Block 1
Block 1
Block 1
Learning Outcomes
5
Introduction to Educational Technology
and learning experiences provided within and outside the classroom, and also with the problems
of implementing it. Technology has been a part of any learning process from the beginning, whether
it was writing instruments, printed books, or audio-visual media.
Let us understand the meaning of the term ‘educational technology’ by splitting it into ‘Education’
and ‘Technology’. Technology refers to the systematic application of techniques and principles
of science to achieve an objective effectively and efficiently. ‘Technology’ is that branch of advanced
scientific study which involves highly designed and sophisticated engineering software and
hardware. It deals with the application of knowledge for practical ends. Technology results in
new designs and devices to improve human productivity. Education is the process of modification
of behaviour, socialization, social efficiency, acculturation, and adjustment to the environment,
harmonious and all round development of the human personality. Hence, educational technology
is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating,
using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. As a field of study,
educational technology emphasizes communication skills and approaches to teaching and learning
through the judicious use and integration of diverse media. Practitioners in educational technology
seek new and effective ways of organizing the teaching-learning process through the best possible
application of technological developments. These activities rely upon a body of knowledge for
successful and ethical implementation, rather than as routine tasks or as isolated technical skills.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.1
“Technology is more than computers and networks”. Justify it by providing its uses in any
one area of human activity. Write in about 75 words.
There have seen a number of definitions of educational technology which have been provided by
researchers and scholars over the years. Let us go through them to get a better understanding of
the term “educational technology”.
- Educational technology offers the means to reach large numbers in remote and
inaccessible areas, remove disparity in educational facilities available to the
disadvantaged, and provide individualized instruction to learners conveniently suited
to their needs and pace of learning (NPE, 1986).
- Educational technology is a communication process resulting from the application of
scientific methods to the behavioural science of teaching and learning. This
communication may or may not require the use of media such as television broadcasts,
radio, cassettes etc. (UNESCO, 2001).
6
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
- Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and
improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological
processes and resources (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008).
- Technology means the systematic application of scientific knowledge to practical tasks.
Therefore, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge drawn from
different disciplines (communication, education, psychology, sociology, philosophy,
artificial intelligence, computer science, etc.) plus experiential knowledge drawn from
educational practice. Educational technology aims to improve education. Technology
should facilitate learning processes and increase performance of the educational
system(s) as it regards to effectiveness and/or efficiency. Educational technology is
the use of technology to improve education. It is a systematic, iterative process for
designing instruction or training used to improve performance. Educational technology
is sometimes also known as instructional technology or learning technology (wikipedia,
2012).
In the light of the concept of ET discussed above, we may conclude that educational technology
is the systematic application of science and technology in the field of education. Science is search
for profound knowledge. Scientists investigate the world around us. They observe how things
work and based on this, develop ideas about ways to make them work better. Sometimes they
try to test an idea as to find out how things work or do not work. The knowledge thus discovered
is useful for many things that we do in our day to day life. It can help to build new machines,
develop new medicines or cure diseases. Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to create
new things. ET is based on the systems approach to education: the input, output and the process.
It directs both the teachers and learners to formulate learning objectives, and to develop
appropriate strategies of teaching and learning evaluation techniques. It helps in providing efficiency
to the task of teaching and learning and facilitates effective communication between teachers and
students. By now you would appreciate that educational technology is not merely confined to the
use of audio-visual aids, software and hardware, nor is it limited to the use of the psychological
principles and instructional theories, for bringing change in the teaching-learning process. It has a
much broader scope. To conclude ET is:
a science of using technology in education through which educational goals can be achieved;
a mechanization of educational process in three phases of human knowledge i.e. preservation,
transmission, and development of knowledge; and
an attempt to use technology developed by using scientific principles, for making education,
productive and meaningful.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.2
Analyze the various definitions of educational technology (given above), and summarize
in points.
7
Introduction to Educational Technology
The characteristics of educational technology are closely linked with its concept of educational
technology. Let us discuss its important characteristics given below.
