Impact of Adverse Childhood Experience Can Lead to Adult Women to

Commit a Crime
1. Introduction

In the first 18 years of life, stressful and even traumatic situations are referred to as
adverse childhood experiences (Susan et al., 2004). The two forms of adversity that have
been determined to be the most harmful are abuse and neglect, both of which are fairly
common (Bopprea, 2021). Numerous studies have also shown the negative effects of
considerable adversity on a range of long-term consequences, such as academic failure,
mental health problems, interpersonal dysfunction, and drug dependence (Hahn, 2015).
Studies have shown that children who have directly encountered negative events like physical
or sexual abuse or who have experienced violent acts, such as domestic abuse, are more
likely to commit violent crimes as adults (Graf, 2021).

Through interactions with their primary attachment figures, individuals develop

perspectives of themselves and others. In order to comprehend their experiences and modify
their mechanisms for the environment, they also develop representational schemes (Dube,
2001). Early exposure to violence encourages the persistence of unfavourable beliefs about
oneself, other people, and the world, making it challenging to establish reliable connections
(Felitti, 2003). Since they frequently have limited access to positive interactions, children
who have undergone ACE may have been traumatised by their attachment figures. The stress
brought on by hardship can be lessened by having ties with individuals who can provide
support and who are immediately available and accessible (Leban, 2020).

According to Schilling (2007), the chance of using illegal drugs can rise by 2-4 times
after exposure to ACEs. The chance of both initial and ongoing participation in the criminal
justice system is increased by the predisposition to participate in hazardous activities
(Dudeck, 2016). Craig (2020), indicated in her research that teenagers who reported four or
more ACEs were more likely to be classified as having a high risk of reoffending than those
who reported three or fewer ACEs, who were demonstrated to have a lower likelihood of
doing so. According to studies, teenagers who have been adjudicated and have high ACE
scores are generally more likely to get involved in the criminal justice system on a long-term
basis. (Afifi, 2008).

The social learning hypothesis states that criminal behaviour is learned and
maintained via observation of illegal behaviour and its societal effects. Antisocial behaviour
is far more likely to be learned and acquired in the early stages of development, especially if
it is being practised by people in the person's immediate social circle (Afifi, 2011). Early
adversity is especially harmful when it happens inside the family unit since family members
serve as the child's primary role models (Akers, 2006). Children may interpret violent and
dysfunctional experiences as effective coping mechanisms, especially if the aggressive
behaviour of the individuals responsible was never halted or, worse if other family members
encouraged the violent behaviour towards children (Alarid, 2018).

In research on traumatic childhood experiences in general populations, it has also

been found that exposure to such events is associated with a later propensity for violence,
either as a victim, a perpetrator, or frequently both (Avant, 2011). According to a study
conducted in England with almost four thousand participants, those who had four or more
traumatic childhood experiences were eight times more likely to have committed an act of
violence and were seven times more likely to have experienced violence in the year before
the study than those who had none. These numbers were more pronounced in Wales, where
those who experienced four or more traumatic events as children had a 14-fold increased risk
of being the victim of violence in the preceding year and a 15-fold increased risk of
perpetrating violent actions (Lorraine et al., 2021).

Conflicting results have been found in the literature on the sex-specific effects of each
ACE on criminal and antisocial behaviour (Bellis, 2022). In the study by Vaswani (2018),
gender did not significantly influence the association between early adversity and antisocial
behaviour. The results of other meta-analyses conducted by Petruccelli (2019), on the other
hand, showed that women were more likely to experience violent repercussions as a result of
child maltreatment. However, none of these studies specifically discussed how gender affects
various forms of child maltreatment or neglect. More importantly, they did not investigate
how dysfunctional families affected how children became involved in criminal behaviour.

Men and women have different rates of ACE prevalence, according to research (Liu,
2021). Girls are more prone than boys to be sexually abused and to be impacted by mental
issues with their parents (Bussières, 2020). There have also been reports of gender-specific
variations in how ACEs affect adverse health consequences. For women but not for males,
childhood sexual and verbal abuse was strongly linked to excessive smoking (Karen et al.,
2017). Similar to the previous example, only women and not males showed a substantial
association between adult despondency and ACEs (Grady, 2016). Other researchers, on the
other hand, have not discovered gender-specific variances (Hui et al., 2021). 

