIC” (Navigation Indian Constellation) by the Honourable Prime Minister of
India, Mr. Narendra Modi and dedicated to the Nation on the occasion of successful
launch of IRNSS-1G, the seventh and last satellite of NavIC. All the satellites will be
visible at all times in the Indian region. All the seven Satellites of NavIC, namely,
IRNSS-1A, 1B, 1C, ID,1E, 1F and 1G were successfully launched on July 02, 2013,
Apr 04, 2014, Oct 16, 2014, Mar 28, 2015, Jan 20, 2016, Mar 10, 2016 and Apr 28,
2016 respectively and all are functioning satisfactorily from their designated orbital
positions.
 Ground Segment is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the IRNSS
constellation. It provides the monitoring of the constellation status, computation of the
orbital and clock parameters and navigation data uploading. The Ground segment
comprises of TTC & Uplinking Stations, Spacecraft Control Centre, IRNSS Timing
Centre, CDMA Ranging Stations, Navigation Control Centre and Data
Communication Links. Space segment is compatible with single frequency receiver
for Standard Positioning Service (SPS), dual frequency receiver for both SPS & RS
service and a multi mode receiver compatible with other GNSS providers.
 Experimental satellite->
 ISRO has launched many small satellites mainly for the experimental purposes. This
experiment include Remote Sensing, Atmospheric Studies, Payload Development,
Orbit Controls, recovery technology etc. Example- INS-1A, INS-1B, YOUTHSAT,
APPLE
 Small satellite->
 The small satellite project is envisaged to provide platform for stand-alone payloads
for earth imaging and science missions within a quick turn around time. For making
the versatile platform for different kinds of payloads, two kinds of buses have been
configured and developed.
 Indian Mini Satellite -1 (IMS-1): IMS-1 bus has been developed as a versatile bus of
100 kg class which includes a payload capability of around 30 kg. The bus has been
developed using various miniaturization techniques. The first mission of the IMS-1
series was launched successfully on April 28th 2008 as a co-passenger along with

46
 Cartosat 2A. Youthsat is second mission in this series and was launched successfully
along with Resourcesat 2 on  20th April 2011.
 Indian Mini Satellite -2 (IMS-2) Bus: IMS-2 Bus is evolved as a standard bus of 400
kg class which includes a payload capability of around 200kg. IMS-2 development is
an important milestone as it is envisaged to be a work horse for different types of
remote sensing applications. The first mission of IMS-2 is SARAL.  SARAL is a co-
operative mission between ISRO and CNES with payloads from CNES and spacecraft
bus from ISRO.
 Student/Academic satellite->
 ISRO has influenced educational institutions by its activities like making satellites for
communication, remote sensing and astronomy. The launch of Chandrayaan-1
increased the interest of universities and institutions towards making experimental
student satellites.
 Application of Space Technology in India with references to Education, Agriculture and
Industry. Climatic change, Floods, Cyclone, Tsunami, Natural and Manmade Disaster
Management

4 b) Applications of Space Technology in India-Agriculture

Information on crop statistics is required for planning and decision making purposes, such as,
distribution and storage of food grains, Govt. policies, pricing, procurement and food security
and so on. Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare effectively uses contemporary
techniques of satellite remote sensing in such decision making. Remote sensing data does
provide many advantages over conventional methods, particularly in terms of timely decision
making mechanisms, spatial depiction and coverage including cost effectiveness. Space data
is used in addressing in many critical aspects, such as, crop area estimation, crop yield &
production estimation, crop condition, deriving basic soil information, cropping system
studies, experimental crop insurance, etc.
Crop production forecasts using satellite remote sensing data has been conceptualized by
ISRO in early eighties. This led to the success of CAPE (Crop Acreage and Production
Estimation) project, that was done with active participation of Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers’ Welfare (MoA&FW), towards forecasting of production of crops in selected
regions. In order to enhance the scope of this project, the FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural
Output using Space, Agro-meteorology and Land based Observations) programme was
conceptualized, by developing methodology for multiple in-season forecasts of crops at
national scale. A centre named Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre (MNCFC) was
established by MoA&FW in New Delhi in April 2012, which operationally uses space-based

47
observations, at national level, for pre-harvest multiple crop production forecasts of nine field
crops. Crops covered are wheat, rice, jute, mustard, cotton, sugarcane, rabi & kharif rice and
rabi sorghum. Remote Sensing based acreage and yield forecasts based on weather
parameters or spectral indices are used to provide production forecasts. The center is also
actively involved in national level assessment of Horticultural crops and their coverage across
the agro-climatic regions in the country.
 Disaster management
Space technology and GIS applications play a crucial role in mitigation of disasters. Space-
based technologies such as Earth observation satellites, communication satellites,
meteorological satellites and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) have played an
important role in risk reduction and disaster management. They are key tools for
comprehensive hazard and risk assessments, response, relief and disaster impact assessment.
Space-derived and in-situ geographic information and geospatial data are extremely useful
during times of emergency response and reconstruction, especially after the occurrence of
major events such as earthquakes or floods.
Space technologies have an essential role to play in monitoring and providing early warning
to vulnerable communities at risk. They can also facilitate the transmission of warnings
across continents using satellite communications and help in the identifying the location of
critical infrastructure such as hospital, bridges and schools. Lack of early warning and
monitoring along with poor urban planning and preparedness, can increase the magnitude of
casualties and damage. During the recent cyclone Phaillin that hit the state of Orissa in India,
in October 2013, the Indian authorities were applauded for making effective use of early
warning systems that helped in early evacuation and thus saving many precious lives. Almost
1 million people were successfully evacuated from the state of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh
following the warning of the cyclone by disaster management authorities. Thus, space based
technologies, through timely provision of reliable data can help in minimizing the economic
losses and damages.
Hazard mapping and damage assessment are crucial to mitigate the risk from natural disasters
such as earthquakes which are almost impossible to forecast. The Asia-Pacific Region has
constantly suffered from catastrophic earthquakes due to the geological structure of this
region. Many countries in this region, lie close to the tectonic fault lines and hence are
extremely vulnerable to earthquakes. Post-disaster assessments can play a crucial role during
relief operations and can also help in preventing secondary disasters by identifying hazardous
zones. These tools are slowly becoming more effective at setting recovery agendas to reduce
the risks people face from future disasters. Remote sensing technology is increasingly
recognized as a valuable post-earthquake damage assessment tool.

