MODULE 3: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

SOME INTELLECTUALS AND THEIR REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is important to examine
the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas during this
period - the truth of their time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and
creativity to explore the physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to
know and to discover.
Scientists are not driven by clamour for honour and publicity. They are ordinary people doing ordinary
things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to death, while others

1. Nicolaus Copernicus
He is considered as one of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science. Knowledge
about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged since the great days of Ancient
Greece, some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the scene (Gribbin, 2003). This continued up to
the Renaissance period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers
or thinkers he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to
test his ideas. His ideas were example of what is presently called as a thought experiment. By the
time he finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as canon at Frombork
Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his interest in
astronomy.

Copernicus’s idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Copernicus was
a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor affected his time to formally publish his work and
advance his career in astronomy. The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
(On Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific
revolution.

In this book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at
unvarying rates. Copernicus placed the Sun to be centrepiece of the universe.

Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes a sense now, during
those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was unacceptable idea to be taught to
Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the
rest of the 16th century.

2. Charles Darwin
He is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the world’s creation and
its evolution. Darwin is a genius who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family
(Johnson, 2012). He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a student at
Shrewsbury School. He went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre student. He
struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him. Darwin’s life soon
changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage through the HMS
Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.

Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be one of
the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant materials in order to
present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how species evolved
over time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species.

His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He introduced the idea
of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This
replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places human beings in a privileged
position of having been created by God. Darwin’s theory of evolution scientifically questioned this view.

Darwin’s accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he
made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these works,
what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that
are deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more
value to evidence-based science. Darwin provided different framework for doing scientific activities. It is
a science marked by observation and experiment.
 3. Sigmund Freud
He is a famous figure in the field of psychology. He is a towering literary figure and a very
talented communicator who did his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized word in
psychological matters (Rosenfels, 1980).

Freud also made a significant contribution in the scientific world through the development of an
important observational method to gather reliable data to study human’s inner life. This method is
popularly known as the method of psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed
the essential fundamental version of this method. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a
scientific way to study human mind and neurotic illness.

Freud is not a traditional thinker. His method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in
understanding some neurological conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time. His
method was unorthodox - focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man.

Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his contribution to
knowledge can be seen in many aspects of human scene, including art, literature, philosophy,
politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a psychologist or a scientist is for people to
decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still considered nowadays as a great
inspiration to examine human mind and behaviour in a more scientifically accepted way.

Cradles of Early Science

 Development of Science in Mesoamerica

 Development of Science in Asia
 Development of Science in Middle East
 Development of Science in Africa
Development of Science in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the border
of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge prior to
the arrival of its European colonizers.

Mayan Civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
Contributions
1. These people are known for their works in Astronomy. They incorporated their advance understanding of
astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for
astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid in Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the
Sun during the fall and spring equinoxes.
2. Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their time as evidenced by
their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting.
3. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These
calendars were very useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their religious
rituals and cultural celebrations.
4. The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities
using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to
supply water to different communities.
5. They used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field of arts. Mayans built
looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from mineral called mica.
6. They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before
Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
7. One of most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world’s
first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics.
8. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral
9. They also independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the Romans
did.

Inca Civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their
limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help them
in everyday life.
Contributions
1. roads paved with stones;
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

Aztec Civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and technology and to the society as a
whole.
Contributions

 Mandatory Education. The Aztec put value on education; that is why their children are mandated to
get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive
education.
 Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture, they
used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their
Gods.
 Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle
spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
 Chinampa. It is a form as Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into
rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
 Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
 Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

Development of Science in Asia

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to
many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and
mathematics, great civilizations have stood out in India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These
civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during their
time.

India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its northern
boarders. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives.
Contributions

 They are known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to
be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.
 India is famous in medicine. Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient
India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine.
 Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the
configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12
equal parts of 30 days each.
 Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in
the Indian subcontinent appeared in the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of this civilization, tried to
standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the
Mohenjodaro ruler.
 Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya introduced a number of
trigonometric functions, tables and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like medicine,
astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others. Chinese civilizations have
greatly influenced many of its neighbour countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand,
Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.
Contributions

 Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of
the Chinese people. They discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and
animals to cure human illness. An example is the practice of acupuncture.
 In terms of technology, Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the famous discoveries and
inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools
that became known in the West only by the end of the middle Ages. They also invented other tools
like iron plough, wheelbarrow and propeller, among others. They also developed a design of
different models of bridges, invented the first seismological detector, and developed a dry dock
facility.
 Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which
were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our
world.
 Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in times of natural calamities.
Middle East Countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th
centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th
century. The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their
proximity to India were contributory to intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their scholars knowledge
to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed greater
value on science experiments rather than plain thought experiments. This led to the development of the
scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using experiments to distinguish
between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation.
Contributions of famous Muslim Scientists

 Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the
intromission theory of light.
 Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to concept the algorithm while the term algebra is
derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the
Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several
refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.
 Jabir ibn Hayyan- considered to be the “Father of Chemistry”
 Ibn Sina- pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical
trials. His most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used
as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17th century. Among his
many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the
introduction of clinical pharmacology.

Development of Science in Africa.

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the planet long
before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show that similar to other ancient
civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers too.
Contributions

 The Ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the
fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the development of geometry was a
product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the
Nile River.
 Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry.
They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important components such as
examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These components
displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of studying science.
 Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show that Africans used
three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the three.
  Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. They invented metal tools
used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their magnificent architectures.
 Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African continent. The
Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have been a tool
for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is
considered to be the oldest known mathematical artefact dated from 35,000 BCE.

References:
Serafica, J. et.al. (2018). Science, Technology, and Society. Rex Printing Company, Inc., First Edition, 2018.

MODULE 4: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND NATION BUILDING

The history of science and technology in the Philippines started way back before the country gained its
independence from the American colonizers.
Before the coming of the Spanish colonizers, the early inhabitants had their own culture & traditions.
They had their own belief system and indigenous knowledge system that keeps them organized and
sustained their lives and communities for many years.
In pre- Spanish Philippines, SCIENCE is embedded in the way of life of the people. Scientific
knowledge is observed: in the way they plant their crops that provide them food; in taking care of their animals
to help them in their daily tasks, and for food production.
Science is observed in the way they interpret the movement of the heavenly bodies in predicting
seasons and climates, and in organizing days into months and years. They used science in preparing the soil
for agricultural purposes and discovered the medicinal uses of plants.
Technology is used by people in building houses, irrigations and in developing tools that they can use
in their everyday life. They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking and fishing; for fighting their enemies
during war or tribal conflicts; and for transportation. They also used technology in creating musical instruments.
Also, trading with China, Indonesia, Japan and other nearby countries have influenced their lives by
providing opportunities for cultural and technological exchange.
All of these ancient practices in science and technology are considered now as INDIGENOUS
SCIENCE OR FOLK SCIENCE.

SPANISH ERA
When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them their own culture and practices.
They established schools for boys and girls and introduced the concept of subjects and disciplines. It was the
beginning of formal science and technology in the country, known now as school of science and technology.
 Learning of science in school focuses on understanding different concepts related to the human body,
plants, animals and heavenly bodies. Technology focuses on using and developing house tools used in
everyday life.
Life during the Spanish Era slowly became modernized, adapting some Western technology and their
ways of life. The Filipinos developed ways to replicate technology brought by the Spaniards using indigenous
materials. Medicine and advanced science were introduced in formal colleges and universities established by
the Catholic orders.
The GALLEON TRADE has brought additional technology and development in the Philippines.
Although it is only beneficial for the Spaniards, these trades allowed other ideas, crops, tools, cultural
practices, technology, and Western practices to reach the country. Some of the Filipino students who were
able to study in Europe also contributed to the advancement of medicine, engineering, arts, music, and
literature in the country.
The Philippines, being considered as one of the centers of global trade in Southeast Asia during that time, was
considered to be one of the most developed places in the region.
Although the country is blessed with these developments, the superstitious beliefs of the people and the
Catholic doctrines and practices during the Spanish era halted the growth of science in the country.
AMERICAN ERA
The Americans have more influence in the development of science and technology in the Philippines
compared to the Spaniards.