1.2 Research Aim

 Negative experiences, such as abuse, neglect, and dysfunctional households, that
children have, or witness can have an impact on their future well-being, victimisation, and
criminal conduct (Fujiwara, 2022). Additionally, evidence suggests that ACEs have an effect
on opportunities for a lifetime as well as future victimisation and violence (Feizabadi, 2009).
While some academics and medical professionals want to portray ACEs as a public health
concern, others are dubious about the perceived growth of the abuse defence (Rapp, 2021).
The main aim of this research paper is to investigate and analyse the variables that may have
a role in females' psychological distress and criminal behaviour after repeated adverse
childhood experiences (ACEs).

1.3 Research Objectives

This study is divided into the following objectives in order to meet the study's aim.

 To ascertain how adverse childhood experiences affect female criminal behaviour.

 To determine how gender affects the relationship between adverse childhood
experiences and criminal behaviour.
2. Literature Review

2.1 Adverse Childhood Experiences

A variety of circumstances are referred to as "adverse childhood experiences"

(ACEs), including parental separation or divorce, the death of a loved one, emotional or
physical neglect, physical or sexual abuse, witnessing violence, being imprisoned, abusing
drugs or alcohol, or having a family member or household member in poor mental health
(Ports, 2016). In addition to permanently altering the functioning of an individual's
immunological, neurological, and endocrine systems, toxic stress or repeated negative events
can also permanently harm the developing brain, placing that person at an increased risk of
acquiring chronic illnesses and dying young (Choudhary, 2022).

According to a study by Wolff (2016), on adverse childhood experiences, exposure to

such events is quite widespread in the general population and is causally associated with a
markedly elevated risk of adverse health and social challenges throughout the course of one's
lifetime.  According to the study conducted by Kim (2017), more than half of the population
has undergone at least one adverse childhood experience (ACE), and 20% have had three or
more. One or more ACEs have been encountered by around half of the population in
England.

Societal disparities influence the likelihood of developing ACEs (Chandler, 2015).

According to Taillieul (2016), a negative childhood experience, or several negative childhood
experiences, are more likely to occur among people with lower socioeconomic positions,
those who grew up in underprivileged or impoverished regions, and those who experienced
hardship. Children who are raised in dangerous conditions run the risk of experiencing
negative health effects that will impair their immunological, endocrine, and regulatory
systems as well as their ability to develop their brains (Rutter, 2004).

Adverse childhood experiences can change how brain networks grow structurally and
how neuroendocrine systems function biochemically. These changes can have long-term
repercussions on the body, including accelerating the ageing and disease processes and
weakening immune systems (Kalmakis, 2015). Children exposed to ACEs may also
experience behavioural difficulties such as juvenile recidivism, less resilience, and worse
academic achievement (Burke, 2011).

2.2 Adverse Childhood Experience and Gender

 A rising amount of data emphasises how gender plays a part in ACE and crime
(Leban, 2020). When Melissa et al. (2012), examined data from longitudinal panel research,
they discovered that childhood abuse was a major predictor of male (but not female)
adolescent criminality. In research done by Racine (2020), it was shown that male offenders
were more directly affected by sexual abuse than female offenders were. In contrast, other
studies found that ACE increased the risk of female (but not male) offenders (Gottschall,
2022). In groups with a history of ACE, there is additional evidence of specific offence-type
gender inequalities. For instance, women who have experienced maltreatment have reported
higher rates of drug-related criminality, illicit drug usage, and general criminal activity than
men with comparable histories (McLafferty, 2018).

Moreover, with the possible exception of violence against close partners, according to
the study by Ross (2020), maltreated females commit violent crimes at a lesser rate than
maltreated males. In a study by Fang (2016), the exposure to particular ACEs, such as sexual
abuse or witnessing domestic violence, was found to differ significantly by gender.
According to the study by Tehrani (2011), males were far more likely than girls to have
witnessed an accident or a murder, and they were also more likely to have felt threatened. Liu
(2013), revealed in his study that girls had a two to three times higher chance of experiencing
childhood sexual abuse than boys.

