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UNIT

Concept and Scope of


Educational Technology
 Niradhar Dey 1
Introduction
This is the age of information technology. The use of science and technology can be seen everywhere
in our daily lives. Science and technology has been instrumental in bringing efficiency, improvement
and perfection in the process and product of human work. In case of teaching-learning it also
makes it more comprehensive and simple and helps to display more information in a lesser time
while making the process more interactive. Educational technology (ET) in the wider sense includes
the development, application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids in the field of learning
and teaching. The shape of future schools, colleges, and universities is bound to change radically
due to technological impact in the years to come. There are hardly any areas left, where you do
not feel the necessity as impact of technology.
Since this is the first unit of this course, we will make an attempt at understanding the concept and
nature of educational technology. This unit will also help you to understand hardware, software,
and systems approaches to educational technology. The scope of educational technology is another
important learning point in this unit which will help you to understand Units 2 and 3 of this Block.
Let us now consider the major learning outcomes of this Unit.

Learning Outcomes

After going through this unit, you should be able to:


 discuss the concept of educational technology;
 discuss the scope and importance of educational technology in the teaching-learning process;
 differentiate hardware, software, and systems approach to educational technology;
 classify different educational technologies;
 explain various aspects of educational technology; and
 discuss the possible applications of ET in your teaching, learning and training.

Concept of Educational Technology


You, as a practitioner should be using technology in your workplace to make your presentations
more effective and communicative. But, for most people, the term ‘educational technology’ is
associated only with the equipment and with the hardware, which is used, viz. over head projector
(OHP), television, computer etc. However, the concept of educational technology should not be
confused with the electronic gadgetry; it has a wider meaning, as wide as education itself. By this,
it means that educational technology is concerned with the design and evaluation of the curriculum

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Introduction to Educational Technology

and learning experiences provided within and outside the classroom, and also with the problems
of implementing it. Technology has been a part of any learning process from the beginning, whether
it was writing instruments, printed books, or audio-visual media.
Let us understand the meaning of the term ‘educational technology’ by splitting it into ‘Education’
and ‘Technology’. Technology refers to the systematic application of techniques and principles
of science to achieve an objective effectively and efficiently. ‘Technology’ is that branch of advanced
scientific study which involves highly designed and sophisticated engineering software and
hardware. It deals with the application of knowledge for practical ends. Technology results in
new designs and devices to improve human productivity. Education is the process of modification
of behaviour, socialization, social efficiency, acculturation, and adjustment to the environment,
harmonious and all round development of the human personality. Hence, educational technology
is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating,
using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. As a field of study,
educational technology emphasizes communication skills and approaches to teaching and learning
through the judicious use and integration of diverse media. Practitioners in educational technology
seek new and effective ways of organizing the teaching-learning process through the best possible
application of technological developments. These activities rely upon a body of knowledge for
successful and ethical implementation, rather than as routine tasks or as isolated technical skills.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.1

“Technology is more than computers and networks”. Justify it by providing its uses in any
one area of human activity. Write in about 75 words.

There have seen a number of definitions of educational technology which have been provided by
researchers and scholars over the years. Let us go through them to get a better understanding of
the term “educational technology”.
- Educational technology offers the means to reach large numbers in remote and
inaccessible areas, remove disparity in educational facilities available to the
disadvantaged, and provide individualized instruction to learners conveniently suited
to their needs and pace of learning (NPE, 1986).
- Educational technology is a communication process resulting from the application of
scientific methods to the behavioural science of teaching and learning. This
communication may or may not require the use of media such as television broadcasts,
radio, cassettes etc. (UNESCO, 2001).

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Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

- Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and
improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological
processes and resources (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008).
- Technology means the systematic application of scientific knowledge to practical tasks.
Therefore, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge drawn from
different disciplines (communication, education, psychology, sociology, philosophy,
artificial intelligence, computer science, etc.) plus experiential knowledge drawn from
educational practice. Educational technology aims to improve education. Technology
should facilitate learning processes and increase performance of the educational
system(s) as it regards to effectiveness and/or efficiency. Educational technology is
the use of technology to improve education. It is a systematic, iterative process for
designing instruction or training used to improve performance. Educational technology
is sometimes also known as instructional technology or learning technology (wikipedia,
2012).
In the light of the concept of ET discussed above, we may conclude that educational technology
is the systematic application of science and technology in the field of education. Science is search
for profound knowledge. Scientists investigate the world around us. They observe how things
work and based on this, develop ideas about ways to make them work better. Sometimes they
try to test an idea as to find out how things work or do not work. The knowledge thus discovered
is useful for many things that we do in our day to day life. It can help to build new machines,
develop new medicines or cure diseases. Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to create
new things. ET is based on the systems approach to education: the input, output and the process.
It directs both the teachers and learners to formulate learning objectives, and to develop
appropriate strategies of teaching and learning evaluation techniques. It helps in providing efficiency
to the task of teaching and learning and facilitates effective communication between teachers and
students. By now you would appreciate that educational technology is not merely confined to the
use of audio-visual aids, software and hardware, nor is it limited to the use of the psychological
principles and instructional theories, for bringing change in the teaching-learning process. It has a
much broader scope. To conclude ET is:
 a science of using technology in education through which educational goals can be achieved;
 a mechanization of educational process in three phases of human knowledge i.e. preservation,
transmission, and development of knowledge; and
 an attempt to use technology developed by using scientific principles, for making education,
productive and meaningful.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.2

Analyze the various definitions of educational technology (given above), and summarize
in points.

7
Introduction to Educational Technology

The characteristics of educational technology are closely linked with its concept of educational
technology. Let us discuss its important characteristics given below.
Modern discipline: Educational technology is a rapidly developing modern discipline that is
ready to face the challenges of the near future. For example, we can actually deal in real time
synchronous feeling (sharing of a two way communication online and getting feedback instantly)
by using technology in education, The world over many institutions of higher learning have started
using information and communication technologies, such as the internet, web-based learning,
online learning etc.
Based on scientific advancement: The growth of educational technology depends on the
developments in the field of science. It involves the adoption of scientific and technological
innovations and inventions to solve problems confronted by the education sector. Advancement
in scientific knowledge produces more and more sophisticated electronic devices.
Improving the educational system: Educational technology locates the problems in the field
of education, finds remedy and ultimately aims at improving the educational system. It facilitates
effective communication between the teachers and students, in order to accomplish learning
objectives.
Based on research: ET makes use of the research findings of psychology, sociology,
engineering, physical sciences and social psychology among others, and applies the same to the
field of education.
Practical discipline: ET applies technical knowledge systematically to the field of education
to attain the objectives of practical goals. It provides hands-on experience to both the teachers
and the learners.
Effective classroom management: The application of a variety of educational technologies to
classroom teaching and learning is both effective and efficient in terms of time effectiveness,
systems approach, and attainment of objectives both by the teachers and the taught.
Mass communication media: Educational technology has the potential to impart education
and training to large masses with varied backgrounds in terms of education, socio-economic
status, language competencies, location, etc.
A means: Educational technology is a means to achieve an end but is not an end in itself. Better
classroom performance is a product or output or an end in an educational process, but the
treatment provided to the students in terms of using educational technologies in the teaching-
learning process may be the ‘means’ for it.
Wider scope: As we have discussed earlier, the scope of educational technology is not only
confined to the use of technological gadgets in education rather, it includes the development,
application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids in the field of learning. The scope of

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Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

educational technology encompasses educational objectives, selection of media and resources,


management of resources, etc. thus, ET is a dynamic, progressive and effective tool in the hands
of teachers, students, and educational administrators.
New conceptions are possible only due to such educational technologies as computer, e-learning,
mobile learning, online learning, spread of synchronous experiences etc.
Placement: Educational technology accepts the ‘school’ as a system. In this system, the school’s
infrastructure such as, the building,, furniture and teachers act as inputs while various methods,
techniques, strategies, teaching and examination (all with the help of audio-visual aids) function in
the form of a process. Lastly, the output is in the form of the capability of the pupils.
Engineering technology is used largely in the manufacturing sector that produces radios, CD
players, tape records, CDs/DVDs, video-tapes and the television. Even though all these audio-
video gadgets are used in the teaching-learning process, engineering technology is different from
educational technology. These aspects of engineering technology are accepted as the hardware
approach in education. In education, the stresses lie equally on software technology which makes
the hardware meaningfully useful. Suitable programming makes educational technology both
productive and efficient.
Some teachers feel that educational technology will replace the teacher. It is simply a myth.
Educational technology cannot replace the teacher. Largely because of three aspects of educational
technology; input, process and output. The teacher has a crucial role to play in order to achieve
the desired learning outcomes with the support of educational technology.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.3

1. Define educational technology in your own words.

2. “Educational technology cannot replace the teacher”. Discuss in about 100 words.

9
Introduction to Educational Technology

Technologies in Teaching and Learning


As technology has changed over the years, so, too, has its importance in the teaching and learning
process. Educational technology performs two important functions - communication and
information storage and these functions have evolved from the pre-mechanical to the mechanical
and to the electronic and now digital forms. You can understand it by observing Figure 1.1 given
below:

Figure 1.1: Information and communication technologies: Pre-mechanical, mechanical, electronic, and
digital era

(Source: Katherine, John & Peggy, 2010, P.4)

Digital information communication technologies have become more accessible to the general
public these days. In the pre-mechanical era, teachers used real objects and face-to-face
communication with their students to describe the past, explain the present, and encourage thinking
about the future. In that era neither technologies nor its products were used extensively in
educational settings.
At the time of the mechanical era, it became possible to produce technological products in a
large scale. The printing press was handy as it solved many difficulties that teachers faced in
retrieving and using information over an extended period of time. Storing and retrieval of
information could become easy for teachers, students, and the general public at large. During that
era, books were the new information technologies.
During the electronic age availability of and accessibility to technological devices increased even
further. The use of phonograph, radio, and television increased opportunities for communication.
These technologies proved to be valuable tools for teaching and learning.
In the digital era, more sophisticated communication tools were developed. Word processors,
digital cameras, e-mail, cellular phones, and an array of information and communication tools
were developed. High power storage, retrieval systems and software became more accessible
to the educational sectors. For example, you might access your textbooks through online
databases or websites, or listen to entire books as audio files on your MP3 player. Further
modern technologies came to be used in professional practices such as providing lifelong learning
opportunities, promoting creativity and innovation, assessing students’ instructional needs,
evaluating their performances, encouraging the equitable use of existing resources, as well as
facilitating professional growth and leadership through the effective use of digital tools and
resources. In this process of development, the use of the computer for a variety of purposes is
also remarkable. Let us summarize it in a tabular form.

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Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

Table 1.1: Computer technology in the teaching-learning process

First Phase: The computer as an object of study


1977, Apple II is First micro computer brings computing from the scientific,
introduced mathematical domain to the home, school, and work settings.
1981, IBM releases IBM releases DOS-based computers and coins the term PC,
the first PC or Personal Computer, the new concept in computer
technology.
1982, Educational The computer is named Time Magazine’s “Person of the
software introduced Year,” the individual who has had the greatest impact on
and emphasis made world events during the year. Drill and practice educational
on education software programme predominate. Computer literacy and
learning about technology begins. New academic courses
started in different universities.
Second Phase: The computer as programming tool
1983, Logo Logo programming gains acceptance in education in an
Programming attempt to address higher-order thinking and problem-
Language solving skills in students
TCP/IP, SMTP, Standardized communications language, TCP/IP, enables
FTP, HTTP communication between computers via network – the internet
for the “common man” is born.
1984, Macintosh Apple’s Macintosh introduces the terms “desktop” and
“icon” into everyday language and ushers in more variety in
educational software.
1987, Hypertext Hypermedia becomes readily accessible with the distribution
of Hyper-Card software on Macintosh computers.
1990, Multimedia Multimedia PCs are developed; simulation software and
boom gaming grow in popularity and complexity; educational
databases and other types of digital media are available on
CD-ROMs.
Educational Learning programming languages and using “programmed
Emphasis instruction” such as drill and practice software.
Third Phase: Computer as a communication device and resource tool
1991, WWW is born; The release of Mosaic, a browser with a graphical user
1993, Mosaic interface (GUI), changes the look of internet communication.
released “Suffering the web” becomes common place. This heralds a
new frontier in website development, with an abundance of
educational sites for children. Microsoft releases the
Windows 95 operating system.