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Space technology in India in education
Satellite communications technology offers unique capability of being able to simultaneously
reach out to very large numbers spread over large distances even in the most remote corners
of the country. The Indian  Space Programme has always aimed to be second to none in the
applications of space technology to deal with the problems of development in our society.
ISRO has continuously pursued the  tilization of space technology for education and
development. This article highlights the projects undertaken and lessons learnt in the use of 
satellite communication to meet the challenge of education and development.
The SITE (Satellite Instruction Television Experiment) project carried out in 1975-76
provided instructions in the fields of family planning, agriculture, national integration, school
education and teacher training. The ground hardware consisted of Direct Reception  Systems
(DRS), for community viewing of the TV programmes. They were installed in six States of
the country in “clusters” of about 400 each for a total  of over 2400 DRSs. The instructional
programmes (some  prepared by ISRO) were broadcast for 4 hours every day covering
science education programmes  production, various school programmes and teachers training
programme (by the ministry of Education). The programme  re-trained over 50000 teachers
was in two 2-week sessions.
The Indian national satellite (INSAT) System has been the major catalyst in the rapid 
expansion of terrestrial television coverage in India. INSAT is being used to provide
Education TV (ETV) Services for primary school children in six states. University Grants
Commission (UGC) is  using this for its countrywide classroom programme on higher
education (college sector). INSAT is being used by the Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU) for distance education  progammes and Doordarshan for Science
Channel progranmmes.
In Gramsat Programme (GP) TDCC networks were upgraded and all  activities related to
satellite  ased  development communication, education, training, healthcareswere grouped
into a GP thereby  connecting each village, providing computer connectivity, data
broadcasting,  and TV broadcasting facilities for applications like e- Governance, NRIS,
teleconferencing, and rural education/ education broadcasting etc.  Disaster management,
telemedicine, and recently Village  Resource Centre were added to the Gramsat networks. 
Gramsat networks are operational in Gujarat, Karnataka,  M.P. Orissa and  Rajasthan (pilot),
Andaman Nicobar,  Goa, H.P., Orissa, Chhattisgarh.  EDUSAT for education While the
education institutions of the  country have continuously endeavoured to use the latest
technology to support the process  of education, the demands have  been increasing, with the
challenge of the day being to stay updated with the changing trends. To help  meet this
challenge, ISRO has  taken up the ‘Tele-Education’ by launching EDUSAT, a satellite totally

49
dedicated to the nation’s  need for education. It has a C-band national beam, a Ku-band
national beam, and five Ku-band regional  beams facilitating imparting of education in
regional languages. EDUSAT will strengthen education  efforts by augmenting curriculum 
based teaching, providing effective teachers’ training, and community  participation.
Networks based on EDUSAT consist of either receive only (one way communication) 
terminals or interactive (two way communication) terminals or both  in national as well as in
regionalnetworks. The networks are capable of facilitating live lectures/  power point
presentations with student interaction, web based  learning, interactive training, virtual
laboratory, video  conferencing, data/videobroadcast, database access for reference
material/library/recorded  lectures etc., on line examination and admissions, distribution of
administrative information, etc.  The Network is IP based and doesnot need expensive studio
facility   end or hub as shown in the figure,consist of two cameras, two PCs, proper lighting,
and DVD player (if needed) in addition to the indoor and outdoor units of the  hub hardware.
The equipment needed at the interactive classroom  end, consist of webcam, PC, LCD
projector, speakers, microphone,  UPS in addition to the satellite terminal. The classroom
consisting  of receive only terminal requires a  PC, projector, speakers, UPS in addition to the
satellite terminal. EDUSAT utilisation is divided into  three distinct phases: Pilot phase, 
Semi operational phase, and Operational phase. Networks for education prior EDUSAT  Prior
to the availability of EDUSAT, as a part of Pilot Phase, networks for education were.
At the beginning of a class session, relevant data is broadcast using EDUSAT to all the
classrooms which print out these  data in Braille format using Braille printer. Theses are
distributed to  the students. The teacher then commences his lecture to the  students who
already have the  Braille print out of the lecture in their hands. These two put together makes
the learning for the blind  students a much more effective and faster. The EDUSAT based 
networks of many state governments, universities and  other institutions are in various stages
of implementation. In the operational phase, overall  management, day to day operation,  and
network upgradation etc. will be the responsibility of a selected  nodal agency and the role of
ISRO will be in the advisory capacity.  Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Mr.
B.S. Bhatia, Director, DECU/ISRO for his help in providing material  for this paper and Dr.
K.S. Dasgupta, Group Director,  ADCTG/SAC/ISRO for encouragement.
Applications of space technology in India in climate change
Climate change is one of the complex problems facing mankind today. The overriding
complexity of the problem is attributed to its deeper global ramifications on a vast range of
issues impacting the very survival of life on Earth. Understanding such a complex issue with
vast and varied dimensions and implications, assumes greater significance for all

50
stakeholders, especially for our policy makers. There are varieties of perceptions regarding
the exact size and consequences of climate change.
India is spread across the warmer regions of the planet as compared to the developed
countries in North America or Europe, which are in relatively cooler regions. If we look at
data from Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, it shows that much of India is warming.
The mean annual surface-air temperature has risen by an average of 0.4°C in the last 50
years. India is a large country which extends from 8° to 33°N. The variety in terrain, from the
high mountains of the Himalayas in the north to tropical coastlands in the south, makes for a
wide range of climatic conditions. In the northern mountain regions, winters are cool at lower
levels, and increasingly cold at higher altitudes. In the summer, intermediate levels around
2000 m above sea level are pleasantly cool, but it can get quite hot at lower levels.
Space based remote sensing data helps in mapping earth resources, monitoring their changes
and deriving bio-geophysical parameters. All this information helps in identifying the
indicators and agents of climate change. The space-based inputs can also be integrated with
physical simulation models to predict the impact of climate change. It provides information
related to three aspects

