ENERGY GIVING FOOD: CARBOHYDRATES (CHO) beets.

When hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes

or acid, it is converted to a mixture of equal
DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION parts of glucose and fructose (invert sugar)
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain 2. Maltose - also known as malt sugar and grain
the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Most, sugar. Formed in plants when seeds
but not all carbohydrates have a ratio of one carbon germinate and in human beings during
molecule to one water molecule (hydrate of carbon), carbohydrate digestion Occurs during the
hence the term carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are fermentation process that yields alcohol.
polyhydric aldehydes and ketones with the general
formula CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n. 3. Lactose - also known as milk sugar. Only
carbohydrates of animal origin that are of
CLASSIFICATION significance in the human diet. About ⅙ as
The simple carbohydrates sweet as sugar and is the least sweet among
the common sugars.
 The simple carbohydrates (the sugars) are
those that chemists describe as THE COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES 
monosaccharides (single sugars) and The complex carbohydrates are composed of
disaccharides (pairs of monosaccharides). Of many glucose units and, in some cases, a few other
the simple carbohydrates most important in monosaccharides strung together as polysaccharides.
nutrition, three are monosaccharides and Three types of polysaccharides are important in
three are disaccharides. nutrition:
 The monosaccharides are: glucose, fructose 1. Glycogen - often called “animal starch” and is
and galactose structurally similar to amylopectin but
 The disaccharides are: maltose (glucose + contains many more branched chains of
glucose), sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose glucose. Major form of stored carbohydrate in
(glucose + galactose) human and animal tissues. Rapidly
synthesized from glucose in the liver and
Monosaccharides muscles where it is stored.
1. Glucose - also known as physiologic sugar, 2. Starches - storage form of carbohydrates in
blood sugar, dextrose, corn sugar, and grape plants found mostly in grains, legumes, seeds,
sugar. Principal product formed by the root crops, and tubers. Occur in both the
hydrolysis of more complex carbohydrates amylose form (long straight chains of glucose
during digestion. Form of sugar normally units) and the amylopectin form (long
found in the blood. Predominant Energy branched chains of glucose units). Produce
source for all the cells especially the central dextrins as intermediate products during
nervous system. Stored in the liver and hydrolysis
muscle as glycogen.  
3. Fiber or Roughage - nonstarch
2. Fructose - also known as levulose and fruit polysaccharides that are not digested by GI
sugar. Sweetest of the sugars. Highly soluble tract bacteria. Nonstarch polysaccharide
and does not readily crystallize. Used fibers include cellulose, hemicelluloses,
commercially and does not readily crystallize. pectins, gums, and mucilages. Also include
Used commercially in sweeteners such as some non polysaccharides such as lignins,
high-fructose corn syrup. Occurs naturally in cutins, and tannins. Structural parts of plants:
fruits and honey.
a. Soluble Fiber - fruit, legumes, barley,
3. Galactose - rarely occurs naturally as a single oats, delays glucose absorption, lower
sugar. Produced from lactose during blood cholesterol
digestion.
b. Insoluble FIber - wheat bran, corn
Disaccharides beans, whole grain breads, cereals
1. Sucrose - also known as table sugar or simply and vegetables accelerate gastro-
“sugar”, cane sugar, beet sugar, and intestinal transit and delays of glucose
saccharose. Found mainly in molasses, maple absorption.
syrup, and maple sugar. Prepared
commercially from sugar cane and sugar
FUNCTIONS  About ⅓ of the body’s glycogen is
stored in the liver. Liver glycogen is
1. Source of Energy - yields approximately used up rapidly and must be
4kcal/g replenished daily. 
2. Protein sparer - adequate carbohydrates  Muscle cells store the remaining ⅔ of
provide the body’s energy needs to ensure the body’s total glycogen but howard
that proteins will be used for building and most of it, using it only for themselves
repairing of body tissues. during exercise and other physical
3. Regulation of fat metabolism - adequate activities.
carbohydrates prevent the rapid oxidation of 3. Converting Glycogen Stores to Glucose
fats which results in the accumulation of (Glycogenolysis)
ketone bodies leading to ketosis
 People who do not eat enough dietary
4. Roles in gastrointestinal function - lactose carbohydrate survive by drawing
promotes the growth of desirable bacteria, energy from their glycogen stores.
some of which are useful in the synthesis of When blood glucose falls, the liver
the b-complex vitamins. Lactose enhances the cells dismantle the glycogen by
absorption of calcium. Fiber maintains gut hydrolysis reactions to produce
integrity and ensures normal elimination of glucose which is released into the
waste. bloodstream for use by body cells as
5. Vital constituents of body compounds that needed.
regulate metabolism 4. Making Glucose from Protein
DIGESTION (Gluconeogenesis)