Modern discipline: Educational technology is a rapidly developing modern discipline that is
ready to face the challenges of the near future. For example, we can actually deal in real time
synchronous feeling (sharing of a two way communication online and getting feedback instantly)
by using technology in education, The world over many institutions of higher learning have started
using information and communication technologies, such as the internet, web-based learning,
online learning etc.
Based on scientific advancement: The growth of educational technology depends on the
developments in the field of science. It involves the adoption of scientific and technological
innovations and inventions to solve problems confronted by the education sector. Advancement
in scientific knowledge produces more and more sophisticated electronic devices.
Improving the educational system: Educational technology locates the problems in the field
of education, finds remedy and ultimately aims at improving the educational system. It facilitates
effective communication between the teachers and students, in order to accomplish learning
objectives.
Based on research: ET makes use of the research findings of psychology, sociology,
engineering, physical sciences and social psychology among others, and applies the same to the
field of education.
Practical discipline: ET applies technical knowledge systematically to the field of education
to attain the objectives of practical goals. It provides hands-on experience to both the teachers
and the learners.
Effective classroom management: The application of a variety of educational technologies to
classroom teaching and learning is both effective and efficient in terms of time effectiveness,
systems approach, and attainment of objectives both by the teachers and the taught.
Mass communication media: Educational technology has the potential to impart education
and training to large masses with varied backgrounds in terms of education, socio-economic
status, language competencies, location, etc.
A means: Educational technology is a means to achieve an end but is not an end in itself. Better
classroom performance is a product or output or an end in an educational process, but the
treatment provided to the students in terms of using educational technologies in the teaching-
learning process may be the ‘means’ for it.
Wider scope: As we have discussed earlier, the scope of educational technology is not only
confined to the use of technological gadgets in education rather, it includes the development,
application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids in the field of learning. The scope of
8
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
2. “Educational technology cannot replace the teacher”. Discuss in about 100 words.
9
Introduction to Educational Technology
Figure 1.1: Information and communication technologies: Pre-mechanical, mechanical, electronic, and
digital era
Digital information communication technologies have become more accessible to the general
public these days. In the pre-mechanical era, teachers used real objects and face-to-face
communication with their students to describe the past, explain the present, and encourage thinking
about the future. In that era neither technologies nor its products were used extensively in
educational settings.
At the time of the mechanical era, it became possible to produce technological products in a
large scale. The printing press was handy as it solved many difficulties that teachers faced in
retrieving and using information over an extended period of time. Storing and retrieval of
information could become easy for teachers, students, and the general public at large. During that
era, books were the new information technologies.
During the electronic age availability of and accessibility to technological devices increased even
further. The use of phonograph, radio, and television increased opportunities for communication.
These technologies proved to be valuable tools for teaching and learning.
In the digital era, more sophisticated communication tools were developed. Word processors,
digital cameras, e-mail, cellular phones, and an array of information and communication tools
were developed. High power storage, retrieval systems and software became more accessible
to the educational sectors. For example, you might access your textbooks through online
databases or websites, or listen to entire books as audio files on your MP3 player. Further
modern technologies came to be used in professional practices such as providing lifelong learning
opportunities, promoting creativity and innovation, assessing students’ instructional needs,
evaluating their performances, encouraging the equitable use of existing resources, as well as
facilitating professional growth and leadership through the effective use of digital tools and
resources. In this process of development, the use of the computer for a variety of purposes is
also remarkable. Let us summarize it in a tabular form.
10
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
11
Introduction to Educational Technology
1996, First Ed Tech Local Area Network (LAN) used in local area schools and is
Plan, digital connected to the internet. Information literacy: Learning with
explosion computers. Educational goals emphasize the acquisition of
computer hardware and the development of network
infrastructure. Technology tools grow at an exponential rate
and become faster, smaller, and more powerful. Digital
music, pictures, audio, video-the applications of this new
wave of technology – are virtually limitless.
Fourth Phase – The computer as a learning and social tool
Web 2.0 Teachers and students move from being consumers to
becoming creators of online content using wikis, blogs, and
other social networking tools.
Educational ICT literacy: foundation information, communication, and
emphasis productivity skills may remain similar while tools will
continue to change. Technology will be a tool for solving
educational problems.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.4
How can a computer be used as a learning and social tool? Conduct a survey in your area
and prepare a report in about 500 words.