11
Introduction to Educational Technology

1996, First Ed Tech Local Area Network (LAN) used in local area schools and is
Plan, digital connected to the internet. Information literacy: Learning with
explosion computers. Educational goals emphasize the acquisition of
computer hardware and the development of network
infrastructure. Technology tools grow at an exponential rate
and become faster, smaller, and more powerful. Digital
music, pictures, audio, video-the applications of this new
wave of technology – are virtually limitless.
Fourth Phase – The computer as a learning and social tool
Web 2.0 Teachers and students move from being consumers to
becoming creators of online content using wikis, blogs, and
other social networking tools.
Educational ICT literacy: foundation information, communication, and
emphasis productivity skills may remain similar while tools will
continue to change. Technology will be a tool for solving
educational problems.

(Source: Katherine, John & Peggy, 2010, P.11)

Computer as a learning and social tool

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.4

How can a computer be used as a learning and social tool? Conduct a survey in your area
and prepare a report in about 500 words.

Approaches to Educational Technology


In the previous section, you studied about the concept and characteristics of educational
technology. By now, you should have understood the concept of educational technology. The
discussion made so far will also help you understand the approaches of educational technology.
Let us now discuss the various approaches to educational technology. Educational technology
may be classified into two categories based on “applicability and approach”. Each category can
further be divided as follows:

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Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

On the basis of applicability


There are three applicability based approaches to educational technology. They are:
 teaching technology;
 instructional technology; and
 behavioural technology.
On the basis of approach
There are three types of educational technology on the basis of approaches. They are:
 hardware approach;
 software approach; and
 systems approach.
Let us discuss the types of educational technology on the basis of its applicability. We shall take
up the approach-based explanation to educational technology in the next section. In Table 1.2
you will see the difference between teaching technology, instructional technology, and behavioural
technology which you apply during the teaching-learning process.
Table 1.2: Types of educational technology based on its applicability

Parameter Teaching Technology Instructional Behavioural


Technology Technology
Exponents Herbart Morrison, Hunt, Skinner, Glaser, Crowder, Skinner, Flanders,
Davies, Gage, Gagne, Mager, Gilbert, Ausbel Amidon, Anderson
Brunner and Glaser
Objectives Development of cognitive, Development of cognitive Development of
affective, and psychomotor domain cognitive, affective,
domain and psychomotor
domain
Components Emphasis on content and Emphasis on structure of Communication is the
communication content. content, its organization more important
Teacher and students are and presentation. Students component. Both
major components are the more active students and teachers
component are active in the
process of interaction
Place of Manager Helper Secondary
Teacher
Foundations Philosophical, sociological, Psychological and Psychological and
psychological, and scientific scientific principles of
base cybernetics
Content Theories, models, strategies, Task analysis, objectives, Theory of teacher
planning, organizing, and reinforcement strategies behaviour, models,
controlling of teaching and criterion test observation technique,
analysis and
modification of
teacher behaviour

13
Introduction to Educational Technology

Significance Development of teaching Development of Development and


theory and making teaching instructional theory, modification of
effective & purposive making instruction teacher behaviour, and
effective and goal producing effective
oriented teachers
Types Memory, understanding, and Linear, Branching, Micro-teaching,
reflective levels of teaching Programmed instruction Simulated teaching,
and Mathetics and Interaction
analysis
Applications Making class teaching Self-instruction, Teacher training and
effective and purposeful Correspondence teacher education,
education, and remedial producing effective
teaching teachers

(Source:Walia, 1997, pp. 118-119)

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.5

Analyze the above table and justify which technology(ies) will you use in your classroom?

Let us examine different types of educational technology on the basis of approach. We shall
begin with the approach-based classification of educational technology.
i) Technology in Education: Hardware Approach
Technology in education is also known as the hardware approach to educational technology
because it is concerned with electronic gadgets such as television, radio, language labs, teaching
machines, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV), motion picture, epidiascope and various other
projected media such as slides and Liquified Crystal Display (LCD) projectors which are used
to teach learners. Technology in education includes tangible aspects of technology as the application
of principles of physical sciences and engineering in the development of electro-mechanical
equipment used for instructional purposes. By using hardware devices teachers can deal with
larger group of students to discourse on teaching-learning experiences. Silverman (1968), called
this technology ‘relative technology’ which refers to borrowing and to applying technology,
machines, and devices in the process of teaching and learning.
ii) Technology of Education: Software Approach
The approach to educational technology involves a systematic, scientific application of appropriate
scientific research, both from the physical sciences as well as, from the social sciences particularly
from psychology and sociology, in order to solve a problem. Here, it is important to understand
that technology of education emphasizes on the techniques of teaching and learning derived from
the principles, ideas, and practices drawn from various fields of knowledge such as; psychology,
sociology, philosophy, management, cybernetics, etc. in order to optimize the teaching-learning

14
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

process. It refers to the application of teaching-learning principles towards directing and shaping
of behaviour. It is closely associated with the modern principles and theories of teaching, instruction,
teacher behaviour and principles of programmed learning. It is characterized by task analysis,
stating objectives in clear terms, selection of appropriate teaching strategies, reinforcement for
correct responses, and continuous evaluation. Silverman (1968), called this ‘constructive
educational technology’. It concentrates on the analysis, selection and construction of whatever
is necessary to meet the educational needs of the learners.
Having talked about both the hardware and software approaches, we shall now examine the
interdependence of these two approaches on each other. One without the other is incomplete. It
is the software approach that makes the hardware function and without the use of software,
hardware alone would have little or no value; for example; a CD burner is not useful without the
burning software. A scanned text document can only be manipulated with the use of optical
character recognition (OCR) software in order to convert it and to turn into an editable text.
Similarly, some software are redundant without appropriate hardware. Communications software
(e.g. FTP, phone dialler) are of no use without matching internet or phone connections. A file
manager is of no use without some sort of storage medium to manage. Some games will not run
properly without specified graphics or a sound card.
iii) Systems Approach to Educational Technology
The systems approach is an effective approach of educational technology. You know that teaching-
learning is a complex process and systematic planning is necessary to achieve pre-fixed objectives.
To streamline the teaching-learning process we use the systems approach which is concerned
with systematic planning, designing, construction and evaluation of the education system. Systems
approach is applied to develop, implement and evaluate the educational system, sub-system,
and curriculum or, for designing an individual lesson. If hardware can be said to form the body of
a computer system, then software is its mind. Software refers to computer programs, procedures
and documentation that perform certain tasks on a computer system. The four elements of the
systems approach are; input, process, output, and analysis & feedback. Let us discuss, how
these elements function together to make the education system more productive. See figure 1.2

ANALYSIS AND FEEDBACK

Discussion on the whole system, analyse the output, both


teachers and students are involve in feedback, decision may
be taken to revise it in case output is not up to the mark

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT


Students, Teachers, Teaching-learning practices, Product from the system in terms
Administrators, Curriculum, laboratory work, library, of student’s achievement,
Instructional Materials recreation, fieldwork, Co- performance in all the activities
curricular activities etc. both from scholastic and co-
scholastic areas

Figure 1.2: Parameters of a System

15
Introduction to Educational Technology

Input, process, and output components are part of educational technology which has been
discussed under aspects of educational technology.

Write programme Select teaching Evaluate


objectives methods and media

Student involvement
activities

Feedback

Figure 1.3: System Approach to Teaching Model (SAT)


[Source: Smith, 1991]

In the light of the above figures 1.2 and 1.3 and discussion it can be concluded that the systems
approach is concerned with the systematic planning, designing, construction and evaluation of
the education system. It is applied to develop, implement, and evaluate various aspects of the
education system, and sub-system. It is a problem solving method, analyzing the educational
process, and making it more effective. The purpose of the systems analysis is to create an enabling
learning environment for both teachers and students.
Let us discuss the key points of the systems approach used in education:
 System is a complex whole, a set of things working together as a mechanism or
interconnecting network.
 A system is an arrangement of components/elements so related or connected as to form a
unity or organic whole. It is a regular, orderly way of doing things. Schools are viewed as a
social system. Instruction / teaching is considered to be a sub-system within the social
system of the school. Classroom, faculty, student etc. are other sub-systems of a school.
 Education is considered to be a complex organization of technical, managerial and institutional
systems. It has three parts; instructor, learner, and objectives of instruction.
 The systems approach to education, thus, considers education as an input-output system.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.6

Analyze Figure 1.2 and prepare a note to explain how input, process, output, and analysis
& feedback work as effective aspects of the systems approach to educational technology.

16
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

To sum up what has been discussed so far and to arrive at an understanding of the systems
approach to education, let us take a simple example: “computer which is a system has many
components such as, the Central Processing Unit (CPU), monitor, printer, etc.; all these
components have to work coherently to perform a task effectively. Therefore, a systems approach
is the systematic effort to coordinate all the components of interacting systems to achieve the
specific objectives. The systems approach in general includes the steps shown as a flow chart in
figure 1.4

Steps in the System Approach


Identify the task or the problem

Analyze the situation

Arrange for good management

Identify the objectives


(State the terminal objectives. Also state the enabling objectives needed. Specify performance
measures)

Specify the materials and methods to be used


(Specify alternatives)

Construct a prototype or programme design


(for instruction and evaluation)

Test the prototype design


(with a sample group)

Analyze the result

Implement and recycle


Figure 1.4: Flow Chart Showing Steps in System Approach

17
Introduction to Educational Technology

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.7

Identify a problem in your teaching subject and prepare and practice a suitable system
approach as stated in Figure 1.4.

Management Technology
Management technology focuses on management of the teaching-learning processes. It helps in
using appropriate educational resources - both human and physical, including planning,
programming, budgeting, management, decision making, operational research system analysis
etc., for effective implementation of the teaching-learning process. Management technology
provides useful models, information systems and organization theory for man-machine systems.

Planning Technology
Planning technology helps in reducing extra expenditure, time and energy and thus, increases the
cost benefit of the educational system. It is concerned with the planning of the teaching-learning
process. It starts from the preparation of teaching materials by teachers and ends with the evaluation
of students’ performance. Planning technology plays a significant role in the transacting of teaching-
learning instructions to students.
Though we discuss the management and planning technology separately, they are part of the
systems approach. An effective systems approach includes both the aspects of management and
planning. The systems approach tells us how to teach students so that they are able to achieve
their learning objectives efficiently. Figure 1.2 and 1.3 can help you understand, how the
management and planning components are effectively inbuilt into the systems approach
methodology.

Activity 1 1.8
ACTIVITY

1. Differentiate between the significance of teaching, instructional, and behavioural


technology in educational technology.

18
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

2. Differentiate between the hardware and the software approach of educational


technology?

3. How is the systems approach useful in education?

Classification of Educational Technology


In this section, you will study Edgar Dale’s cone of experience which is a part of both the
hardware and the software approaches to educational technology and the classification on the
basis of the senses that are stimulated by educational technologies. For understanding these
classifications conceptual clarity on the different approaches of educational technology is essential
and you have already learnt about these in the preceding sections. Let us focus on classification
of teaching-learning aids given by Edgar Dale.

read
hear

see

Figure 1.5: Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience


(Source: Principles of Teaching, Bloomsburg University, Spring 2003)

19
Introduction to Educational Technology

The figure 1.5 clarifies that all the taxonomies of educational objectives: cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor, have been inbuilt in the hierarchy (see Figure 1.5). Towards the right it starts from
reading at the top of the pyramids and ends with the do the task at the bottom. It has been
arranged from the lowest to the highest experience and accordingly has covered learning outcomes
from acquiring knowledge aspects to evaluation. Again, towards the left, it has maintained in
hierarchy the remembering percentage of content taught from the lowest at the top to the highest
at the bottom. Use of higher level teaching-learning aids results in better remembering. Both the
hardware and software approaches use Edgar Dale’s classification of the use of the aids to
teaching and learning.
For better understanding of Dale’s classification of educational experiences, let us discuss the
taxonomies of educational objectives suggested by Benjamin S. Bloom.

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Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

Figure 1.6: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives


21
Introduction to Educational Technology

Figure 1.6 discussed the action verbs recommended for stating specific instructional objectives
in behavioural terms in Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. In Dale’s Cone of
Experience, learning outcomes are arranged from lowest to highest order, that is from knowledge
to evaluation objectives and more critically all the behavioural aspects of Bloom’s taxonomy, i.e.
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor behavioural aspects. When we critically analyse Figure
1.6, find that the action verbs presented clearly represents Dale’s model.