 established the public education system

 improved the engineering works and health conditions of the people.
 established a modern research university, UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES.
 created more public hospitals.
 mineral resources were explored and exploited during the American times.
 transportation and communication systems were improved, though not accessible throughout the
country.
The Americans did everything to “Americanize” the Philippines. They reorganized the learning of science and
introduced it in the public and private schools. In basic education, science education focuses on nature studies
and science and sanitation, until it became a subject formally known as “Science.” The teaching of science in
higher education has also greatly improved and modernized. Researches were done to control malaria,
cholera, and tuberculosis and other tropical diseases.
The desire of the Americans to develop the human resources of the Philippines to serve their own interests is
somehow beneficial in the country. These allowed American scholars to introduce new knowledge and
technology in the country. The Protestant church missions in different places in the country also brought
hospitals and schools to far flung areas. Little by little, these efforts built a stronger foundation for science and
technology in the country.
World War II has destabilized the development of the country in many ways. Institutions and public facilities
were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and many lives were destroyed. The country had a difficult time
to rebuild itself from the ruins of the war. The human spirit to survive and to rebuild the country may be strong
but the capacity of the country to bring back what was destroyed was limited. The reparation funds focused on
building some institutions and public facilities like schools, hospitals and transportation system. The reparation
money from Japan was also concentrated on building highways and providing technological training and
human resource development.
Since the establishment of the new republic, the whole nation has been focusing on using its limited resources
in improving S&T capability. It has explored the use of ODA or Overseas Development Allocations from the
different countries to help the country improve its scientific productivity and technological capability.
Human resource development is at the heart of this efforts focusing on producing more engineers, scientists,
technology experts, doctors and other professionals in the country.
The development of science and technology in the Philippines, based on its brief history, is shaped by several
factors and influences. Like in the history of science in other countries, it is always shaped by human and
social activities, both internal and external. The following are the influences in the development of science and
technology:
Internal influences: survival, culture, economic activities
External influences: foreign colonizers, trades with foreign countries, international economic demands.
Science and technology may have significant impact on the lives of the people and in the development of the
Philippine society. However, improving the quality of science education still remains as a big challenge in the
country.
References: Serafica, J. et.al. (2018). Science, Technology, and Society. Rex Printing Company, Inc., First
Edition, 2018.

MODULE 5: STS AND THE HUMAN CONDITION

Introduction/Overview
This module contains two topics – The Technology as a Way of Revealing and The Human Person
Flourishing in Progress and De-development. The first lesson will discuss the essence of technology as
presented by Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), in his discourse in The Question Concerning Technology (1977).
Here we shall engage in reflecting about the dangers that modern technology poses, and art as its saving
power.
The second lesson, we transition from a philosopher (Martin Heidegger) to an anthropologist, Jason Hickel.
Let us find out how science and technology explained by a philosopher and an anthropologist.

LESSON 1- TECHNOLOGY AS A WAY OF REVEALING

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) was a German philosopher who embraced the Continental tradition of
philosophy. One of his famous quotes about technology represents an irony. Heidegger said, “The essence of
technology is by no means anything technological.” He opposed positivism. He, therefore, believed that
philosophy and the study of social sciences should not strive to measure human social life in terms of quantity
(gross domestic product, net income, etc). Sociology, philosophy, and other social sciences should investigate
in terms of quality. Hence, to engage in a true and correct understanding of technology, the goal should be to
question and look into its (qualitative) essence.
Heidegger’s key concepts revolve around ontology, or the study of “being” (dasein in German), “forgetfulness
of being” (seinsvergessenheit), and “rootedness-insoil” (bodenstandigkeit). His philosophical works are often
described as complicated, and so a weblink to a five-minute Youtube video entitled, The Philosophy of Martin
Heidegger, is cited below in the references. It is important to understand his basic concepts and his philosophy
to better make use of his valuable framework.
The whole philosophy of Heidegger focuses on the role of ethics and social morality in the very essence and
definition of technology. In his treatise, The Question Concerning Technology, he emphasized the two
definitions of technology: (1) Instrumental and (2) Anthropological. The first definition states that “technology is
a means to an end”, while the second definition asserts “technology is a human activity”.
In the context of the first definition (instrumental definition), technology is seen as a tool whose function varies
according to individual goals and collective aspirations. Alternatively, for the second definition (anthropological
definition), technology is a human activity to produce, invent, and achieve. To Heidegger, however, neither
definition touches on the true essence of technology.

 Technology is a Way of Revealing and Challenging Forth

According to Heidegger, technology is a mode of “bringing forth” or poeisis (Greek). By bringing

something forth or out of concealment, the truth (aletheia) of that something is revealed. Truth is
 translated as unclosedness, unconcealedness, or disclosure. In philosophy, techne (the Greek root
word of technology) resembles the term episteme, which refers to the human ability to make and
perform, including knowledge and understanding also. While in art, techne refers to both tangible and
intangible aspects of life. The Greeks understood techne in the way that it encompasses not only craft,
but other acts of the mind, and poetry.