 The indicators of climate change

 Assessment of agents of climate change, their sources and distribution pattern and
 Modeling the impact of climate change in various fields and natural resources that
would be of help in planning towards adaptation measures and preparedness

The programme on Climate change Research In Terrestrial environment (PRACRITI) -Phase

programme presently consists of climate change/ climate based modelling and
characterization studies of diverse habitats ranging from vital/ critical habitats like Indian
coral reefs and mangrove swamps to high altitude Himalayan alpine ecosystems, Indian eco-
hydrology and investigations on Indian monsoon teleconnection with the polar environment
processes. The studies are carried out with synergistic use of ground measurements, space
inputs and climate projection data. The detailed objectives of different projects are:

 Modeling Eco-hydrology of India and Impact of Climate Change

This study emphasizes on development of cell based integrated hydrological system
model for National water balance. Water balance analysis and impact of climate
change over major and medium rivers basins of India, snow melt from Indian
Himalayan, hilly regions etc.
 Alpine ecosystem dynamics and impact of climate change in Indian Himalaya
This study is about experiment and modeling for the establishment of long term

51
 ecological records in alpine ecosystems of Indian Himalaya. Other objective includes
development of seamless geospatial database, climate change impact on alpine
landscape, understanding alpine eco-system response etc.
 Bio-physical Characterization and Site Suitability Analysis for Indian
Mangroves
Major goal of this study is to characterize mangrove ecosystems of India using remote
sensing data. Modelling of biophysical parameters, Estimation of gross primary
productivity, Identification of mangrove afforestation/plantation conducive areas etc.
will also be studied.
 Impact of Global Changes on Marine Ecosystems with special emphasis on Coral
Reefs
This study highlights on developing region specific coral bleaching systems for five
major Indian Reef regions of India. Study aims for Micro-habitat zonation of reefs,
approach for reef substrate signatures, impact of climate change on coral reef
ecosystem etc.
 Investigations of Indian monsoon teleconnection with the polar environment
processes
The major objective of this study is to develop models for understanding of
teleconnection between the polar environment and Indian monsoon using satellite
derived data and indices.

 5 a) Energy Resources
 Sources of Energy: Conventional and Nonconventional Sources –
Energy is one of the most important component of economic infrastructure.
It is the basic input required to sustain economic growth. There is direct relation between the
level of economic development and per capita energy consumption.
Simply speaking more developed a country, higher is the per capita consumption of energy
and vice-versa. India’s per capita consumption of energy is only one eighth of global average.
This indicates that our country has low rate of per capita consumption of energy as compared
to developed countries.
Two Main Sources of Energy:
The sources of energy are of following types:

52
 (A) Conventional Energy Sources:
The energy sources which cannot be compensated, once these are used (after their
exploitation) are termed as conventional energy sources.
Some important conventional energy sources are discussed below:
1. Coal:
Coal is a major conventional energy sources. It was formed from the remains of the trees and
ferns grew in swamps around 500 millions year ago. The bacterial and chemical
decomposition of such plant debris (which remained buried under water or clay) produced an
intermediate product known as peat which is mainly cellulose (C6H10O5)n. Due to
progressive decomposition by heat and pressure, the cellulose lost moisture H2 and Oz and
got converted in to coal as per the given equation
 The average formula of coal is (C3/H4/)n. Out of the 6000 billion tons coal stocks under
earth crust, 200 tons have been exploited the present society. The coal reserves are found in
the states like Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, M.P. and A.P. Some important coal fields
are : Talcher, Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Panch Konkam, Signoulli, Chanda etc.
2. Petroleum and natural gases:
Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, mostly alkanes and cycloalkanes. It occurs
below the earth crust entrapped under rocky strata. In its crude form, the viscous black liquid
is known as petroleum and a gas in contact with petroleum layer which flows naturally from
oil wells is termed as natural gases. The composition of natural gas is a mixture of mainly
methane, (95.0%), small amounts of ethane, propane and butane (3.6%) and traces of
CO2 (0.48%) and N2 (1.92%).
A liquid mixture of propane and butane can be obtained from natural gas or refinery gases at
room temperature under a pressure of 3-5 atmosphere. This is stored and distributed in 40-
100 litre capacity steel cylinders.
The crude petroleum after being refined and purified, are available as petrol, diesel, kerosene,
lubricating oil, plastic etc. for commercial and domestic use. In India, the oil deposits, are
found at Ganga-Brahmaputra Valley, Bombay high, plains of Gujarat, Thar desert of
Rajasthan and area around Andaman Nicobar islands.
On the world basis, petroleum deposits are found at Saudi Arab, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, USA,
Mexico, Russia etc. As per the current survey, it is found that world petroleum deposits are
diminishing at a very faster rate. If preventive steps are not taken, the existing petroleum will
be available maximum up to 40 years.
3. Fuel woods:
The rural peoples require fuel wood or fire Wood for their day to day cooking which are
obtained from natural forests and plantations. Due to rapid deforestation, the availability of