Activity 1 1.9
ACTIVITY

Analyse the ten (10) points hierarchy of Edgar Dale’s classification of teaching-learning
aids. Discuss, how Dale’s model follows Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

The first classification of educational technology is purely based on the use of teaching-learning
aids. Let us discuss the most widely used classification which has been prepared on the basis of
senses that are stimulated by educational technologies.
Table 1.3: Classification of Educational Technology

Classification Specification
Visual (verbal) Print or Textbook / Supplementary book, Reference book,
Duplicated Encyclopaedia, Magazine, Newspaper, Documents and
Clippings, Duplicated written material , Programme
learning material and self-instructional modules, Case
studies (simulating reality) and Case report
Visual (Pictorial) Non- Blackboard writing and drawing, Charts, Posters, Maps,
Projected Two- Diagrams, Graphs, Photographs, Cartoons, and Comic
dimensional Strips
Audio Human voice, Gramophone records, Audio tapes/discs,
Stereo records, Eadio broadcast, Telephonic conversation
Visual Non-Projected Model, mock-up, Diorama, Globe, Relief map, Specimen,
Three-Dimensional Puppet, Hologram
Visual Projected (Still) Slide, Filmstrip, Transparency (OHP), Microfilm, Micro
card, Computer
Audio-visual Projected Motion picture film, Television & close-circuit television,
with Motion Video cassette/disc
(Multisensory)

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Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

Multi-Media Packages Slide + tape + workbook, Radio + slide or posters (Radio


(Multisensory) vision), Film + posters + workbook (print material),
Television + workbook (print materials), Any of the above
+ group discussion, Any of the above + introductory and
summarising talk by teacher / leader of the group
Emerging Media Teleconferencing (group discussion through telephones),
(Multisensory) Cable television (localized television where feedback is
possible), Satellite television / communication satellites,
Computer networking, Video discs, Mini computers /
micro computers / word processors.

(Source: Kulkarni, 1986, pp. 143-144)

Activity 1 1.10
ACTIVITY

How can more than one sense (multisensory educational technology) be effectively used in
the teaching-learning process to teach the topic “National Integration”?

Aspects of Educational Technology


By now you have studied the concept, approaches, and classification of educational technology.
You have understood how educational technology facilitates the teaching-learning process. Let
us now proceed to another concept - aspects of educational technology. The input-process-
output (IPO) is a model which works in almost all systems, in education or as well as other
sectors. The IPO in the teaching learning process means, the inputs we utilise in the teaching
learning process, such as, teachers, students, technical resources, financial aspects, etc. The
process encompasses what we practice in real teaching and learning, it may be methods, media,
pedagogy, feedback, experimentation, expression, observation etc. The output includes the product
of the teaching learning process i.e. achievement of the students, change in behaviour of the
students, problem solving and other difficulties. The IPO aspects of education are shown in
Figure 1.7 and are followed by discussion. You may also wish to refer to ES-361 Block-2 Unit-
4 of the B.Ed. Programme.

23
Introduction to Educational Technology

Input Process Output

Target students, human Teaching-learning Students whose performance


resources, technical process or ideas have improved in
resources, financial specific areas
resources, information

Figure 1.7: Aspects of Educational Technology


According to Figure 1.7, you may consider educational technology in three different aspects: i.e.
input, teaching-learning process and output.
Broadly input involves targeting students with human, technical, and financial resources. It includes
the following points:
 Entry behaviour of the students;
 Previous knowledge and abilities of the students and level of motivation;
 Comprehension level of the learners; and
 Availability of and skills for use of information and communication technologies.
Output consists of the change in behaviour or performance of the target groups. It includes the
following points:
 implies primarily the terminal behaviour of the learners;
 identifies the characteristics of content;
 clarifies the objectives achieved through content;
 analyses the stimuli; and
 determines the characteristics of students’ desired activities.
The middle aspect of educational technology is the process. Organisation of the teaching-learning
process is the major work in the system of educational technology. It provides unique experiences
to the learners. Let us highlight the important aspects in the stage of the teaching-learning process.
The process aspects:
 involves the means and devices of learning experiences;
 creates situation for presenting the subject matter systematically;
 selects and uses appropriate teaching strategies, methods, and techniques for desired learning
structures (for this you may refer to B.Ed. Content Based Methodology courses: ES-341,
342, 343, 344 and 345);
 employs appropriate teaching aids for desired behavioural change;
 identifies and uses suitable communication techniques for the comprehension of the subject
matter;
 involves the skills of teaching and awareness of teaching and training methods;
 uses suitable schedules of reinforcement for effective learning;

24
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

 establishes rapport with students for effective teaching; and


 creates appropriate learning environment.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.11

Select a topic of your interest and prepare a structure of input, teaching-learning process,
and output of that topic.

Scope of Educational Technology


As you know, the scope of any subject depends upon its understanding in a broader connotation.
In the preceding section you have learnt that educational technology is concerned with bringing
improvement in the teaching-learning process. You have also studied that educational technology
is an applied or practical study which aims at maximising educational effects by controlling various
factors such as educational purposes, content, learning environment, teaching materials, behaviour
of students and teachers and interrelation between students and teachers. We have discussed as
to how the hardware and the software approaches can be used to make the educational process
more effective and productive. The scope of educational technology encompasses educational
objectives, the selection and use of media and methods, the management of resources and
evaluation. Let us now evaluate the scope of educational technology.
Table 1.4: Scope of Educational Technology

Scope Functional Specification and Key Points


Analysis of teaching
Teaching Concept of teaching, variables of teaching, levels of
and Learning teaching, phases of teaching, theories of teaching, concept
of learning, relevance of theories of learning, relationship
between teaching and learning, making teaching-learning
more effective
Identification of Educational objectives in terms of behavioural
Educational Objectives specification, fulfilling broad educational objectives in
terms of specific classroom teaching objectives
Development of the Helps to design / construct a suitable curriculum for
Curriculum achieving educational objectives
Development of Development of programme learning material, computer
Teaching-Learning assisted learning material, mass media instruction
Materials material, individualised system of instruction and other
instructional strategies

25
Introduction to Educational Technology

Preparation of Teacher Prepares models of teaching, team teaching, simulated


teaching, micro-teaching, classroom interaction analysis
for developing teacher effectiveness
Teaching-Learning Selection of strategies according to content, use of
Strategies available teaching resources in that strategy,
Audio-Visual Aids Use of projected and non-projected teaching aids in the
teaching-learning situation. Please follow classification of
educational technology by Edgar Dale and multi-sensory
use of teaching-learning aids (discussed earlier).
Utilisation of Hardware Educational technology utilises and studies the resources
and Mass Media suitably use in teaching-learning process. Development of
equipments, instruments, communication devices, and
gadgets with their application in teaching-learning
situation, handling and maintenance, preparation,
selection and cost effectiveness are included in it.
Utilisation of the Sub- Effectively utilises the sub-system of education as input,
System of Education process aspect, and output. Organisation and management
of the system, and specifies the role of man, machine, and
media.
Providing Feedback Develops suitable tools and devices for continuous and
and Control through improved evaluation of the process and product of
Evaluation teaching-learning activities. Provides feedback both for
the teachers and learners.

The ten points given in Table 1.4 make it clear the areas of educational technology. You may have
observed the wide scope of ET? It covers all the models, variables, phases, levels and dimensions
or aspects of the teaching-learning process. It directs the teacher on the science of teaching, the
students on the science of learning, the academic administrators on the skill of managing and
monitoring teaching-learning tasks, and the educational planners on better construction and
transaction of curriculum effectively. Moreover, it particularly advocates for individualised
instruction, group instruction, and mass education through mass media and other means. For this
purpose, we use the radio, television, Films, OHP, slides, LCD projectors, tele-text, computer-
controlled devices, personal computer, and other modern information and communication
technologies.
Besides that, educational technology has also fulfilled many other educational utilities and engages
in far more needs assessment, product evaluation, and research in the areas of educational
development.
The scope of educational technology till the fourth generation of distance education was to some
extent limited. It worked till the early 1990s and was confined to the use of multimedia, telecoms,
audio-video conferencing, PC, NICT, and asynchronous use of recorded materials. The scope
of educational technology became wider in the first and second generations of Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) started from the early 90’s to till date. Sophisticated educational technologies
entered the educational scenario and could provide solution many of the issues in teaching-
learning process. During this time autonomous and self-directed learning, asynchronous and

26
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

synchronous online learning, mobile, e-learning, blended learning, on-campus and web experience
have been highly used. To go into detail about the scope and evolution of educational technology
you may study Figure 2.6 in Unit-2 of this same Block.
Let us discuss the educational technology syllabus of D.Ed. /B.Ed. /M.Ed. proposed by CIET,
NCERT, New Delhi in 2012.
Table 1.5: Educational Technology Syllabi of D.Ed., B.Ed. and M.Ed.

Teacher Contents
Education
Courses /
Programme
D.Ed.  Introduction of Educational Technology: Concept of ET its
scope and approaches, communication, mass teaching
strategies, programme, cooperative, discovery, collaborative
learning, & Open and Distance Education mode.
 Multiple Technologies: Relevance and use: audio, audio-
visual, multi-media, interactive video, internet, web 2.0 tools,
teleconferencing, web conference, adaptive & assistive
technologies for inclusive classroom.
 Evaluation and Feedback: Role of ET in CCE, preparation and
maintenance of a portfolio, CRC, CRT & NRT, Rubrics for
assessment.
 Practices and Challenges of ET: Micro teaching and teaching
skills, reflective teaching, problem solving, simulated
teaching, teaching strategies of multi grade classes, diversified
age group learners, team teaching, action research in ET and
using web 2.0 tools.
B.Ed.  Introduction to ET: Concept, technology in education and
technology of education, learning theories, & ICT.
 Transactional Strategies: Communication, individualised,
personalised, group, and mass educational strategies,
programmed learning, types of programmed material: SIM,
IEP, Text Book, e-course ware, constructivist learning design,
distance and open learning systems.
 Evolution of Educational Media: Educational Radio, TV,
Projected & non-projected aids, storage media, transmission
technology, computer technology etc.
 Role of ET in Evaluation: Role of ET in CCE, portfolio and
electronic portfolio assessment, rubrics and digital rubrics, e-
assessment.
 Practices and Challenges of ET: Micro teaching, teaching
skills, using web 2.0 tools, teaching strategies for multi-grade
classes, diversified age group learners, action research in ET,
technology integration practices in school.

27
Introduction to Educational Technology

M.Ed.  Educational Technology for a Knowledge Society: Concept,


scope, ET, IT, and ICT, historical development of ET,
learning theories as base for development of ET,
interdisciplinary perspectives, web 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0
technologies, contribution of: UNESCO, CEMCA, ISTE,
CIET, IGNOU, NIOS, EMMRC, AVRC, CEC, SIET, etc.
 Transactional Strategies: Communication, interaction
analysis, phases and levels of teaching, learning strategies for
multiple intelligence, programme learning, models of
teaching, SIM, IEP, e-learning, e-content, RLO, OER,
distance and open learning: student support service,
counselling method, evaluation strategies, IGNOU as an Open
Learning System.
 Multiple Technologies, Relevance and uses: Instructional
design, behaviouristic, cognitive, and constructivist
approaches, Smart and virtual classroom, teleconference:
EDUSAT, mass media, interactive video, WBI, CAI, CMI,
use of web 2.0 technology for learning, e-content
development, adaptive and assistive technologies for inclusive
classroom.
 Technology for Management, Research, and Development:
ICT for professional development, ICT and security,
programme evaluation, action research in ET, current trends
and future scenario of ET.

(Source: CIET, NCERT, 2012)

Table 1.5 reveals that, in the teacher education curriculum both the conceptual approach of
educational technology and its practices are included. Teacher education curriculum needs to be
technology oriented and in order to fulfil the needs of the learners, the demands of time need to
be kept in mind. The evolution of new technologies such as, the electronically based information
system has created ample possibilities and has also increased productivity in education. The
possibilities and productivity in education has been made possible by the use of lower cost
educational technologies. As a result of all these innovations, three different functions in the
educational scenario have been developed for accommodating individualisation of educational
practices, integration of technologies in educational practice, and for providing innovation in
education.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.12

1. How does educational technology help in preparing effective teachers?

28
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

2. Differentiate between synchronous and asynchronous learning strategies? How does


it help the learners in modern time?

Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about the concept of educational technology which includes the
meaning, definition and its characteristics. In the beginning of this unit, you learnt how educational
technology is not merely used as a hardware device or engineering gadget in the educational
process. Rather it emphasised many more aspects such as, programming, system approach,
psychological and pedagogical aspects of teaching-learning process. We defined educational
technology, discussed the different types of technology that is encompassed under the umbrella
of educational technology, such as, hardware, software, and systems approach, which is the
meeting point as well as the complementing and supplementing of the hardware and the software
in an organised system to facilitate the teaching-learning process.
We then examined the classification of educational technology, looking at Edgar Dale’s Cone of
Experience and Kulkarni’s classification of educational technology. The use of multi-sensory and
multimedia technology in education was also highlighted closely. The use of input, output, and the
process (IPO) aspect of technology in education was another key learning point of this unit,
which we explained with suitable examples. At the end of this unit, we discussed the scope and
areas of educational technology. Ten different signifying areas and scope of educational technology
have been discussed in this unit, which made you aware of how educational technology plays an
inseparable part in the modern teaching-learning process.
We have also looked at the development of educational technology during the first to the forth
generation of ‘Distance Education’, and during the first - second generation of ‘Open and Distance
Learning’ which will be useful in the understanding of units 2 & 3 of this Block.
References and Suggested Reading
Dale’s Cone of Experience. Principle of Teaching, Bloomsburg University, Spring 2003.
Wikipedia (2012). Educational Technology retrieved on 14.12.2012. http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/
en/Educational_technology.

29
Introduction to Educational Technology

Ellington, H. P. F. and Race, P. (2005). Handbook of Educational Technology, Third Edition,


London: Kogan Page Ltd.
Frant, A.S. (1991). Instructive Instructional Strategies: Ways to Enhance Learning by TV in
Designing for Learner Access: Challenges & Practices, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
IGNOU, (2000). ES-361: Educational Technology, B.Ed. Programme, New Delhi: IGNOU,
pp. 9-11.
IGNOU, (2009) MES-031, Introduction to Educational Technology? New Delhi: IGNOU,
Unit-1, pp. 1-19.
Januszewski, A. and Molenda, (2008) Educational Technology: The Development of a
Concept. Libraries Unlimited.
Katherine S. C., John D. S., and Peggy A. Ertmer (2010). Technology Integration for
Meaningful Classroom Use: A Standard Based Approach. Cennamo Ross Ertmer. Pp.4-11
Kulkarni, S. S. (1986). Introduction to Educational Technology, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co. pp. 143-144.
Kumar, K. L. (1997). Educational Technology: A Practical Textbook for Students, Teachers,
Professionals and Trainers. New Delhi: New Age International.
Mahandiratta, M. (2202). Encyclopaedia Dictionary of Education. Vol. I Sarup & Sons. New
Delhi: p. 252.
Mishra, P. & Koehler, M. J. (2006) Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A
Framework for Integrating Technology in Teacher Knowledge. Teachers College Record,
108(6), 1017-1054.
HRD Ministry, Govt. of India. Report of National Policy on Education (1986).
NCERT, (2012). Proposed Syllabus of Educational Technology and ICT for Teacher Education
Programme. CIET, New Delhi.
Rao, R.R. and Rao, D.B. (2006). Methods of Teacher Training, Discovery Publishing House,
New Dlehi: p. 416.
Sharma, R. A. (2004). Technological Foundations of Education, Third edition, R. Lal
Publications, Meerut
Skinner, B. F. (1968). The Technology of Teaching, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Walia, J. S. (1997). Educational Technology, Paul Publishers, Jalandhar: pp. 104-120.

30
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology

Questions for Critical Reflection

1. Visit a school or any Secondary Teacher Education Institute and make a report on the
change in the use of educational technology over the years.
2. Discuss the objectives of educational technology at both the macro and micro levels of
educational process.
3. Discuss the scope of educational technology in the Indian context relating to global
educational developments and challenges.
4. Explain the role of teacher educators in sensitising trainee teachers on the use of emerging
educational technology.
5. Discuss future perspectives of the use of educational technology.
6. Critically examine the curriculum of Educational Technology and ICT meant for teacher
education programme in different levels at present time.

31
Introduction to Educational Technology

ABBREVIATIONS USED
AVRC : Audio-Video Research Centre
CAI : Computer Assisted Instruction
CBM : Content Based Methodology
CCE : Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
CEC : Consortium for Educational Communication
CEMCA : Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia
CIET : Central Institute of Educational Technology
CMI : Computer Managed Instruction
CRC : Comulative Record Card
CRT : Criterion Referenced Test
EMMRC : Educational Multimedia Resource Centre
ICT : Information and Communication Technology
IEP : Individualised Educational Program
IPO : Input - Process - Output
ISTE : International Society for Educational Technology
LAN : Local Area Network
NIOS : National Institute of Open Schooling
NRT : Norm Referenced Test
OER : Open Educational Resources
RLO : Reusable Learning Objects
SIET : State Institute of Educational Technology
WBI : Web Based Information

32
UNIT
Educational Technology:
Historical Developments
 Santosh Panda 2
 Emergence, borrowing and convergence

 Media and technology developments

 The 1990s

 Educational technology in India

 Future scenario and directions

Introduction
By now, you may have developed a fair understanding of the field of educational technology – its
concept and diversified applications. As you have already noticed, educational technology as a
field encompasses design-development-application-evaluation of education and training systems
and processes at all levels of education and training, and in formal (classroom), non-formal,
adult, continuing, and lifelong education. Simultaneously, it has encompassed a wide variety of
media and technology developments – starting from the traditional audio-visual aids to the current
semantic web and web 3.0, including open source software and social networking tools. Based
on the discussion on its concept and scope, we extend the discussion further in this Unit to trace
its historical developments in forms of its emergence, borrowings from other fields, and convergence
with other disciplines and systems. While doing so, we relate this to the developments in the field
of media and technology (and note that while these developments have blurred the concept, they
have extended the scope of educational technology); draw a parallel with the development of the
field in India; and based on all these, reflect on the future of educational technology in its applications
in teaching and learning and training, and its professional development. We shall draw in the
contents of Units 1 and 2 to explain its applications in teaching, learning and evaluation and
training in Unit 3.

Learning outcomes

After going through this unit, you should be able to:


 trace the historical developments in the field of educational technology;
 relate them to individualized learning, group learning, and training vis-à-vis tremendous
technological developments;
 relate those developments to the Indian context; and
 reflect on the future directions that this field is moving to.

33
Introduction to Educational Technology

Emergence, borrowing and convergence


During the various stages of the development of educational technology, there are phases of its
emergence, its borrowings from other fields, and its contribution to or convergence with other
fields of study. Before we take up these three aspects, it is important to note that in the early
sixties, ET emerged as an occupational category with specialized jobs or field of work; and that
is the phase when ET was formally recognized by many. As you would have seen in Unit 1, the
emergence of educational technology can be traced to ‘audio-visual aids’ and ‘programmed
learning’. Therefore, it is not surprising that many educational technologists owe their origin to
these two fields. The audio-visual movement facilitated student learning within classrooms by
enhancing motivation, attention and other stimuli, and also outside classrooms through mass
media such as, television. On the other hand, the programmed learning movement facilitated
‘individualized learning’ which has so far been the major domain of distance education and other
computer-mediated learning (Panda, 1990). In the following discussion, let’s focus on the four
developments within ET: i) audiovisual aids, ii) instructional technology, iii) individualized learning,
and iv) the systems approach. Following this discussion, we shall expand these four aspects and
include many other developments with in a historical perspective.
i) Audiovisual aids
The beginning of the development of educational technology was the use of various audiovisual(AV)
aids to enhance the quantity and quality of communication so as to facilitate teacher presentation
and student learning. This was intended to increase the accuracy and variety in the presentation
of information. The audiovisual approach emerged in 1928 which later on led to the use of
optical and electronic equipments. This approach combined both hardware and software:
 Hardware: Equipments such as tape recorder, overhead projector (OHP), microcomputer.
 Software: Learning materials, audio programmes, overhead transparencies, computer
programmes.
Though many educators do not consider this aspect to be included at all within educational
technology, many educational technologists argue that the beginning of this field is the audiovisual
aids. The merit of AV aids was that it exemplified both the verbal communication and abstract
learning experiences so that learning experience became more concrete. The demerit was that
teachers used to lay more stress on the audiovisual materials than their usefulness in teaching-
learning. The AV approach may be referred to as ‘technology in education’ (as you have seen in
Unit-1 of this block). During the 1950s, there were developments of communication theories
which were applied to the AV approach to teaching-learning. While earlier the emphasis was on
the product, this new development focused on the process of communication. This resulted in
effective communication through educational television, and later through computer programming.
Therefore, both radio (and audio) and television (and video) had to have principles of design for
learning (or instruction) which differed from the way verbal classroom communication (or teaching)
took place. Subsequent to this, both audiovisual aids and communication processes, combined
with the developments in learning theories, led to the development of the area of instructional
technology and instructional design as discussed here.

34
ET: Historical Developments

ii) Instructional technology


There were gradual developments in various learning theories, starting with ‘behaviourism’ which
applied laboratory experiments to human learning (and teaching-learning). ‘Technology of education’
(as you have seen in Unit 1) was the result of the combined contribution of instructional scientific
research, learning theories, and educational research. Instead of stressing the use of audiovisual
aids, this approach (called ‘instructional technology’) emphasized the intangible aspects of learning
(i.e. the underware aspects) and the techniques of teaching-learning. The technology of education
included hardware, software, courseware, and instructional strategy. Self-instructional strategies
such as programmed learning were developed; and teaching or instruction was designed based
on definite principles of learning theories.
Following the application of physical sciences and engineering technology ‘instructional devices’
were developed; and the application of learning theories led to developments in ‘technology of
learning’. Considerable research took place in the area of the science of human learning, and
their application to the design of teaching-learning strategies (and various media to facilitate
them) – this precisely led to the development of the field of ‘instructional technology’. Later on,
cognitive and constructivist psychologists contributed to this. Cognitivism contributed to the design
for remembering, problem solving, thinking, reasoning; and major contributions came from Piaget,
Glaser (1976), Reigeluth (1979), Merrill (1983). Their research led to serious design for instruction,
instructional strategies, and development of instructional systems/instructional systems design.
The later developments in constructivism (Jonassen, 1991) led to the design on the individual
construction of knowledge and group negotiation of meaning. The developments in Web 2.0 and
social technologies (as we shall see later in this Unit) have significantly contributed to the
constructivist view of learning and enrichment of the quality of individualized learning.
A simple form or process of instructional design is presented in Figure 2.1 in which you will find
that the design of instruction or teaching-learning proceeds with the setting of learning objectives,
development of instructional materials and procedures (i.e. actual teaching-learning), and
assessment and evaluation at the end ( on which feedback is provided to further revise learning
objectives) based on the learner’s style and pace of learning and the teaching-learning processes,
and also an in built mechanism for revisiting also on revise the teaching-learning process itself.