Both primitive crafts and modern technology are revealing, according to Heidegger. However, he
explained that modern technology is revealing not in the sense of bringing forth. Modern technology
“challenges” nature, by extracting something from it, transforming, storing, and distributing it. Modern
technology is “challenging forth” because it prompts people into manipulating and enframing the earth’s
natural resources with very little concern for its ecological consequences (threats to human health, food
safety, etc).

Challenging forth as a result of modern technology is also evident in the information age, such that
greater control of information to profit from its value gives rise to concerns about privacy and the
protection of human rights.

Enframing is, therefore, modern technology’s way of revealing and ordering (or framing). It is akin to
two ways of looking at the world: calculative thinking and meditative thinking. In the former, humans put
an order to nature to better understand it and exploit it. In the latter, humans allow nature to reveal itself
to them without the use of force or violence. The former tends to be more commonly used.

Ironically, as a consequence, humans become exploited also as an instrument of technology. This

process is called destining. This destining of humans to reveal the nature carries with it the danger of
misconstruction or misinterpretation.

 The Dangerous Modern Technology and the Way Out of It

The Dangerous Modern Technology and the Way Out of It

It is the responsibility of humans to recognize how they have become exploited as instruments by
the dangerous modern technology (for example, invasion of privacy and proliferation of fake news). As
mere tenants on Earth, people must not allow themselves to be consumed by technology, lest they lose
the essence of who they are as humans. This requires critical and reflective thinking on the use of
technology. Hence, Heidegger reminded us that the worst human view to have is to regard technology
as neutral and to pay homage to it without recognizing the real threat of the essence of modern
technology (enframing and designing). As we quoted earlier from Heidegger, the essence of technology
is not neutral, and by no means anything technological.

The way out of enframing is the art (techne or poetry). Art is the saving power, said Heidegger,
because it is an act of mind which had great power over the truth. Art encourages us to think less from
a calculative standpoint. It inspires meditative thinking.

Humans need to re-assess who they were, are, and will, in the grand scheme of things. Heidegger
emphasized the importance of questioning. It is only through questioning that we are able to re-assess
our positions in the midst of technology.

LESSON 2 – THE HUMAN PERSON FLOURISHING IN PROGRESS AND DE-DEVELOPMENT

In this lesson, let us transition from a philosopher (Martin Heidegger) to an anthropologist, Jason
Hickel. De-development is the key concept in Hickel’s development framework. This is an alternative
framework to narrowing the gap between the rich and poor countries. This is also a critique about human
flourishing vis-à-vis progress in science and technology.
Humans must ask themselves whether they are indeed flourishing, individually or collectively. Hickel
criticized the failure of growth and development efforts to eradicating poverty. He offered a non-conformist
framework of de-developing.
Orthodox economists insist that all we need is yet more growth. More progressive analysts propose
shifting the wealth to poorer nations to even things out. Hickel believed that neither approach is adequate.
Moreover, he pointed out that we have been overshooting our planet’s biocapacity by more than 50% each
year. In other words, growth is not an option anymore because we have grown too much already. This global
crisis, Hickel said, is due almost entirely to overconsumption in rich countries. Furthermore, he held that we
should look at societies where people live long and happy lives at relatively low levels of income and
consumption. Costa Rica, a low-level income country, for example, manages to sustain one of the highest
happiness indicators and life expectancies in the world. Perhaps, according to Hickel, such countries should
not be regarded as underdeveloped, but rather as “appropriately developed”.
In light of this, Hickel proposed a re-orientation towards a truer form of progress ---one that is geared
toward quality (happiness and well-being), instead of quantity (GDP and net income). He recommended
alternative visions around the concept of good living. A shorter working week, for example, would improve our
lives while reducing consumption also.
Re-thinking our theory of progress is not only an ecological imperative, it is also a developmental
imperative. Mass famine might re-emerge and food systems might collapse. Either we slow down voluntarily,
or the laws of nature will do it for us. Hickel’s discourse is about reaching a higher level of understanding and
consciousness about what we are doing on Earth and why. We cannot go on ignoring the laws of nature