53
fire wood or fuel wood becomes difficult. This problem can be avoided by massive
afforestation (plantation) on degraded forest land, culturable waste land, barren land grazing
land etc.
4. Hydropower:
Energy obtainable from water flow or water falling from a higher potential to lower potential,
is known is hydro- power. It is a conventional and renewable form of energy which can be
transmitted to long distance through cables and wires.
In India, hydroelectric power is generated by a number of multipurpose river valley projects
e.g. Hydro-power project Hirakud, Bhakra Mangal project, Narmada valley project, Nagarjun
Sagar project, Sardar Sarovar project etc.
5. Nuclear energy:
A small amount of radioactive substance (U235) can produce a lot of energy through the
process of nuclear fission. For example, one ton of uranium can provide energy which is
much higher than three million tons of coal or 12 million barrels of oil. In order to obtain
nuclear energy, nuclear reactors are required. There are around 300 nuclear reactors all over
the world. India has only four nuclear power stations (reactors).
The nuclear energy can be used in production of electrical energy, as a fuel for marine vessel
and space crafts and for the generation of heat in chemical processing plants. In India,
Uranium deposits are found at different parts of Rajasthan and Singhbum of Jharkhand.
Thorium is recovered from monazite sand found in the state of Kerala. Due to the higher
energy releasing tendency of these radioactive substances, these can be used in nuclear
reactors to release energy crisis. But the radioactive substances are exhaustible and can be
used to develop nuclear weapons of mass destruction. In addition, dumping or radioactive
wastes cause serious environmental hazards.
(B) Non conventional energy sources:
The conventional energy sources discussed above are exhaustible and in some cases,
installation of plants to get energy is highly expensive. In order to meet the energy demand of
increased population, the scientists developed alternate nonconventional natural Resources
sources of energy which should be renewable and provide a pollution free environment.
Some nonconventional, renewable and inexpensive energy sources are described below:
1. Solar energy:
Solar energy, a primary energy source, is non-polluting and inexhaustible.
There are three methods to harness solar energy:
(i) Converting solar energy directly into electrical energy in solar power stations using photo
cells or photovoltaic cells or silicon solar cell.

54
(ii) Using photosynthetic and biological process for energy trapping. In the process of
photosynthesis, green plants absorb solar energy and convert it into chemical energy, stored
in the form of carbohydrate.
(iii) Converting solar energy in to thermal energy by suitable devices which may be
subsequently converted into mechanical, chemical or electrical energy.
Since solar energy is non-ending and its conversion to some other energy form is
nonpolluting, attention should be paid for the maximum utilization of solar energy.
2. Wind energy:
Wind is air in motion. The movement of air takes place due to the convection current set out
in the atmosphere which is again due to heating of earth’s surface by solar radiation, rotation
of earth etc. The movement of air occurs both horizontally and vertically.
The average annual wind density is 3 kW/m2/day along costal lines of Gujarat, western ghat
central parts of India which may show a seasonal variation (i.e., in winter it may go up to
10kW/m2/day).]
Since wind has a tremendous amount of energy, its energy can be converted into mechanical
or electrical energy using suitable devices, now days, wind energy s converted in to electrical
energy which is subsequently used for pumping water, grinding of corns etc. As per available
data dearly 20,000 mW of electricity can be generated from wind. In Puri, wind farms are set
up which can generate 550 kW of electricity.
3. Tidal energy:
The energy associated with the tides of the Ocean can be converted in to electrical energy.
France constructed the first tidal power plant in 1966. India could take up Ocean thermal
energy conversion (OTEC) and by the process it will be capable of generating 50,000 mW of
electricity, to meet the power requirements of remote oceanic islands and coastal towns. The
Netherlands is famous for windmills. In India, Gujarat and Tamil nadu have windmills. The
largest wind farm has been set at Kanyakumari which generates 380 mW of electricity.
4. Geothermal energy:
The geothermal energy may be defined as the heat energy obtainable from hot rocks present
inside the earth crust. At the deeper region of earth crust, the solid rock gets melted in to
magma, due to very high temperature. The magma layer is pushed up due to some geological
changes and get concentrated below the earth crust. The places of hot magma concentration
at fairly less depth are known as hot spots.
These hot spots are known as sources of geothermal energy. Now a days, efforts are being
made to use this energy for generating power and creating refrigeration etc. There are a quite
few number of methods of harnessing geothermal energy. Different sites of geothermal

55
energy generation are Puga (Ladakh), Tattapani (Suraguja, M.P.), Cambay Basin (Alkananda
Valley, Uttaranchal).
5. Bio-mass based energy:
The organic matters originated from living organisms (plants and animals) like wood, cattle
dung, sewage, agricultural wastes etc. are called as biomass. These substances can be burnt to
produce heat energy which can be used in the generation of electricity. Thus, the energy
produced from the biomass is known as biomass energy.
There are three forms of biomass:
(i) Biomass in traditional form:
Energy is released by direct burning of biomass (e.g. wood, agricultural residue etc.)
(ii) Biomass in non traditional form:
The biomass may be converted in to some other form of fuel which can release energy. For
example carbohydrate can be converted into methanol or ethanol which may be used as a
liquid fuel.
(iii) Biomass for domestic use:
When organic matters like cow dung, agricultural wastes, human excreta etc. subjected to
bacterial decomposition in presence of water in absence of air, a mixture of CH4, C02, H2,
H2S etc. is produced. These gases together is known as biogas. The residue left after the
removal of biogas is a good source of manure and biogas is used as a good source of non-
polluting fuel.
6. Biogas:
Biogas is an important source of energy to meet energy, requirements of rural area. As per
given data, around 22,420-million m3 of gas can be produced from the large amount of cow
dungs obtained in rural areas in a year. The gas is generated by the action of bacteria on cow
dung in absence of air (oxygen). There are two types of biogas plants namely. Fixed done
type and floating gas holder type.
These plants are commonly known as Gobar gas plants because the usual raw material is cow
dung (Gobar). The methodology involves in the process is to prepare a slurry of cow dung
with water. Sometimes form waters can also be added to the slurry.
The slurry is subjected to bacterial decomposition at 35C. There are about 330, 00 biogas
plants in India. All India dung production is about 11.30 kg per cattle and 11.60 kg per
buffalo with about 67.10 m3 of gas per ton of wet dung.
 7. Petro plants:
In order to release the pressure on mineral oils (a nonrenewable resource), the
scientists have discovered some potential plant species from which liquid hydrocarbons can