Instructional Instructional
Evaluation
objectives procedures

Feedback

Figure 2.1: Instructional Systems Design

35
Introduction to Educational Technology

In a scholarly work on describing the historical development of instructional technology, Shrock


(1991) has recorded the following chronological developments which will give you a general
idea as to how this field has evolved (especially from the American perspective):
 Pre-1920s: The earlier works of psychologists like E.L. Thorndike provided the base to
how human beings learn and how teaching-learning should be organized, and how assessment
and evaluation (through measurement) should take place.
 1920s: This was the decade of the development of learning objectives, i.e. design of instruction
or teaching-learning based on pre-stipulated learning outcomes. The Dalton plan was
developed, and instructional development was associated with individualized instruction
and mastery learning, and development of self-learning materials.
 1930s: Grounded on the work of R.W. Tyler, there were further refinements in writing of
instructional objectives based on students’ behaviour (which were later termed as behavioural
objectives); the development a alternative curricula and alternative learning resources; and
the emergence of the concept of formative evaluation.
 1940s: In this decade following World War II, there was significant development in
instructional media and technology – especially films and other such instructional materials.
Though the focus/emphasis was more on instructional media (rather than instructional
technology), there was the emergence of the concept of mediated instruction and also the
breed of instructional technologists who were to facilitate the subject-matter experts. This
may be related, for instance, to the need for the trio (subject-matter expert, instructional
designer/ technologist, and the producer) in the production of educational video/television
programmes at BBC-Open University Production Centre in UK and/or the Countrywide
Classroom of the University Grants Commission (UGC) in India.
 1950s: This was the decade of programmed instruction based on the work of B.F. Skinner
relating to operant conditioning. The following steps were clearly devised and categorically
followed in programmed learning: learning objectives, content presented in smaller chunks,
self pacing and individualized progress in learning, self-assessment questions with active
learner response and immediate feedback, and further improvement in the process. The
programmed learning movement contributed to: well designed learning materials, self-pacing
in learning, and mastery learning; and later to task analysis and content analysis. This was
the period when Benjamin Bloom developed the taxonomy of educational objectives which
is being used even today in the context of online learning as well.
 1960s: This was the decade of instructional systems development, especially Robert Glaser’s
instructional system, and Robert Gagne’s conditions of learning. There were further
developments in norm-referenced and criterion-referenced testing. Instructional developers
gained further legitimacy, though their defined profession was contested by media specialists
who claimed to be educational technologists too.
 1970s: This decade was the decade of the recognition of ‘instructional design and
development’ as a profession. Cognitive psychologists contributed immensely to instruction
design and development to this.
 1980s: the 80s saw the advent of microcomputers and rigorous process of instructional
systems development. Due to the emphasis lay on training (especially corporate training),

36
ET: Historical Developments

there was greater focus on performance technology which took into consideration both
instructional and non-instructional aspects to achieve the desired level of performance.
iii) Individualized learning
The area of individualized learning developed from programmed learning onwards, especially,
following the works of B.F. Skinner (1954). This further led to the development of individualized
learning packages, systems of individualized instruction, and system-based instructional models.
Subsequent to these, further research led to developments in mastery learning, Keller’s personalized
system of instruction, modular instruction, individually guided instruction, Knowles’ (1975) learning
contracts, audio-tutorial systems, among others. With the developments and refinements in
computers (especially, personal computers), computer-assisted learning (CAL) has assumed a
significant place in teaching-learning today. The advent of the web, social software (like Wiki)
and social networking (like Facebook) has contributed significantly to computer-mediated
communication (CMC) in the virtual world.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 2.1

At this stage, take a pause, and reflect on the relationship between audiovisual aids and
instructional development on the one hand, and individualized instruction/learning on the
other. That is, in what way the former have contributed to the quality of the latter (i.e. self
learning). You may write about 150 words in the space given below.

iv) Systems approach


The developments in the management sciences contributed to further developments in educational
technology in the mid sixties that resulted in educational systems design and analysis (or, systems
approach to education and training). The systems approach combined audiovisual education,
communications theory, learning theories, developments in media and technology, learning styles,
and teaching-learning contexts. The approach follows an input-process-output model, and various
sub-elements within these. The work of Romiszowski (1974) contributed significantly to this,
and further design and applications of instructional media and instructional systems. For example,
the design of instruction for teaching any topic or concept in any subject area includes: target
population, needs assessment, entry behaviour, learning objectives, course content and instructional

37
Introduction to Educational Technology

strategies, learning experience, assessment evaluation, and feedback – all these form part of a
continuum and move in a cycle towards continuous improvement and change from time to time
so that the teacher’s teaching becomes more effective and student’s learning becomes more
enriching and qualitative. This involves application of systems models which clearly and precisely
record various stages (and activities included in these stages) of analysis, design, development,
implementation, and evaluation of instruction. Various scholars have contributed to the components
of instructional design and development: Rossett for needs assessment, goal analysis by Mager,
task analysis by Merrill, instructional systems design by Romiszowski, media production and
utilization by Heinich, instructional delivery by Clark, and formative and summative evaluation by
Bloom. The present day reforms in curriculum development and instructional design are
contributions from the earlier developments in the systems approach to education and training.
The developmental continuum of the above aspects of educational technology, known as the
Elton Model (given by Lewis Elton in 1977), has been described by Ellington et al (2005) which
is diagrammatically presented in Figure 2.2 and subsequently described.

RESEARCH

MASS DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

USE

RESEARCH

DEVELOPMENT

INDIVIDUALISED
LEARNING USE

RESEARCH

GROUP DEVELOPMENT
LEARNING

USE

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1993

Figure 2.2: Elton Model – Main Concerns of Educational Technology (Historical


Development)
(Source: Ellington et al, 2005)

38
ET: Historical Developments

As given in Figure 2.2, Elton believed that the development of educational technology can be
organized under three broad areas – mass instruction/communication, individualized instruction/
learning, and group learning. Each of these areas has gone through three stages of research,
development, and use. And, this continuum or the cycle continues forever – i.e. in each area
R&D (research and development) is still being conducted which is leading to its improved
application in education and training, and teaching and learning.
Mass instruction is as old as lecture itself, though this was limited to groups of students.
Developments in audiovisual aids (and related hardware and software) during the post-World
War II period led to emergence of television (and also radio which was much before this) as
mass communication and mass instruction technique. The major objective was to reach as many
as possible and also to achieve economy of scale (i.e. less cost per unit or per person). However,
communication based on this technology was one-way, without any possibility of interaction
between the sender and the receivers. Later, the allied development of audio and video technology
and associated programmes facilitated interaction in groups since the control of stop-and-start
facility rested with the teacher. Another development of mass instruction was close circuit television
(CCTV) which facilitated: i) teaching by one teacher and distributed to other classrooms, and ii)
teaching by more than one teacher from different locations to address only one group of students
in one classroom. Another example is cable television network for teaching-learning. The limitation
in this technology was that students remained passive, and also that higher order educational
objectives could not be addressed by this. In spite of these limitations, mass instruction has
expanded further in forms of ‘open and distance learning’ and ‘virtual education’. In case of
the former (which is basically offline), there is increasing use of industrialized system of education
in which there is mass production of learning resources and mass distribution with continuous
learner support at study centres. This facilitated greater access and equity in education (though it
has been argued that ODL has been more oriented to behaviourism and/or instructional
industrialism). On the other hand, virtual education (which is online and is carried out in the
World Wide Web) facilitates large scale/mass education and training, and at the same time provides
for greater interaction among the learning resources, the teacher and the students. If designed
properly, there is every possibility of addressing constructivist learning in online contexts. During
the past few years, this has led to a new strategy of ‘blended learning’ in which online, face-to-
face, and individual self-learning are blended to achieve the highest quality of student learning
experiences.
Individualized learning got a boost only after B.F. Skinner’s contribution to programmed learning
through behaviourism, even if independent study through correspondence education existed earlier
to this. Unlike mass instruction which stressed on access and equity, the focus of individualized
instruction was to facilitate self-learning. The behaviourist psychology put forward the theory of
stimulus-response and feedback in the process of learning, and the conditions that are very
favourable to learning to take place. These conditions were extended by Robert Gagne in his
famous steps of learning. Learning takes place through a chain of stimulus-response situations.
Reinforcement in the form of feedback is provided for learning to happen and to be retained (if it
is positive reinforcement) or to be discarded (if it is negative reinforcement). The small steps of
stimulus-response and concomitant reinforcement resulted in shaping of human behaviour which
was to overtly expressed and assessed to make sure learning has taken place.

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Introduction to Educational Technology

Skinner introduced linear programming in which the content is provided in small chunks (i.e.
stimulus), there is interaction with content (i.e. response), and there is always immediate feedback
in form of right or wrong answer to self-assessment questions. This slow process as also the
recognition of individual differences in learning led to the development of branching programmed
learning in the 1960s. Instead of proceeding in a linear process of interacting with content, this
was provided through various alternative pathways of contents for students to proceed as per
their learning style and pace of learning. There was remedial loop which facilitated correction of
learning misconceptions. This branching programmed learning with multiple or alternative pathways
of learning facilitated computer-based learning in the 1970s. Later developments in self-learning
provided more flexible pathways to study, the use of various access devices, more engaging
activities, and constant interaction with the learning materials, teacher, and fellow students.
With more stress gradually given to the development of self-learning resources in print, audio and
video, a variety of models was developed to facilitate individualized learning at a distance, and
online. The most famous and used theory of learning at a distance was developed by Michael
Moore in 1972 in the name of independent study which is presented in Figure 2.3 below.

Dialogue

Learner
Structure autonomy
+S–D = Limited content negotiation.
 Right balance = depends on educational sophistication of learning and subject content.
 ‘Interaction’ in transactional distance: learner-instructor; learner-content; learner-learner (Moore, 1989);
learner-interface (Hillman et al, 1994).

Figure 2.3: Transactional distance


(Michael Moore: 1977, 1989, 1990)
The theory clearly states that in independent study through distance learning, the learning resources
and instructional strategies should be less structured to allow for accommodation of diversified
learning styles and pace of learning; that there should be constant dialogue with the materials and
human beings (teachers and peers) involved in distance teaching-learning; and given the above
two, these will ensure more learner autonomy or independent study. You will see more on this
aspect in Unit 3 when we discuss the contribution of educational technology to learning. Right
now, if you extend this concept of independent study at a distance to the context of computer-
mediated communication (CMC) and online learning, you will realize that the virtual platform on
the web provides for more interactive content, more audio/video/ multimedia content, more
interaction with the teacher/peers/other learning resources on the web. The semantic web along
with the later developments in open source software and technologies led to the design and
application of personalized learning space online (as you will see in Figure 2.7).
Following the emergence of the phase of mass education, individualized learning continued (and

40
ET: Historical Developments

even continues) to dominate teaching-learning and training strategies. The developments in


interactive multimedia (CD-ROM) boosted independent learning within the classroom (teacher-
guided) and at home (self-learning). In the case of out-of-campus distance learning, independent
study or self-learning assumes considerable significance. The same is the case with online learning
though there is ample opportunity for interaction. In the case of the latest developments in blended
learning through a mix of technologies and delivery modes, there is a flexible mix of independent
learning and interactive learning. However, there was a perceived need for interaction to develop
skills of interaction and leadership as also balanced attitude. Both humanistic psychology (of Carl
Rogers – interaction and learning from each other) and constructivism (i.e. negotiation of meaning
in groups and in-context) significantly contributed to group learning and shaping of group dynamics
in both the face-to-face and the virtual learning contexts. Group learning techniques such as buzz
sessions, seminars, tutorials, simulation and role plays, group projects, self-help groups lays
were emphasis on the approach or the technique rather than technology per se. Even in the
context of online learning, the technological configuration and design facilitate the techniques of
interaction and negotiation.

Activity 1 2.2
ACTIVITY

Based on what you have reflected in Activity 2.1, in this activity you need to extend the
relationship between AV aids and instructional design with individualized instruction to
the context of non-classroom based instruction and learning, especially in the context of
offline distance learning and computer-mediated communication online (i.e. online
learning). You may write down your response within 100 words in the space given below.

The developments of various media and technology have also contributed significantly contributed
to the evolution and application of educational technology.