1. In the mouth - mechanical digestion tears  Body protein can be converted to

fiber in food and is moistened by saliva. glucose to some extent, but its main
Salivary amylase (ptyalin) hydrolyzes starch to role is to build and repair body
shorter polysaccharides and to maltose tissues. Only a very small portion of
body fat (glycerol) can be converted
2. In the small intestine - pancreatic amylase to glucose. Thus, when dietary
breaks down polysaccharides to shorter carbohydrate is inadequate, body
glucose chains and disaccharides. proteins are dismantled to make
Disaccharides enzymes dismantle specific glucose for the body’s energy needs.
disaccharides. All polysaccharides and
disaccharides are broken down to 5. Making ketone Bodies from Fat Fragments
monosaccharides which are absorbed by the  Inadequate intake of dietary
intestinal cell. Fiber is not digested and delays carbohydrates provides less glucose
the absorption of other nutrients. to meet the body’s energy needs.
METABOLISM When this happens, energy
metabolism is shifted and fat takes an
1. Using Glucose for Energy  alternative metabolic pathway.
 Glucose plays the central role in the Instead of entering the main energy
carbohydrate metabolism and is used pathway, fat fragments combine with
by the body as a chief source of  each other forming ketone bodies
energy. (acetone, acetoacetic acid, and beta-
2. Storing Glucose as Glycogen (Glycogenesis) hydroxybutyric acid) which serve as
an alternative fuel during starvation.
 After a meal, blood glucose rises and
cells in the liver and muscles link
excess glucose molecules by
condensation reactions to make
glycogen. The human body stores
much of its glucose as glycogen in the
liver and muscles.
  When the production of ketone aspartic acid, and a methyl group Because it
bodies exceeds their use, they contains phenylalanine, the label must have a
accumulate in the blood causing warning for people with
ketosis. This disturbs the body’s phenylketonuria(PKU).
normal acid-base balance. The body
3. Neotame - approved for use by the FDA in
needs at least 50 to 1000g of
carbohydrates per day to spare body 2002. ADI is 18 mg/day. Composed of
phenylalanine, aspartic acid, a methyl group,
protein and prevent ketosis.
and an additional side group which blocks the
6. Using Glucose to Make Fat (Lipogenesis) digestive enzymes that normally separate
phenylalanine and aspartic acid. Ths, both
 After meeting its energy needs and amino acids are not absorbed and neotame
glycogen stores, the body uses any needs to carry a warning for people with PKU.
extra glucose to make fat which is
stored in adipose tissue. 4. Saccharin - approved for use by the FDA in
more than 100 countries. ADI is 5mg/kg body
 Glycogen can be stored to a limited weight. Unique because it is made from sugar
extent and provides energy for that has had 3 of its hydroxyl(-OH) groups
relatively short periods only. On the replaced by chlorine atoms. The body does
other hand, fat cells can store not recognize it as a carbohydrate so it passes
unlimited quantities of fat which through the GI tract undigested and
serves as more permanent energy- unabsorbed. 
storage compounds.
5. Sugar Replacers - the term describes the sugar
RECOMMENDED INTAKE  alcohols like mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol,
 Dietary carbohydrates are the main sources of maltitol, and dulcitol. Sugar alcohols occur
energy for man, providing 55-65% of the total naturally in fruits and vegetables and are used
energy intake in different countries. by manufacturers as a low-calorie bulk
ingredient that provides sweetness in “sugar-
 A wide variation in carbohydrate intake is free” or reduced-calorie products like hard
compatible with health because of the candies, cookies, james, jellies, and gums.
interrelationships with fatty acids and amino
acids in meeting the body’s energy needs. CARBOHYDRATES AND HEALTH

FOOD SOURCES  Weight Management, Overweight, and

Obesity
 Carbohydrates are widely distributed in
nature, particularly in the vegetable kingdom. o Taking calories in excess of body
needs contributes to weight gain. The
 Cereals, grains, roots, tubers, and noodles notion that sweet food stimulates
contain mainly starch. appetite and promotes overeating has
 Milk, which contains lactose, is the only not been supported by research.
animal food that contributes to carbohydrate Overweight or obesity can occur
intake. without a high sugar diet.

ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS o For people whose excess calories

come mainly from added sugars,
The Food and Drug Administration (DFA) has limiting the intake of foods and
approved the use of several artificial sweeteners- beverages high in added sugars can
acesulfame potassium, aspartame, neotame, help reduce weight.
saccharin, and sucralose. Alitame and cyclamate are
awaiting FDA approval. o Foods rich in complex carbohydrates
tend to be low in fat and added
1. Acesulfame-K - approved for use by the FDA in sugars. They can promote weight loss
1988 and is used in more than 60 countries. by providing less calories.
ADI is 15mg/kg body weight
o High-fiber foods add bulk to the diet.
2. Aspartame - approved for use by the FDA  in They create feelings of satiety and
more than 100 countries. ADI  is 50mg/kg delay hunger. To use fiber in a weight
body weight. Composed of phenylalanine, loss plan, select fresh fruits,
 vegetables, legumes, and whole-grain o Among dietary risk factors, saturated
foods. They are economical, fats, trans fats, and excess calories
nutritious, and provide fewer calories. have stronger associations with heart
disease than do sugar intakes.
o Get your daily fiber intake from
natural foods, not fiber supplements. o For most people, moderate intakes do
not elevate blood lipids. For
“carbohydrate sensitive” individuals,
high intakes of sugars can alter blood
lipids to favor heart disease.
 Dental Caries
o High-carbohydrate diets, especially
o The onset of dental caries depends on those rich in viscous fibers (such as
how long food stays in the mouth. oat, barley, and legumes) may protect
Sticky foods stay on the teeth longer against heart disease and stroke. Such
and are fermented by mouth bacteria diets are low in animal fat and
which produce an acid that erodes the cholesterol, and high in vegetable
tooth enamel, causing tooth decay. proteins and phytochemicals.
o Another concern is frequent exposure  Cancer
of teeth surfaces to sugar. Bacteria
produce acid for 20 to 30 minutes o Fibers help prevent colon cancer by
after each exposure. Thus, it is better diluting, binding, and removing
to eat sugar with meals than between potential carcinogens from the colon.
meals. Viscous fibers stimulate bacterial
fermentation of resistant starch and
o Good oral hygiene may be more fiber in the colon producing short-
effective in preventing dental caries chain fatty acids that lower the pH
than restricting sugary foods. and inhibit cancer growth in the
 Diabetes colon.

o High-carbohydrate diets per se do not o Although evidence gathered from

cause diabetes, nor is there studies are inconclusive, health care
convincing evidence that sugar will professionals recommend a high-fiber
cause it. Due to the high association diet with at least 5 servings of fruits
between obesity and type 2 diabetes, and vegetables and generous portions
caloric control rather than the of whole grains and legumes.
limitation of carbohydrate is the most  Behavioral Problems
important factor in delaying its onset
in susceptible individuals. o Sugar has been blamed for the
misbehaviors of hyperactive children,
o High-fiber foods help reduce the risk delinquent adolescents, and
of type 3 diabetes. Viscous fibers trap lawbreaking adults. The claims are
nutrients and delay their transit based largely on personal stories and
through the GI tract. They delay a few controlled studies. Conflicting
glucose absorption which helps reports have been obtained and until
prevent the glucose surge and more scientific evidence supports a
rebound that seem to be associated relationship between sugar and
with the onset of diabetes. hyperactivity or other misbehaviors, it
 Nutrient Intake is not possible to draw any
conclusions.
o Sugar contributes to the caloric intake
and palatability of the diet. However,  Honey
excessive intake of high-sugar foods o The composition of honey varies, but
delivers glucose and energy with few, a typical analysis is given at 36%
if any other nutrients thus glucose, 43% fructose, 2.7% sucrose,
contributing to nutrient deficiencies. and 18.3% water. Contrary to belief,
 Heart Disease there are no nutritional advantages in
 the choice of honey as sweeteners.
Although honey contains vitamins and
minerals that are not available in
refined sugars, the trace amounts
involved are inconsequential in terms
of daily needs. Because sucrose is
rapidly hydrolyzed in the small
intestine, there is little difference
between sugar and honey in
absorption time.
 GI Health and Fibers
o Dietary fibers enhance the health of
the large intestine. The healthier the
intestinal walls, the better they can
block the absorption of unwanted
substances.
o With ample fluids, fibers help to
alleviate or prevent many GI disorders
like diarrhea, constipation,
haemorrhoids, and diverticula. They
help in the normal elimination of
waste and normalize intestinal transit
time.
o Despite the health benefits of fiber, a
diet high in fiber has its drawbacks.
Clearly “more fiber is better” is true
only up to a certain point. Balance,
variety, and moderation must be
observed at all times.