56
be extracted. The liquid hydrocarbons present in such plants can be converted in to
petroleum.
Such plants are known as petro plants which belong to families Apocynaceae,
Ascalepiadaceae, Euphrobiaceae; Convolvulaceae and Spontaceae. Still research is on to
increase the biomass of the petro plants and effective method of converting their
hydrocarbons in petroleum.
8. Dendrothermal energy (Energy plantation):
Due to rapid deforestation and overgrazing, a number of denuded wastelands are
formed. On these wastelands, fast growing trees and shrubs may be planted which will
provide fuel wood, charcoal, fodder, etc. Through gasification, these plants can produce a lot
of energy-
9. Baggasse-based plants:
Bagggasse is generated as a waste product in sugar mills. This can be utilised to
produce electrical energy. As per available data, the sugar mills in India can generate about
2000 mW surplus electricity during crushing season.
10. Energy from urban waste:
Sewage and solid municipal wastes can also generate energy on their suitable treatments.
5 b) Energy demands
The primary energy consumption in India is the third biggest after China and USA with 5.5%
global share in 2016.The electricity generation target of conventional sources for the year
2017-18 has been fixed as 1229.400 Billion Unit (BU). i.e. growth of around 5.97% over
actual conventional generation of 1160.141 BU for the previous year (2016-17). The
conventional generation during 2016-17 was 1160.141 BU as compared to 1107.822 BU
generated during 2015-16, representing a growth of about 4.72 %.
India has become power surplus from chronic power shortage. Record capacity additionof
around one-fifth of current conventional power capacity and solar power capacity addition of
157% in the last two years led to a boost in power generation. The highest-ever increase in
transmission lines and sub-stations improved the transmission scenario resulting in energy
deficit falling to lowest ever of 2.1% in 2015-16.
Energy Crisis can be described as a situation in which a country suffers from frequent
disruptions in energy supplies because of large and increasing gaps between availability and
demand of electricity accompanied by rapidly increasing energy prices that threaten
economic and social development of the nation.

 Our over-dependence on limited and exhaustible sources of energy such as our coal
and oil deposits.

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  Increasing gap in the demand and supply of the energy.
 Ever increasing prices of the energy and fuel from other countries.
 Reluctance in using alternative and renewable sources of energy, such as solar,wind,
bio-energy, etc..
 Overuse and misuse of the available sources of energy.

 Importance of renewable resources – Solar, Wind, small/Mini/Micro hydel, Biomass, waste

based, geothermal, tidal & fuel cells
Importance of renewable energy resources
Renewable energy are sources of clean, inexhaustible and increasingly competitive energy.
They differ from fossil fuels principally in their diversity, abundance and potential for use
anywhere on the planet, but above all in that they produce neither greenhouse gases – which
cause climate change – nor polluting emissions. Their costs are also falling and at a
sustainable rate, whereas the general cost trend for fossil fuels is in the opposite direction in
spite of their present volatility.
Solar energy resources
Solar is a safe alternative which can replace current fossil fuels like coal and gas for
generation of electricity that produce air, water, and land pollution. electricity generation
from fossil fuels causes pollution of air leading to acid rain, damaged forest areas, and
affected agricultural production leading to loss of billions of dollars worldwide. Fracking in
the U.S. uses thousands of liters of water mixed with chemicals for extraction contaminating
the water used, along with nearby water bodies, and also causes earthquakes. Nuclear power
pollutes water and land and has caused environmental catastrophes. Use of solar energy will
eliminate these unsafe, unclean consequences from using conventional fossil fuels.
Pristine forests are destroyed for mining raw materials like fossil or nuclear fuels. Trees
constantly remove and use carbon dioxide from the air to make their food, and this carbon is
then stored in them. When forests are cut for mining raw materials for conventional energy,
this major carbon sink disappears and also increases climate change. “Nine out of ten animals
on land” live in forests, according to WWF, and a loss of habitats diminishes their
populations. Switching to solar power is important to keep these habitats intact for the
animals who live there as well as continue to keep the air clean.
The electric power sector accounted for most greenhouse gas emissions in the world. The
emissions lead to a rise in global temperatures, and changes in weather patterns leading to a
cascade of effects. Heat waves, and increase in disease-spreading insects cause health
problems especially for children and the elderly.  Climate change has lead to increase in
flooding and hurricanes due to disturbed weather patterns. Higher carbon dioxide

58
concentration is making oceans acidic and killing marine life, like corals. Climate change
causes extinct of species from Sub-Arctic Boreal forests to tropical Amazon forests. Higher
temperatures result melting of polar ice caps, reducing habitats for wildlife and also increase
sea level. This results in submersion and loss of land along the coast, displacing people.
Irregular rainfall or increasing droughts affects agriculture and livelihoods of the weaker
sections of society globally.
Wind energy
Wind energy is produced by the movement of air (wind) and converted into power for human
use. Wind has been used as a source of energy for more than a thousand years, but was
replaced by fossil fuels for much of the 20th century. Today, wind is making a comeback as a
source of electricity and power.
Wind energy is produced with wind turbines—tall, tubular towers with blades rotating at the
top. When the wind turns the blades, the blades turn a generator and create electricity. Wind
turbines can have a horizontal or vertical axis. The turbines do not actually produce wind
energy. The blades turn, convert the energy of wind into rotational energy, a form of
mechanical energy, and this energy is in turn converted into electrical energy.
There are many advantages to using the wind’s energy to create electricity:

 Wind cannot be used up—it occurs naturally, whether we harness it for electricity or
not.
 Wind is a clean source of fuel. Turbines have no emissions and do not pollute the air.
This is globally important as more countries industrialize and increase their demand
for electricity for homes, businesses, hospitals, and schools. Many schools in the U.S.
state of Iowa, for example, have installed wind turbines. Initial investments in the
machinery and equipment have been offset by savings of more than $100,000 a year.
The schools also emit millions fewer kilograms of carbon dioxide.
 Wind energy is cheap! It is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy sources. In the
U.S., it costs between 4 and 6 cents per kilowatt-hour. That is cheaper than natural
gas, although still more expensive than nuclear energy or coal.
 Wind is generated all over the planet, and wind turbines can be installed economically
almost everywhere. This makes it a key resource in developing economies. Nuclear
energy, for instance, demands a workforce with substantial educational and
engineering backgrounds, as well as an initial investment for nuclear power plants.
Development of fossil fuel power plants relies on even more factors: the presence of
coal, oil, or gas; the equipment and technology to refine it; and the finances to import
or export the raw or refined goods. Nepal, for example, is a developing country with

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 no fossil fuel resources, but it is rich in windy Himalayan mountain passes. Nepalese
leaders are developing a policy to invest in wind farm projects using local materials.
This would expand the nation’s power grid and allow for greater industrial
development.