Media and technology developments


Starting with the developments in audiovisual aids, the evolution of media and technology has
taken place through various stages, especially in reaching the stages of computer-mediated
communication and virtual learning through the semantic web. Let’s first distinguish between
media and technology.
 Media: Technologies carry the media (like text, audio, video, graphics, animation) – the
latter are devices to create and communicate content. For instance, while audio cassette is
a technology, audio programme falls under the category of media.
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Introduction to Educational Technology

 Technology: It refers to tools and systems in a systematic process towards knowledge


creation, dissemination and application. In the case of education and training, technology
shall refer to tools and systems that also address software, rules and procedures and other
systems like LMS. Therefore, audio, video, computer, telecommunications, communication
networks are all technologies which carry the message through one or a combination of
media.
Tony Bates has authentically reported developments in technologies used for teaching and learning
(as given in Table 2.1 for 1500 BC to 1990 AD; and in Table 2.2 for 1990 AD to 2011 AD).
(For a detailed discussion, see his website at http://www.tonybates.com). As you will see, he has
noted teachers as the earliest form of technology through lecturing, which may be termed as
face-to-face media. Starting from print technology, there have been developments in radio and
television, computer, conferencing, and smart board till 1990. Following the 1990s, the
developments led to internet, mobile phones, social software, and cloud computing.
Table 2.1: Technologies for teaching (1500 BC – 1990 AD)
Development Year in general use
Teachers 1500 BC (at least)
Printed book 1450
Postal service 1850
Blackboards (Chalk) 1850
Telephone 1890
Radio 1920
Film 1920
Broadcast television 1950
Cable TV 1950
Audio-cassettes 1965
Computer-based instruction 1970
Satellite TV 1975
Laser video discs 1975
Audio-conferencing 1975
Personal computers 1980
Audio-graphics 1980
Viewdata/Teletext 1980
Computer conferencing (CMC) 1980
Compact discs (CDs) 1985
E-mail 1985
Video-conferencing 1990
Projectors 1990
Smart Board 1990

42
ET: Historical Developments

As noted earlier, activities on the Net (the Web) increased and diversified following the creation
of the semantic web by Sir Bernard Lee and colleague. As noted in Table 2.2, the general use of
the internet along can be stated to have started in 1990, the World Wide Web (WWW) with
simulation and games. Development of web browsers, wireless networks and mobile technology
was put to use in the mid-nineties; followed by e-portfolio (electronic portfolio development and
use) and YouTube (for live storage and play of recorded videos) in mid-2000s. The actual use of
electronic books (including kindle), 3G technology, and cloud computing (and cloud learning) is
a more recent phenomenon.
Table 2.2: Technologies for teaching (1990 onwards)

Development Year in general use


Internet 1990
World Wide Web 1990
Simulations and games 1990
Learning management systems 1995
Browsers/web portals 1995
Wireless networks 1995
Mobile phones 1995
Learning objects/OERs 1995
Fibre optic cables 2000
DVDs 2000
Search engines 2000
Social software 2002
Virtual reality 2003
e-Portfolios 2005
Clickers 2005
You Tube 2005
Lecture capture 2008
e-books 2009
Cloud computing 2010
Learning analytics 2011

As you can see from Table 2.2, the last decade saw technological developments reach the
pinnacle with significant progress in areas of social technologies, social software, and social
networking. Such developments like YouTube, Flicker, Facebook and Twitter transformed the
way people generally communicate, collaborate, network, and socialize/professionalize. The
emergence of cloud computing, data centres, and cloud learning transformed the traditional
bounded learning either within the classroom, or through a network of study centres, or even
through the traditional computer-mediated communication.

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Introduction to Educational Technology

Web 1.0 Web 2.0


Publishing (Britannica Online) Participation (Wikipedia)
Personal websites Blogging
Content management Wikis
Directories (taxonomy) Tagging (folksonomy)
Stickiness Syndication (RSS)
Downloading Uploading
Consumer Prosumer (consumer + producer
Figure 2.4: Comparative Developments in Web
Figure 2.4 depicts the principal changes that have taken place over Web 1.0 when Web 2.0
emerged on the semantic web 1.0 facilitated online publishing, the creation of personal websites,
managing online, downbading multi-media resources, in a owner that enabled us to interact as a
consumer on the Web 2.0 was much ahead of its earlier avtar in that it facilitated collaborative
content/knowledge creation, creation of own blogs (for reflective discourse) in place of websites,
wikis for collaborative creation of anything (in place of managing content), and the user became
both consumer and producer (i.e. prosumer) in place of the earlier role as simply consumer. Just
like that ‘citation’ today is more important than refereed journal publishing, similarly saying something
authentic and reflective through Blogs is more important than just displaying on the website.
________________________________________________________________
S oc ial Networking T ec hnolog ies
_______________________________________________________________

D is tributed, participatory, c ollaborative, B logs , moblogs , wikis , podc as ts ,


open, s tudent-c entred, c ons tructivis t, vodc as ts , R S S feeds , s earch
s ocial learning eng ines , mobile learning, intellig ent
publis hing , etc .

S oc ial s oftware, open s oftware, open C ommunic ation over Internet


educ ation res ourc e, s ocial networking P rotoc ol (C IP )
T ext + V oic e + Video
Internet

C ellphone P D As C omputers

Figure 2.5: Social Networking and Social Technologies


The discussion above with reference to Figure 2.4 may be further extended with reference to
Figure 2.5 which specifies various technologies, the social networking, and the reality that the
internet can connect to the mobile phone, the PDAs, and the personal computers. Most of the
social software which support community practice are generally open source (i.e. at least, free
of cost), and social software support social networking and the current movement towards open

44
ET: Historical Developments

education resource (OER) – resources which are collaboratively created and used by all under
the Creative Commons License (the legal mechanism to support the copyright/intellectual property
rights).

Models of dis tance education delivery

• E xamination preparation model (Univers ity of L ondon, UK )


• C orres pondenc e educ ation model (Univers ity of S outh Africa)
• G roup dis tanc e educ ation model (C R T VU, C hina; University
of the Air, J apan)
• L earner c entred model (E mpire S tate C ollege, S UNY , US A)
• Multiple mas s media model (UK O U; IG NO U)
• Network-bas ed dis tanc e educ ation model (F ernUniversitat,
G ermany; UK O U; S UNY )
• T ec hnolog ic ally-extended c las s room teac hing m odel
(Univers ity of Maryland University C ollege, US A)
• Virtual univers ity m odel (University of P hoenix O nline, US A)

[Peters, O. (2003). ‘Models of open and flexible learning in distance education’. In


S. Panda (Ed.), Planning and Management in Distance Education. London/
New York: RoutledgeFalmer.]

Figure 2.6: Evolution of Distance Education Technologies


These above developments in software, technology and resources (i.e. teaching-learning resources
have been largely utilized by the currents developments in open and distance learning, vis-à-vis
online learning, and in its current formulation of what is called ‘blended learning’ as shown in
Figure 2.6 above in the precious page (please clock during formatting and preparation of CRC).
The first generation of distance education started with correspondence courses in the late 19th
century, which has passed through several stages; the second generation of multimedia and open
university; the third generation of conferencing, group learning and learner support; the fourth
generation of developments in telecommunications and convergence of technologies (broadcasting,
telecommunication, and computing), and the beginning of the first generation of online learning;
and the second generation of blended learning (web, on-campus, synchronous and asynchronous,
social technologies, open source software, open education resources). All through these
developments, we can still find the existence of each generation in one or the other country or
institution today. Due to the tremendous R&D efforts during the current generation, the web has
facilitated the provision of personal learning spaces that is crucial for individualized learning styles
within the learning community the web (Figure 2.7).

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Introduction to Educational Technology

Steve Wheeler, 2011

Figure 2.7: Personalized Learning on the Web


While the well-designed learning space or LMS on the web can specify personal learning space
for each student in the learning community, it can also contain personal learning network and
personal web tools to draw upon and use the network and the environment for quality learning.
The recent developments in cloud computing provides for cloud learning environment; and if the
PLE, the PLN and the PWTs operate within the cloud learning environment, the student can
dynamically use these 24´7 with ease and customize the learning resources as per his her own
need and style. This is how constructivist learning is highly facilitated by this kind of personalized
learning on the web.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 2.3

By now you have a fair understanding of media and technology developments used for
teaching-learning and training. At this stage, reflect on those media and technologies that
you are using regularly or occasionally, and examine the combinations that you will like to
use for teaching the subject of your choice. Also, justify your choice of media and their
combination, and examine the purpose each media will address. Write in about 200 words
using the space given below.

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ET: Historical Developments

Before we proceed to examine the development of educational technology in India and


subsequently the direction in which it is moving (or, poised to move), let’s examine the trends of
the 1990s.
The 1990s
Donald Ely, an authority from the United States on educational technology, its literature, and
research and development, analyzed the trends in the beginning of the 1990s (Ely, 1991). He
underlined 11 trends then which had the possibility of continuing in the future the advent of Web
2.0 and social technologies. These are briefly outlined below; and you may reflect on them and
see how far these trends still continue to operate in recent times.
Trend 1: Design and development of instructional products and procedures.
Educational technologists continued to work in areas of need assessment, learner characteristics,
task and content analysis, content design and development, and strategies to motivate learners.
In other words, instructional design and development was a significant trend which continues to
dominate the work of educational technologists even today, though through the process, a lot of
emphasis is laid on technology design, and use of software.
Trend 2: Evaluation as integral to instructional design and development.
Evaluation of instructional strategies and technologies in the form of process evaluation, formative
evaluation, effectiveness and impact continues to dominate instructional development. This is
also extended to programme evaluation covering entire programme design, development and
delivery.
Trend 3: Use of R&D to solve teaching-learning problems.
Research and development joined together to facilitate effective process and product design;
and this also included meta-analysis of research studies and case studies across the globe.
Trend 4: Increasing use of computers.
There was increasing use of personal computers by two extreme groups – school students and
lifelong learners. The advent of the semantic web (Panda, 2009) provided immense space to the
users of PCs to instantly access the web and get access to emerging storehouse of literature and
content/knowledge. This was also the time when there was tremendous development in the
production and use of CD-ROMs (multimedia) in education and training.
Trend 5: Developments in, but not use of, interactive video.
Though there was significant investment in the development of interactive video, its use in education
and training was very much limited. However, with the later developments in distance learning
and distance training, there was significant use of interactive video though it was expensive to
produce and run.
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Introduction to Educational Technology

Trend 6: Establishment of distance education as a major mode of education and training.


This period witnessed global upscaling of open and distance learning courses and programmes
within formal education institutions, in business and training establishments, and in single-mode
open universities. Curriculum design, instructional design and development were streamlined
further, especially with the emergence and recognition of the constructivist philosophy of learning
and interactive technologies (satellite and computer conferencing, and web-based learning). While
training at-a-distance (without physical displacement) took place in business and industry in a
large scale, the dual-model and single-mode distance teaching institutions could focus more on
continuing education and lifelong learning, with courses and programmes that were not available
in conventional campus-based institutions. Further, instructional design and development got a
vast canvas for practical application, and media and technology got the required platform for
design and deployment.
Trend 7: Professional education received wider attention and preoccupation.
While professional education got further impetus to expand, professionals within the field of
educational technology got active with a variety of inter-institutional and inter-national activities
to reclaim the professional position and status of educational technology. Part of the exercise was
design and offer of professional courses and programmes (certification) in the field of educational
technology.
Trend 8: Educational technologists’ interest in the impact on society.
Educational technologists became more concerned and active with their research and evaluation
especially on the impact of media and technology on society, culture, etc., and more specifically
the impact of, says for instance, television on children.
Trend 9: Increasing use of telecommunications in education.
Developments in telecommunications technology facilitated teleconferencing through satellite,
computer conferencing, cable TV for education, and interactive distance learning.
Trend 10: Gap between research and application of educational technology.
Though there was significant research on educational technology (instructional design and
development), most ET applications were devoid of research back-up, and most research did
not translate into practical applications or that they did not contain definite guidelines for practice.
Trend 11: Educational technologists’ concern for curriculum support.
Organization and management of educational programmes in schools and colleges drew the
attention of educational technologists in the sense that ET alone could not reform teaching-learning
unless the entire organization of education at institutional and national/regional level was taken
into consideration. Therefore, curriculum support, instructional technology, media centre and
school organization were seen in an integrated framework so as to derive maximum and sustainable
productivity, application and reform in educational practices.

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ET: Historical Developments

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 2.4

Based on the above trends of the 1990s which were basically American, what trends do
you see in educational technology in the national contexts in your own country? You may
look into at any level of education or the education system as a whole. Write in about 150
words in the space given below.