According to Chantel et al. (2021), exposure to domestic violence and marital abuse
among young people is about equally high for males and females. Behaviourally, it has been
discovered that exposure to such abuse has varied effects on males and girls. Girls typically
react with intense fear states, such as sobbing, brief paralysis, and hiding, whereas boys
frequently become protective, furious, and heightened. This is probably because of the
physiological reactions that normally take place during the fight-or-flight response. The long-
term impacts of such intense trauma states frequently make males more aggressive in later
life and maturity and make females more vulnerable to circumstances where their ability to
defend themselves is compromised, such as sexual assault or domestic violence.

Relative to females, it was shown in the study by Thomson (2016), that boys who had
ACEs were more likely to later participate in antisocial conduct. According to a different
study by Friestad (2012), women who have experienced abuse and neglect are more likely to
take drugs or be arrested for violent crimes. Walsh (2014), also conducted a study on the
relationship between gender and ACEs and adolescent criminality. Their findings suggested
that ACEs were not associated with deviant behaviours in boys, but rather only strongly
connected them to girls. According to the findings of a study conducted by Neil (2017),
gender may have a moderating influence on the impact of ACEs on deviant conduct.

Daniel et al. (2021) conducted study that examined a sample of male and female
juvenile offenders to ascertain the incidence of ACEs and mental health concerns as well as
their association. Questions concerning ACEs and mental health conditions were answered by
161 juvenile and young adult offenders from the adolescent jail in Worms, with an emphasis
on attention deficit or the hyperactivity problem and intermittent impulsive disorder. A
prevalence of 35.9% was discovered for an intermittent explosive disorder, for instance,
indicating that there are significant rates of mental health issues. Additionally, more female
offenders than male offenders had somatic symptoms, anxiety/depression, and concentration
issues that were clinically severe. In comparison to male criminals, female juvenile offenders
also spoke about ACEs more frequently overall.

2.3 Adverse Childhood Experiences and Females

It is critical to think about how such occurrences affect women because the incidence
and severity of ACEs are higher among females than among boys (Smith, 2021). Women are
more likely to experience victimisation and other ACEs than men, therefore these traumatic
events are regarded to be a critical antecedent to their involvement in the criminal justice
system later in life (Cunradi, 2020). The fact that women frequently internalise their
responses to ACEs, especially abuse and trauma, is significant. Substance misuse, suppressed
rage, mental illness, and self-harm are all included in this (Malvaso, 2020).

According to Rossegger (2009), there are both direct and indirect paths through which
how females react to ACEs results in later-life criminal conduct. Major mental health
problems including depression and anxiety, as well as substance misuse, are caused by
trauma and hardship in childhood. Substance misuse and mental health issues including
sadness and anxiety are hence closely tied to ongoing system engagement (Winstanley,
2020). Widom (2021), have discovered a strong correlation between women's drug usage
and both emotional abuse and childhood sexual abuse. The trauma inflicted throughout
childhood increases the likelihood of substance dependence by 1.2 to 1.5 times according to
the study’s findings.

By employing the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) scale, the study by

Levenson et al. (2014), studied the prevalence of early trauma in a sample of American
female sexual offenders. Compared to women in the general population, sex offenders had
odds of verbal abuse that were four times higher, odds of mental abuse, and odds of having a
family member in jail that were all more than three times higher. They also had odds of child
sexual abuse that were more than three times higher. One-half of the female sex offenders
had been the victim of sexual abuse when they were children.

In the study conducted by Mareike et al. (2015), Burundian females with varying
levels of war participation were examined to see how childhood violent experiences, post-
traumatic stress disorder, and appetitive aggressiveness affected their day violent behaviour.
158 women who were either former fighters, army sympathisers, or civilians during the
Burundian civil war participated in semi-structured interviews. The results showed that
former soldiers had more traumatic experiences, had committed more violent acts, and had
greater degrees of arousal aggression compared to supporters and civilians. Compared to
civilians, they also had more severe PTSD symptoms, albeit not as bad as supporters.