Importance of small/Mini/Micro hydel projects

 The construction of large dams and associated civil structures can for example result
in an alteration of water quantity in downstream areas, affecting long-practiced
farming practices such as flood-dependant recession agriculture. Water quality and
biodiversity can be decreased by increased erosion and thus sedimentation due to
deforestation due to construction work and resettlement.
 Large hydropower plants’ reservoirs produce a significant amount of greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxides and methane, in some cases emissions are found to be
higher than from plants running from fossil fuels. This is because, due to the initial
flooding of the reservoir, a large amount of carbon tied in vegetation is released when
the plants rot. Methane, on the other hand, builds up due to the anoxic decomposition
of organic matter on the reservoirs’ bottom.
 Resettlement programs associated with the construction of large dams also have a
variety of socio-economic impacts. People are often relocated to less suitable areas
(steep terrain or less fertile soils) which does not only increase land degradation but
also puts them at high impoverishment risk.
 It only takes a small amount of flow (as little as few litres per minute) or a drop as
low as 1 m to generate electricity with micro hydro. Electricity can be delivered as far
as 1 km away to the location where it is being used. If planned carefully and well
adapted to the environmental conditions, micro hydropower schemes produce a
continuous and predictable supply of electrical energy in comparison to other small-
scale renewable technologies.

Importance of biomass as energy

Biomass energy has rapidly become a vital part of the global renewable energy mix and
account for an ever-growing share of electric capacity added worldwide.
Traditional biomass, primarily for cooking and heating, represents about 13 percent and is
growing slowly or even declining in some regions as biomass is used more efficiently or
replaced by more modern energy forms. Some of the recent predictions suggest that biomass
energy is likely to make up one third of the total world energy mix by 2050. Infact, biofuel
provides around 3% of the world’s fuel for transport.

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Biomass energy resources are readily available in rural and urban areas of all countries.
Biomass-based industries can foster rural development, provide employment opportunities
and promote biomass re-growth through sustainable land management practices.
Bioenergy systems offer significant possibilities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions due
to their immense potential to replace fossil fuels in energy production. Biomass reduces
emissions and enhances carbon sequestration since short-rotation crops or forests established
on abandoned agricultural land accumulate carbon in the soil.
Bioenergy usually provides an irreversible mitigation effect by reducing carbon dioxide at
source, but it may emit more carbon per unit of energy than fossil fuels unless biomass fuels
are produced unsustainably.
Biomass can play a major role in reducing the reliance on fossil fuels by making use
of thermochemical conversion technologies. In addition, the increased utilization of biomass-
based fuels will be instrumental in safeguarding the environment, generation of new job
opportunities, sustainable development and health improvements in rural areas.
The development of efficient biomass handling technology, improvement of agro-forestry
systems and establishment of small and large-scale biomass-based power plants can play a
major role in rural development. Biomass energy could also aid in modernizing the
agricultural economy.
 
Waste based energy
Each month millions of tons of waste is produced. Either they become a part of landfill or are
exported to third world countries.  This causes huge environmental impact in terms of
wildlife, ecosystems and to human health. Keeping this in mind, many new waste treatment
plants have come up and have developed new ways to generate energy from landfill waste.
Waste-to-energy has been evolving over the years and there are many new developments in
this technology, moving in mainly one direction – to be able to applied to smaller size waste
streams. Not only is it a strategy that has real importance for the current public policy, it is a
strategy that will definitely present itself to additional areas.
More than 50% of waste that is burnt in waste-to-energy facilities is already part of
the short carbon cycle. In which case, it has an organic derivative and it doesn’t add to
climate change, to begin with. The long form carbon that is burned, things like plastics that
have come out of the ground in the form of oil do add to climate change. But, they have
already been used once. They have already been extracted once and what we are doing is
taking the energy out of them after that physical use, capturing some of that (energy), thereby
offsetting more carbon from natural gas or oil or coal. So, the net effect is a reduction in
carbon emissions.

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Waste-to-energy and recycling are complementary depending on the results of analyses of the
First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics, which are absolutely valid. One can decide in
specific situations whether waste-to-energy or whether some type of recycling technology
would be more appropriate. It is not an either/or option.
Importance of geothermal energy
Geo’ means earth and ‘thermal’ means heat. Thus geothermal energy is that heat energy
obtained from hot rocks present inside the earth, and this can be used as a source of energy to
produce electricity. From the surface down through the crust, the normal temperature
gradient( the increase of temperature with the increase of depth ) in the Earth’s crust is 17 °C
— 30 °C per kilometre of depth (50 °F — 87 °F per mile).
Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits
little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and homegrown
(making us less dependent on foreign oil). Geothermal resources range from shallow ground
to hot water and rock several miles below the Earth’s surface, and even farther down to the
extremely hot molten rock called magma. Mile-or-more-deep wells can be drilled into
underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that can be brought to the surface for
use in a variety of applications.
The general characteristics of geothermal energy that make it of significant importance for
both electricity production and direct use include:

 Extensive global distribution; it is accessible to both developed and developing

countries.
 Environmentally friendly nature; it has low emission of sulphur, CO2 and other
greenhouse gases.
 Indigenous nature; it is independent of external supply and demand effects and
fluctuations in exchange rates.
 Independence of weather and season.
 Contribution to the development of diversified power sources.