Educational technology in India


Like any other country, the educational technology movement in India started with audiovisual
aids, and teacher training institutions significantly stressed on effective use of even chalk and
blackboard and later the overhead projector (OHP; see Kumar, 1996; Kulkarni, 1986). Even
the beginning of the Centre for Educational Technology (renamed as the Central Institute of
Educational Technology (CIET) of NCERT started as the audiovisual department of the
government. So much so, the NCERT 2006 position paper of its National Focus Group (NCERT,
2006) even underlined that the stress on individualized learning in the old gurukul system can be
considered as a feature of educational technology. It also notes that alternative educational
technologies/instructional strategies were adopted by innovative schooling projects in the voluntary
sectors such as projects on early childhood education by Badheka and Modak, Tilonia programme
in Rajasthan, Kishore Bharti/Eklavya project in Hosangabad (M.P.), Gram Mangal in Maharashtra,
Bhandup and Avehi-Abacus projects of Mumbai municipal schools, among others.
The shift from the audiovisual movement to the programmed learning movement (and, therefore,
development of programmed learning materials – which later on led to development of training
resources and self-learning materials in various sectors including distance learning) was led by
Basu and Kulkarni at NCERT. That was a significant development since the audiovisual (and
later the media and technology) movement needed to be balanced with the development and use
of learning resources, and planning for teaching-learning guided by learning/educational objectives
and mastery learning (you may like to refer to the minimum levels of learning – MLL – of NCERT).
Television came to India in 1959 as a pilot project financially supported by the Ford Foundation,
and the Delhi School Television programme was initiated on October 24, 1961. However, the
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975-76 was the first interactive TV

49
Introduction to Educational Technology

experiment which combined education with community participation and development. In 1974,
the union government created an ET unit in the Education Ministry, the Centre for Educational
Technology (CET) at NCERT, and ET cells in six site states. In 1980, when INSAT (Indian
National Satellite) was launched, the government Doordarshan (national television) took over
production and especially telecast of educational television programmes. The CIET of NCERT
later started educational television programmes for school children and for primary teachers in
the eighties. The GoI in collaboration with UNDP and UNESCO started INSAT for Education
project; simultaneously an ET Division was established at the Ministry; the CET of NCERT was
merged with its Department of Teaching Aids to be renamed as CIET; and many ET cells of state
governments were also renamed as State Institutes of Educational Technology. Classroom 2000+
experiment on interactive conferencing was conducted by CIET the results of which though
could not be implemented widely thereafter. However, concurrently, the GoI undertook a scheme
of distributing radio-cum-cassette players (about 228,118) and colour TV sets (about 31,129)
and using those in various schools in the country, though, the scheme also failed to integrate
media and technology with classroom teaching-learning (Mukhopadhyay, et. al. 1993).
In so far as the computer is concerned, its experiment and use in classrooms dates back to 1984
when the CLASS (computer literature and studies) project was started as a joint venture of the
Department of Electronics (DoE), GoI and NCERT. Microcomputers provided by the BBC
were supplied to 2582 schools and 42 resource centres. The experiment concluded not-so-
effective use of microcomputers in teaching due largely to the gap between teacher orientation
and actual use, installation and other problems, and lack of sufficient training. Attitude to technology
was also another factor. The revised CLASS was revived during 1993-2004 with new PCs,
followed by CLASS 2000 in which the government had to introduce computer literacy in 10,000
schools, and computer based learning in 100 smart schools. The experience of NCERT showed
that IT was not integrated into teaching-learning, rather was used as add on; and also that lack of
significant policy and committed practice led to its negligence by the teachers. Subsequently,
there have been a few experiments like IIT (D)-NIIT experiment on ‘Hole in the Wall’ computer
literacy project, 1-month summer course for Class V students by TeNet group of IIT (Madras),
among others. A large number of urban schools today use a number of interactive multimedia
CD-ROMs in the classroom, along with ETV and web resources. The use of interactive multimedia
CD-ROMs on hard spots and computers was enhanced under the Computer Based Elementary
Education (CBEE) of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in schools in various states under a Public-
Private-Partnership (PPP) model in collaboration with private IT companies, government
organization, and NGOs.
In the case of higher education, after the successful launch of INSAT-1B, the UGC initiated the
UGC-INSAT Television Project (known as Countrywide Classroom-CWCR) on August 15,
1984, to produce and broadcast enrichment programmes on week days for one hour to
undergraduate college students, coordinated by the Mass Communicating Cell (now Consortium
for Educational Communication) of UGC, and produced by four Educational Media Research
Centres and two Audio Visual Research Centres in Universities. The Mass Communication
Research Centre of Jamia Millia Islamia (now a central university) was to conduct R&D besides
also producing television programmes to the related undergraduate curriculum (Panda, 1995).
Later the enrichment programmes were replaced by curriculum-based video lectures which were
broadcast as are also available at a price in the market. The UGC provided television sets and

50
ET: Historical Developments

VCRs to (selected) colleges under various Five-Year Plans. Many universities today both teachers
and students have access the to internet and web resources, online journals and books, access
to the literature base of INFLIBNET, and the digital curriculum-based printed modules under
the Sakshat project of MHRD, GoI and the online video repository in engineering and technology
of NPTEL (of IITs). Almost all IITs, the IIMs, the IISc, Jadavpur University, among others have
developed online learning management systems (LMS) for online teaching-learning as also
multimedia-based interaction through institutional network. Some also do web casting of their
teleconferencing lectures.
The use of media and technology got a wider platform after the initiation of correspondence
education both at the school level and in higher education. Besides audio and video, and radio
(Gyan Vani) and television (Gyan Darshan), the distance teaching institutions including the open
universities and open schools also use teleconferencing, web casting, and online platforms, IGNOU,
besides all these, uses interactive radio counseling (IRC) through its FM radio stations, mobile
technology for learner support, online lecturing/presentation through Adobe Connect, and online
resource repository of digital print modules, audio and video programmes (as Open Education
Resource) through its eGyankosh. The Open School system, especially the National Institute of
Open Schooling, uses audio and video, radio and television, teleconferencing for teaching-learning.
Besides, there is online admission, and on-demand online examination. Parallel to these media
and technology deployment and use in all levels of open and distance learning, there is constant
updating and diversification in course design and development models, and different styles of
self-learning materials in print, audio-video, multimedia, and online LMS.

Future scenario and directions

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 2.5

Based on what you have read so far and also based on the fact that media and technology
developments shall continue to upscale in future, reflect on and categorically specify what
you think could be the future developments in educational technology internationally and
in your own country. Use the space given below to write your views.

The views that you have jotted down above may have covered areas such as instructional system
development, curriculum design and development, instructional design/development, course design
and development, media and technology especially social technologies and social networking,
mobile technology, bases of learning especially the constructivist perspective, management of
databases and networks, dynamic platforms like cloud computing and cloud learning, open
educational resources, among others. To consolidate some of the future developments in educational

51
Introduction to Educational Technology

technology through some broad parameters, go through the following points and see if you thought
of these and also if you agree to these or have altogether different views.
 While the use of audio, radio, video and television in teaching-learning will continue, the use
of CD-ROM (multimedia) is reducing; teleconferencing and video conferencing especially
through web casting and through the 3G mobile technology (mobile phone) will increase;
schools and colleges will opt for more computer-mediated communication, network/LAN
based resource storage and use, use of online resource repositories, and some form of
blended learning. Since there is/will be an increasing convergence of broadcasting,
telecommunications, and computing, converged technologies and blended learning will
continue to dominate the educational media and technology scenario in the future. In case of
open learning and self learning materials (or learning resources), authentic proprietary materials
will be still of value, though authentic and appropriate open education resources will be the
issue to deal with along with its instructional design, repurposing and copyright.
 With increasing R&D and expansion in social software, social technologies, and social
networking technologies, there shall be greater need for these technologies to be
systematically designed within instructional design and blended learning frameworks to address
diversified educational and training requirements at especially tertiary education and in cases
of continuing education, lifelong learning, training, and adult education. Open software and
open source social technologies will capture the mainstream, and mobile (with converged)
technology will assume greater significance. Further, there shall be increasing use of ICT in
adult basic education, continuing education, and lifelong learning.
 Since constructivist approaches to learning have (and shall continue to) come to the forefront
of educational design and organization of teaching-learning, the future will see more of
instructional systems design, instructional design, learning resources development, interaction
and knowledge construction and negotiation being influenced by this. This will possibly be
more in the case of online learning and training.
 Due to these development, curriculum design and selection and use of learning resources
may happen in a cloud learning environment which shall provide for dynamic, 24×7, and
customized learning design to meet the needs of individual learners. Also, there shall more
resource generation and sharing on the web through Web 2.0 and social technologies,
though there shall be further questions raised about authentic resources and authentic learning,
especially in the context of open education resources.

Summary
You have seen in this unit that the initiation of educational technology movement started with
audiovisual aids (within ‘technology in education’) and behaviourism and programmed learning
(within ‘technology of education’). In the process educational technology/ instructional technology
systems got developed, learning was more personalized (i.e. oriented to one’s own ability, need
and style), and group ‘interaction’ was frequent and enriched. The later developments in distance
education largely used the educational technology developments so much so that today both
constructivist learning and personalized learning environment on the web can combine together
to offer customized and enriched learning experiences. We shall look at the application of
educational technology to teaching, learning and training more closely in Unit 3

52
ET: Historical Developments

Describing the future scenario of education and educational technology research for the next 25
years, Facer and Sandford (2010) point out that the stress in the future shall shift from pedagogy
to curriculum (for networked learning); from school to cover the community, home and workplace;
and beyond social sciences to relate to the fields of medical and bio-ethics.

References and Suggested Readings

Bates, T. (2011). http://www.tonybates.ca. retrieved in December, 2012.


Ellington, H.; Percival, F. & Race, P. (2005). Handbook of educational technology. New
Delhi: Kogan Page India Pvt. Ltd.
Ely, D.P. (1991). Trends and issues in educational technology, 1989. In G.J. Anglin (Ed.),
Instructional technology: Past, present and future. Englewood: Libraries Unlimited Inc.
Glaser, R. (1976). Components of a psychology of instruction: Problems in defining the field.
Review of Educational Research, 46(1), 1-24.
Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning. New York: Association Press.
Kulkarni, S.S. (1986). Introduction to educational technology. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH
Press.
Kumar, K.L. (1996). Educational technology: A practical textbook for students, teachers,
professionals and trainers. New Delhi: New Age International.
Merrill, M.D. (1983). Component display theory. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional theories
and models. Hillsdale, N.J.: LEA.
Mukhopadhyay, M. et al (1993). Utilisation of media facilities in school: An evaluation
study of the ET scheme of the Ministry of HRD. New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT (2006). Position paper: National focus group on education technology. New Delhi:
National Council of Educational Research and Training.
Panda, S. (1990). Educational technology and distance education: The convergence and the
futures. Media & Technology for Human Resource Development, 3(1), 27-40.
Panda, S. (1995). Tele-teaching in higher education. In K.B. Powar & S. Panda (Eds.), Higher
education in India – In search of quality. New Delhi: Association of Indian Universities.
Panda, S. (2009). The world wide web and lifelong learning. In P. Jarvis (Ed.), The Routledge
international handbook of lifelong learning. London/New York: Routledge.
PricewaterhouseCoopers (2010). Survey of ICTs for education in India and South Asia.
Pricewaterhouse Coopers.
Power, M. (2008). The emergence of a blended online learning environment. MERLOT Journal
of Online Learning and Teaching. 4(4). http://jolt.merlot.org/vol4no4/power_1208.htm.
Moore, M. (1989) The theory of distance education: some recent literature. In A. Tight (Ed),
Integration and Independence: Student Support in Distance Education and Open Learning.

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Introduction to Educational Technology

Cambridge, U.K. Open University, East Anglia Region. pp. 150-167.


Moore, M. (1977). A model of independent study. Epistolodidactica (United Kingdom), 1: 6-
40
Moore, M. (1990). Recent contributors to the theory of distance education. Open Learning.
5(3): 10-16.
Reigeluth, C.M. (1979). In search of a better way to organize instruction: The elaboration theory.
Journal of Instructional Development, 2(3), 8-15.
Romiszowski, A.J. (1974). The selection and use of instructional media. London: Kogan
Page.
Shrock, S.A. (1991). A brief history of instructional development. In G.J. Anglin (Ed.),
Instructional technology: Past, present and future. Englewood: Libraries Unlimited Inc.
Skinner, B.F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational
Review. 24, 86-97.
Wheeler, S. (2011). Anatomy of a PLE. http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.in/2010/07/anatomy-of-
ple.html

Questions for critical reflection

1. While tracing the historical developments in educational technology especially in your country,
critical reflects on the trends which the teachers of all the generations have found useful and
effective in their own teaching and in facilitating student learning. Write in about 600 words.
2. Based on the media and technology developments on the one hand, and the developments
in theories explaining how human beings learn, contemplate on and describe the design of a
learning environment which can best facilitate students’ learning (of any subject or subject of
your choice). Write in about 600 words.