Naomi et al. (2012), conducted research on adolescent female offenders in Japan was
undertaken. In addition to 285 comparisons that were age and sex-matched, the participants
included 81 female adolescents who had been admitted to a female juvenile jail institution.
Aggression, sadness, and low self-esteem all had a substantial correlation that was supported
by the data. The female juvenile offenders' self-esteem was also the subject of a route
analysis using structural equation modelling, which revealed a straightforward model
diagram.

Francisco et al. (2019), analysed the frequency and strength of the connections
between ACEs, social support, and depressive affective states in a sample of jailed women. A
poll of 147 women who were being held in two jails in Spain produced the data. Along with
their self-reported levels of social support and mental health, survey questions allowed
participants to disclose how emotionally, physically, and sexually victimised they were as
children. A number of research revealed that compared to non-victimized female convicts,
female inmates who reported ACEs had greater levels of sadness, anxiety, and stress as well
as lower levels of social support.

2.4 Adverse Childhood Experiences and Criminal Behaviour

Kazeem (2020), explored how socioeconomic position and unfavourable childhood

experiences affected criminal behaviour. Examining the impact of educational attainment on
criminal behaviour. In  Agodi Correctional Centre in Ibadan, Nigeria, he randomly chose 253
convicts, and they each received a standardised self-report questionnaire. With a mean age of
30, the participants' ages varied from 20 to 53. According to the findings, 62 prisoners were
found guilty of armed robbery, 55 were found guilty of online fraud, 47 were found guilty of
property-related offences, and 35 were found guilty of murder. The results showed that
diverse childhood experiences significantly predicted criminal behaviour both independently
and jointly.

Pereira (2022), conducted a study in which after taking into account variations in sex,
age, and nationality, he examined the relationship between ACEs and criminal behaviour in
young individuals living in ten countries on five continents. In 10 countries, a total of 3797
young adults between the ages of 18 and 20 were assessed regionally in community settings.
The research revealed that domestic drug use, physical assault, and sexual assault were all
independently and globally linked to a variety of crimes, spanning both sexes and countries.
Additionally, three out of every five instances of home dysfunction were linked to criminal
activity.

Socia (2015examined how a sample of 740 sexual offenders' arrest

patterns was affected by adverse childhood experiences (ACE). It is possible that the
accumulation of early trauma enhanced the chance of adaption and persistence of criminal
activity because higher ACE scores were associated with a range of arrest outcomes. Rapists
who preyed mostly on adults had stronger perseverance, less specialisation, and better ACE
scores than sex offenders who preyed mostly on juveniles. Domestic violence in the
childhood home, emotional neglect, and child sexual abuse were all significant predictors of a
higher probability of sex crime arrests.

Duin (2020did a research in which he collected data on 692 multi-problem young

individuals, ageing between 18–27, on their self-reported ACEs, criminal history, and quality
of life. According to the findings, there is a connection between a lengthy criminal history,
both non-violent and violent recidivism, and a lack of involvement in employment or
education when a person is still a young adult. However, neither recidivism nor the quality of
one's education or career was associated with this. In contrast, having more ACEs was
connected to a lower quality of life later in life. These results underline once more that a
person's criminal history is a reliable indicator of their propensity to commit crimes in the
future, especially among this population of young people with many issues. Even in those
who already have various challenges in their lives, adverse childhood experiences have been
shown to have long-term negative effects on quality of life.

Taea et al. (2020), examined the correlation between serious criminality and three
types of childhood maltreatment in 2,520 convicted delinquents from a big Southern state,
taking into account the cumulative effects of exposure to chaotic families. In certain models,
dysfunctional families and physical, sexual, and emotional abuse had different effects on
homicide, sexual, and significant person, or property offences; these effects were exclusively
shown in whites, Hispanics, or African Americans. Inconsistent families and a history of
sexual abuse, on the other hand, were positively connected to sexual offences but adversely
related to other severe misbehaviour in all models.
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