Geothermal energy can be used very effectively in both on- and off-grid developments, and is
especially useful in rural electrification schemes. Its use spans a large range from power
generation to direct heat uses, the latter possible using both low temperature resources and
“cascade” methods. Cascade methods utilise the hot water remaining from higher temperature
applications (e.g., electricity generation) in successively lower temperature processes, which
may include binary systems to generate further power and direct heat uses (bathing and

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swimming; space heating, including district heating; greenhouse and open ground heating;
industrial process heat; aquaculture pond and raceway heating; agricultural drying; etc.)
It has been estimated from geological, geochemical, shallow geophysical and shallow drilling
data it is estimated that India has about 10,000 MWe of geothermal power potential that can
be harnessed for various purposes. Rocks covered on the surface of India ranging in age from
more than 4500 million years to the present day and distributed in different geographical
units. The rocks comprise of Archean, Proterozoic, the marine and continental Palaeozoic,
Mesozoic, Teritary, Quaternary etc., More than 300 hot spring locations have been identified
by Geological survey of India (Thussu, 2000). The surface temperature of the hot springs
ranges from 35 C to as much as 98 C. These hot springs have been grouped together and
termed as different geothermal provinces based on their occurrence in specific geotectonic
regions, geological and strutural regions such as occurrence in orogenic belt regions,
structural grabens, deep fault zones, active volcanic regions etc., Different orogenic regions
are – Himalayan geothermal province, Naga-Lushai geothermal province, Andaman-Nicobar
Islands geothermal province and non-orogenic regions are – Cambay graben, Son-Narmada-
Tapi graben, west coast, Damodar valley, Mahanadi valley, Godavari valley etc.
Importance of tidal energy
Tidal power is a form of renewable energy that converts that natural ebb and flow of the
Earth’s tides into electricity. Consider that the Earth’s tidal patterns are fairly regular, given
normal weather. It would not be difficult to determine the locations most appropriate for the
production of this type of tidal power. In fact, the work has already begun.
Extreme weather is a risk, especially in regions of the world where monsoons and hurricanes
are prevalent, but given the proper use of science, the machines that harness tidal power can
be designed to withstand such storms at extremely high tolerances. This source of energy,
though not in wide use yet, has the potential to produce seemingly boundless amounts of
potential energy. As long as there is water on Earth, and the Earth’s gravity continues to
compete with that of the Sun and the Moon, there will be limitless tidal power available for
human consumption.
Human beings have always had a fascination with tidal energy. In the past, people relied
heavily upon the tides to chart sea routes and to know when and where to sail. It also helped
inform them where the best spots for new trading ports were located. Presently, the energy
produced by the Earth’s natural tides can be harnessed to produce massive amounts of
electrical power. When scaled with human existence and life spans, tidal power can be safely
considered a perpetual source of electrical energy.
Tidal power occurs because of the gravitational interactions between the moon, the sun, and
the earth. These interactions will never subside in the millions of years to come. In other

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words, we can apply specially crafted water turbines, and other machines, in order to harness
tidal energy for an infinite amount of electrical power.
There are certain regions around the world where tidal energy is the most intense and others
where activity is lower. Both types of locations can be harvested, but the high action areas
will produce the most energy. Researchers are busy advocating with companies to install
various kinds of water turbines, and other machines, which will effectively help generate
electrical power in a sustainable manner. One of the marked advantages of applying tidal
energy is the fact that one can access it without causing any amount of pollution, though with
some machines, physical damage may occur. If properly managed, tidal power plants have
the potential to revolutionize how humanity produces electrical energy.
 
 5 c) Energy security
Energy security can be defined as “the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an
affordable price”.
Energy security has many dimensions: long-term energy security mainly deals with timely
investments to supply energy in line with economic developments and sustainable
environmental needs. Short-term energy security focuses on the ability of the energy system
to react promptly to sudden changes within the supply-demand balance. Lack of energy
security is thus linked to the negative economic and social impacts of either physical
unavailability of energy, or prices that are not competitive or are overly volatile.
Energy security for India
Threats
In the 60s and 70s, developed nations like the US, UK, Germany, France and Japan were
racing ahead by developing newer technologies and consumer products that were change
lifestyles leading to a shift from conservative to indulgent energy consumption.
Everything seemed fine until leading oil producing nations, grouped under OPEC and led by
the largest oil producer of the time, Saudi Arabia, abruptly decided in 1973-74, to increase
the price of crude oil. This sudden increase in oil price triggered a global crisis, whose impact
was felt across all nations but the brunt of it was taken by those nations that were highly
dependent on oil to power their respective economies.
As a result of this sharp increase in the price of oil, India experienced a runaway inflation that
touched 28% in subsequent years, triggering an economic and political crisis. The same was
true for several other oil-dependent nations.  Another energy crisis was seen in subsequent
years caused by political and economic isolation of Iran, another major oil producing nation.
This too, led to a major crisis globally. India had been a major importer of oil from Iran and

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has had a tough time trying to maintain a balance between the international sanctions and
preserving good relations with Iran.
Naturally, India was impacted on both critical phases. The problem for contemporary India is
that our economy is on the verge of take-off and we desperately need energy to power the
growth and unless India addresses this vital issue well ahead of time, we will be increasingly
vulnerable to global events beyond our control, and that is certainly not reassuring for an
emerging India, not by a long shot.
India’s Strategic and Economic Dilemma 
India’s current mix of energy sources includes Coal (40%), Biomass (26%), Oil (22%),
Natural Gas (8%), Hydro-power (2%), Nuclear (1%) and Renewable energy (1%).  It is
obvious that India will continue to depend on fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas for the next
several decades, which means that a large quantum of our requirement would have to come
from overseas sources. And that is where India’s strategic position becomes vulnerable.
Coal: A Polluting Fossil 
The problem with India has been the fact that India’s need to import coal has been rising
significantly. During 2013-14, India imported 171 million tonnes of coal, an increase of
17.9% over the previous year. It is estimated that by 2030, India will need to import close to
900 million tonnes of coal to meet its energy needs.
This alone, poses a significant challenge to India. On one hand, the nation needs coal to
power its growing energy requirement, on the other hand, there is growing international
pressure to reduce carbon emissions. Both contrary but imperative.
China faces a similar dilemma. Through the late 80s, it took a conscious decision to
significantly increase thermal power generation. As a result, it invested heavily in setting up
thermal power plants that used coal as its raw material. The need for coal outgrew domestic
production and soon China emerged as the world’s largest importer of coal.