54
UNIT
Training Technology

 Santosh Panda 3
Introduction
This is the last unit of this Block which is based on the discussions that have taken place in the
preceding two units. Since you have gathered considerable idea about and clarifications on the
concept and scope of educational technology, and its historical development including the
developments in India, you may find it convenient now to think of the field of training technology,
i.e. the scope of educational technology within the field of training. To appreciate this better, we
have undertaken some discussion on technology based learning to distinguish it from technology
based training; and finally on web-based training which is in use currently. The application of the
field of educational technology shall be visible to you through all the blocks contained in this
course, and through your reflection on all that you do for your own teaching.

Learning outcomes

After going through this unit, you should be able to:


 describe technology based learning;
 describe technology based training as distinct from technology-based learning;
 examine the scope of web-based technology and its applications.
As you will see from the two sections above, we shall discuss three aspects in this unit: i) learning
based on technology; ii) training based on technology (distinct from i) due to the distinction
between teaching-learning and training; and iii) training based on the web and/or internet. Before
taking up the aspect of training, let us first look at technology-based learning (TBL) briefly before
taking up technology-based training (TBT).

Technology based learning


As you have seen through the preceding three units, technological developments have influenced
the way people learn within and outside classrooms tremendously. Technology-based learning
(TBL), therefore, refers to learning of content through the use of any kind of technology – beginning
with audio and video, to satellite conferencing, internet and intranet, CD-ROM, computer based
instruction, web casts, e-bulletin boards, chat rooms. TBL includes all sorts of technology; while
computer based learning (CBL) restricts learning through computer only. Though used
interchangeably these days with e-learning, TBL has a much wider scope. Further, in case of
distance learning, technology is used more to deliver content; and TBL does not include learning
through text (or through correspondence education). This restricted use of TBL covers use of
any technology for learning in a contiguous situation (i.e. in classrooms). Therefore, any use of
internet or the web takes place in the classroom by both the teacher and the students; this

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Introduction to Educational Technology

interaction may take place through the intranet as well (without getting into the world wide web–
www).
Instead of the traditional concept or practice of a linear model of learning, TBL includes customized
learning and self pacing; and emphasis is given to learning context, personalization, and learning
solutions. In case of continuing professional development (which takes place continuously
throughout the employment period in any profession), learning takes place as and when needed,
and based on the requirement of each employee. This can be achieved through the use of CD-
ROM, or intranet, or the internet. TBL goes beyond the F2F (face-to-face) classroom learning
with the advantages that: there is greater access and learning can take place anywhere and
anytime; learning is self-selected and self-paced as per one’s own requirements; TBL can address
larger number than what classroom learning can do; this is more up-to-date and instant than F2F
learning; and that TBL can be more motivating (in addition to F2F interaction).
However, both teachers and students need to take care of a few factors for TBL to work more
effectively. If TBL is made a regular part of classroom teaching-learning, those children who do
not have access to computers at home shall be at a severe disadvantage in their learning. A pre-
requisite to a good TBL programme is that the programme/courses should be interactive, and
that there should be enough personalized learner support to address individual learning needs.
Cost is an important factor – the unit cost shall increase unless the number of users is increased
and/or unless the use of cost-intensive animation and video aspects are reduced.
As we shall see later, either or F2F teaching along or TBL alone has not been able to achieve the
desired effects in learning; therefore, blended learning (by combining TBL with F2F interaction)
has been advocated so that in a good combination and by designing the mix well the learning
effectiveness can be enhanced.

Technology based training


Unlike learning, ‘training’ as such is more concerned with providing knowledge around existing
practical experiences, and developing (updating, upgrading etc.) skills needed to address the
changing job profile or work profile. Such changes are induced by many factors – important
being changes in globalization and technological developments. However, as you can see from
your own experience, there are many other grassroots/in-context factors which induce us to go
through initial training, further training, and continuing professional development. Technological
developments facilitate such initial and continuous training. Technology based training (TBT)
refers to application of digital technology to provide content or training resources to further
sharpen knowledge, skills, and abilities so as to improve on-the-job performance. This also
enhances interaction; collaboration and reflection so essential for enhancing performance (see
Schreiber and Berge, 1998; and Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001 for details).
As you may have read about teacher education in many other countries as also in India, especially
the in-service teacher education through distance mode has been using technology extensively
for this kind of training. In India, the in-service teacher education programmes of India Gandhi
National Open University uses a host of technologies – audio and radio (Gyan Vani), Video and
television (Gyan Darshan), interactive radio counseling (IRC through FM radio stations), satellite
conferencing (through EduSat), online resource repository (through EGyankosh), and online

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Training Technology

interaction (through Mobile phones). These technologies have been mixed and designed in different
variations to suit the requirements to meet the learners and to meet the learning objectives of
various programmes.
TBT takes place through various forms. We discuss below a few important ones; and you may
still think of any other TBT scenarios that you may have encountered so that you can relate those
with the ones discussed below.
Computer-based training: This involves use of the computer, either in groups or individually
(more often as individuals for learning skills and gathering/updating information on one’s own
field of work. This may include computer simulations, tutorials, and computer games.
Network-based training: Computer tutorials and games which may take place through any
network (either intranet comprising computer network of an institutions or any local network)
are included in this. Individual interact from their computer to a network comprising other individuals
sitting with their PCs.
Web-based training: This, which we shall discuss in a later section below, includes all kinds of
training and professional development which take place on the web (through internet), including
the use of social software and social technologies (like Wiki and Facebook).
A variety of technologies are included in training. All kinds of technological developments that
you have studied in Unit 2 can be used in one form or the other in training and professional
development. The training may take place in a face-to-face workshop context, or through
videoconferencing (where people scattered is different places joint or the conferencing for
interaction), or through distance learning (comprising the traditional print-based self-learning
materials, and/or online resource study and interaction). Therefore, all kinds of technological
devices, systems, and networks are included in this – starting from the traditional audiovisual
aids, through CD-ROM and DVDs, to videoconferencing and web-based study and interaction.
Web-based training may involve simple texts and graphics, or integration of multimedia, hyperlinks
to other resources, communication systems, and online assessment tools. At the high end are
included electronic performance support system (EPSS), intelligent tutoring systems, distributed
interactive simulations, game-based training, and distributed mission training.

ACTIVITY
Activity 1 3.1

At this stage, before proceeding further on TBT (and its extension to WBT), take a pause
and briefly examine in what way TBL can be practically used in your classroom teaching.
Write in about 150 words.

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Introduction to Educational Technology

Factors, benefits and challenges


You may like to visualize the benefits and challenges of technology based training, including the
factors that need to be taken into account while designing TBT. Given below is an account of the
benefits and challenges as outlined in a recent document by Bell and Kozlowski (2007) which
you need to apply to your own contexts, and see how you can contextualize your technology
requirements and use them in them training.
i) Factors influencing TBT
There are certain developments globally which influence the choice of technology choice and use
for training. Globalization ensures that training through technology can take place at a distance,
while reducing cost of displacement and still maintaining the quality of training. Many multinational
companies and some universities with multi-campuses across the globe (or even within a single
country) use satellite conferencing and the web for delivering training, and maintaining a culture of
continuing professional development (CPD). Economic pressures also ensure that workplace
learning takes place without any displacement at a low cost. You may agree that in any context of
TBT, there are costs involved in deploying and maintaining technology itself. Coupled with this is
the recent scenario of flexible work schedules which are facilitated by technologies (especially
the internet) and employees and teachers can work from home and get trained similarly. The
most important aspect of all is the developments in technology itself. During the last decade,
there have been tremendous developments in web technology (especially social technologies
and social networks – refer Unit 2 on this). These developments which has large scale social use
outside the organizations and institutions (for example, the mobile technology) compel institutions
to deploy and use within them the institutions, so that, flexible learning and training combining the
institution and home can take place.
ii) Benefits of TBT
You may think of any kind of benefit that can be accrued from the use of technology-based
training. This may be visualized in the context of teacher training/teacher professional development.
Given below is a brief discussion on the possible benefits that TBT may provide depending on
the context of use.
 The foremost is the possible reduction in cost of training when compared to traditional face-
to-face training contexts like workshops. The important cost is variable cost involved in
commuting, absence from workplace, lodging and boarding, resource persons, workshop
venue, etc. This kind of cost gets considerably reduced in case of TBT. On the other hand,
a certain minimum amount of money needs to be invested to establish technology infrastructure
and to use technology networks for TBT.
 Time is an important cost element too; also time lost in traditional training reduces completion
of tasks at the workplace. TBT not only reduces time devoted to training but also the time
saved can be fruitfully utilized for higher productivity and career progression.
 The traditional training methods may not encourage intellectual challenges and new pedagogic
strategies in organizing training. TBT can take care of these aspects, as also can bring in
very effective trainers without even displacing them from their workplaces.

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Training Technology

 People, who may have inhibition to attend physically training workshops with other
colleagues, may find virtual interaction acceptable and interesting too. People with any sort
of disability will also find technology-based communication and interaction convenient.
 TBT can bring in variety into content, interaction, takes and assignment, and assessment.
Trainees can also have individual freedom and flexibility to access an immense amount of
resources, often guided and modulated by the trainer/mentor.
iii) Challenges of TBT
It is not easy to handle and conduct TBT, nor is it easy for trainees to be able to effectively
participate in this kind of training. TBT assumes at least a minimum level of technology competency
in the trainees. Even if there is competency, there may not be favourable attitudinal pre-disposition
towards technology.
There is every possibility that individual trainees who do not want to proceed in a linear manner
to get lost in the process. This may pose difficulty for the tutor/mentor to be able to effectively
guide each trainee participant. Learner control on learning/training may not always work to the
advantage of the trainees.
Except interactive technologies, most of the technologies do not have possibility of interaction
and collaboration. Therefore, the trainer/mentor shall have to work hard to design such training
including the trainer’s physical interaction or interaction through technology. In case of web-
based training, both the trainer and the participants must have adequate expertise to professionally
interact with content, technology, peers, and the trainer. This is a very high demand on people
involved in TBT. In any case, some kind of face-to-face collaborative interaction is essential,
along with TBT. Therefore, a promising strategy for teaching-learning and training is ‘blended
learning’ and/or ‘blended training’ in which web 2.0, open education resources (Ores), and F2F
interaction can be judiciously combined, and in which social interaction and networking should
be ensured.
The critical issue is the design of training. TBT shall be doomed to be a failure if the classroom-
based training is exactly repurposed for TBT/technological delivery. The TBT design given by
Bell and Kozlowski (2007) as drawn in Figure 3.1 and which is self-explanatory is very useful to
think of any alternative training design you may have in mind. You may also like to try out this
design approach and see how effective this can be.

59
Introduction to Educational Technology

Needs assessment from Ability to deliver


targeted performance domain instructional

Identification of Cognitive Identification of Technology Calibrated


desired mechanisms and necessary selection and instructional
instructional learning instructional program design experience
goals processes features

Content

Immersio Communication

Interactivity

Figure 3.1: A Framework for Technology Based Training Design


(Source: Bell and Kozlowski, 2007)

Summary
You have seen in this unit that, based on what we had discussed in the first two units of this block,
the discussion was extended to the field of training through technology based training (TBT). We
revisited technology based learning, and based on are knowledge and understand of it, we moved
to discuss technology based training. As you have seen the effective use of TBT uses both the
traditional technologies as also the recent social technologies and social networks. Following
this, we discussed various factors that need to be kept in mind and taken care of for TBT; the
benefits that may be derived by properly planning and designing TBT including capacity building
of people involved in this; and various challenges that are faced while designing and implementing
TBT. Based on your reflections on what you have read, you may like to think further about how
you are going to organize any training programme in the near future.

References and Suggested Readings

Bell, B.S. and Kozlowski, S.W.J. (2007). Advances in technology-based training. USA:
Cornell University.
Keegan, D. (2000). Distance training. London: Routledge.
Salas, E. and Cannon-Bowers, J.A. (2001). The science of training: A decade of progress.
Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 471-499.
Schreiber, D.A. and Berge, Z.L. (1998). Distance training. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

60
Training Technology

Questions for critical reflection

1. Based on what you have read about technology-based learning, technology-based training,
and various factors that you need to consider for an effective TBT, critically reflect on (and
write down) which of the technologies or technology combinations you may choose to
design and implement any training programme for teachers, (that you may be comfortable in
organizing).

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