Oil: An Expensive Option 

Another fossil fuel that is giving sleepless nights to rapidly developing nations like China and
India is crude oil. The need for oil too has been rising. While the current low levels of oil
price is providing relief to oil-dependent economies, the same is not likely to sustain for long,
as any international crisis can once again trigger an unpredictable price rise, causing
economic chaos.
The crisis in countries like Libya, Iraq and now Russia, all major oil producers, is a good
example of the associated risks of depending on international oil supply and India’s share of
oil in its energy mix stands at 22%. That exposes India to risks on account of global events
which are beyond its control.

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Natural Gas
A Cheaper and Cleaner Option To mitigate its dependency on crude oil, India has been
increasing investment in exploration and production of natural gas from sources within the
country. To further meet the demand-supply gap in energy, India has been sourcing natural
gas from overseas and continues to look for more sources to tie-up regular supply. Natural
gas is seen as less polluting when compared to coal and oil, and is also cheaper.
India is looking to import natural gas through pipelines from Iran and other Central Asian
countries. The lines are expected to pass through countries like Pakistan and Afghanistan.
While the proposed pipelines are likely to prove economically favourable in the long term,
the political and military risks associated with this is still to be sorted out by the government.
Shale Gas
An Emerging Alternate In the meantime, another possible source that can be a game changer
for countries like India and China is the emergence of shale gas as a cheaper and easily
available alternate to oil. The United States is currently the largest producer of shale gas,
while India too is known to have significant shale gas reserves.  The problem is that the long-
term environmental impact is still being debated, as is the risk involved with fracking, a
method of retrieving gas from the earth crust.
 

Renewal Energy
The Way Forward Renewable energy, which includes solar and wind, contribute 1% to our
energy mix. Both are clean, sustainable and abundant sources of energy. The problem for
both not becoming very popular has been the high cost of power. With technological
improvements it has now reached levels where it is commercially viable to generate power.
In times to come, the per capita cost of power is likely to come down further, making it even
more viable and an environmentally favourable alternate to traditional fossil fuels.
Energy Security in India is the dream of the 21st century for the nation. And after
implementing many policies will definitely move India an inch closer to achieve the dream.
Huge financial investment especially in the energy sector is the need of the hour. CDM
activities are equally important to sustain the concept of energy security. The new era of
renewable sources will play a vital role in the nation’s target to be energy secured.
  Bio-fuel cultivation and extraction
Bio-fuel cultivation and extraction
Biofuel is a type of fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Bio ‐ fuels
include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid biomass, liquid fuels and
various biogases. Although fossil fuels have their origin in ancient carbon fixation, they are

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not considered biofuels by the generally accept‐ ed definition because they contain carbon
that has been “out” of the carbon cycle for a very long time. Biofuels are gaining increased
public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price hikes, the need for increased
energy security, concern over green‐ house gas emissions from fossil fuels, and support from
government subsidies. Biofuel is considered carbon neutral, as the biomass absorbs roughly
the same amount of carbon dioxide during growth, as when burnt.
Biogas
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by
anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of
energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct,
digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.  Biogas can be recovered from mechanical
biological treatment waste processing systems. Landfill gas, a less clean form of biogas, is
produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the
atmosphere, it is a potential greenhouse gas.  Farmers can produce biogas from manure from
their cattle by using anaerobic digesters.
Syngas
Syngas Main article: Gasification Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and other
hydrocarbons, is produced by partial combustion of biomass, that is, combustion with an
amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide
and water. Before partial combustion, the biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed. The
resulting gas mixture, syngas, is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel;
more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted.  Syngas may be burned directly in
internal combustion engines, turbines or high-temperature fuel cells. The wood gas generator,
a wood-fueled gasification reactor, can be connected to an internal combustion engine.
Ethanol
Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and
butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation
of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult). Biobutanol (also called
biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be
used directly in a gasoline engine.
Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are
produced by fermentation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane,
molasses and any sugar or starch from which alcoholic beverages such as whiskey, can be
made (such as potato and fruit waste, etc.). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme
digestion (to release sugars from stored starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and
drying. The distillation process requires significant energy input for heat (sometimes

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unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as bagasse, the waste left
after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice, is the most common fuel in Brazil, while
pellets, wood chips and also waste heat are more common in Europe) Waste steam fuels
ethanol factory– where waste heat from the factories also is used in the district heating grid.
Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with
gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15%
bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of
gasoline; this means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of
work. An advantage of ethanol (CH 3CH 2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than
ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an
engine’s compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high-altitude (thin air)
locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce
atmospheric pollution emissions.
 
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced from oils or fats using
transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically,
it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters (FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel
include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower,
palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel (B100, also
known as “neat” biodiesel) currently reduces emissions with up to 60% compared to diesel
Second generation B100.
Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. It can also be
used in its pure form (B100) in diesel engines, but some maintenance and performance
problems may then occur during wintertime utilization, since the fuel becomes somewhat
more viscous at lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used. In some countries,
manufacturers cover their diesel engines under warranty for B100 use, although Volkswagen
of Germany, for example, asks drivers to check by telephone with the VW environmental
services department before switching to B100. In most cases, biodiesel is compatible with
diesel engines from 1994 onwards, which use ‘Viton’ synthetic rubber in their mechanical
fuel injection systems. Note however, that no vehicles are certified for using pure biodiesel
before 2014, as there was no emission control protocol available for biodiesel before this
date.
Bioethers
Bioethers (also referred to as fuel ethers or oxygenated fuels) are cost-effective compounds
that act as octane rating enhancers.”Bioethers are produced by the reaction of reactive iso-

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olefins, such as iso-butylene, with bioethanol.” Bioethers are created by wheat or sugar beet.
They also enhance engine performance, while significantly reducing engine wear and toxic
exhaust emissions. Although bioethers are likely to replace petroethers in the UK, it is highly
unlikely they will become a fuel in and of itself due to the low energy density. Greatly
reducing the amount of ground-level ozone emissions, they contribute to air quality.
 
 

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