12
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
13
Introduction to Educational Technology
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.5
Analyze the above table and justify which technology(ies) will you use in your classroom?
Let us examine different types of educational technology on the basis of approach. We shall
begin with the approach-based classification of educational technology.
i) Technology in Education: Hardware Approach
Technology in education is also known as the hardware approach to educational technology
because it is concerned with electronic gadgets such as television, radio, language labs, teaching
machines, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV), motion picture, epidiascope and various other
projected media such as slides and Liquified Crystal Display (LCD) projectors which are used
to teach learners. Technology in education includes tangible aspects of technology as the application
of principles of physical sciences and engineering in the development of electro-mechanical
equipment used for instructional purposes. By using hardware devices teachers can deal with
larger group of students to discourse on teaching-learning experiences. Silverman (1968), called
this technology ‘relative technology’ which refers to borrowing and to applying technology,
machines, and devices in the process of teaching and learning.
ii) Technology of Education: Software Approach
The approach to educational technology involves a systematic, scientific application of appropriate
scientific research, both from the physical sciences as well as, from the social sciences particularly
from psychology and sociology, in order to solve a problem. Here, it is important to understand
that technology of education emphasizes on the techniques of teaching and learning derived from
the principles, ideas, and practices drawn from various fields of knowledge such as; psychology,
sociology, philosophy, management, cybernetics, etc. in order to optimize the teaching-learning
14
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
process. It refers to the application of teaching-learning principles towards directing and shaping
of behaviour. It is closely associated with the modern principles and theories of teaching, instruction,
teacher behaviour and principles of programmed learning. It is characterized by task analysis,
stating objectives in clear terms, selection of appropriate teaching strategies, reinforcement for
correct responses, and continuous evaluation. Silverman (1968), called this ‘constructive
educational technology’. It concentrates on the analysis, selection and construction of whatever
is necessary to meet the educational needs of the learners.
Having talked about both the hardware and software approaches, we shall now examine the
interdependence of these two approaches on each other. One without the other is incomplete. It
is the software approach that makes the hardware function and without the use of software,
hardware alone would have little or no value; for example; a CD burner is not useful without the
burning software. A scanned text document can only be manipulated with the use of optical
character recognition (OCR) software in order to convert it and to turn into an editable text.
Similarly, some software are redundant without appropriate hardware. Communications software
(e.g. FTP, phone dialler) are of no use without matching internet or phone connections. A file
manager is of no use without some sort of storage medium to manage. Some games will not run
properly without specified graphics or a sound card.
iii) Systems Approach to Educational Technology
The systems approach is an effective approach of educational technology. You know that teaching-
learning is a complex process and systematic planning is necessary to achieve pre-fixed objectives.
To streamline the teaching-learning process we use the systems approach which is concerned
with systematic planning, designing, construction and evaluation of the education system. Systems
approach is applied to develop, implement and evaluate the educational system, sub-system,
and curriculum or, for designing an individual lesson. If hardware can be said to form the body of
a computer system, then software is its mind. Software refers to computer programs, procedures
and documentation that perform certain tasks on a computer system. The four elements of the
systems approach are; input, process, output, and analysis & feedback. Let us discuss, how
these elements function together to make the education system more productive. See figure 1.2
15
Introduction to Educational Technology
Input, process, and output components are part of educational technology which has been
discussed under aspects of educational technology.
Student involvement
activities
Feedback
In the light of the above figures 1.2 and 1.3 and discussion it can be concluded that the systems
approach is concerned with the systematic planning, designing, construction and evaluation of
the education system. It is applied to develop, implement, and evaluate various aspects of the
education system, and sub-system. It is a problem solving method, analyzing the educational
process, and making it more effective. The purpose of the systems analysis is to create an enabling
learning environment for both teachers and students.
Let us discuss the key points of the systems approach used in education:
System is a complex whole, a set of things working together as a mechanism or
interconnecting network.
A system is an arrangement of components/elements so related or connected as to form a
unity or organic whole. It is a regular, orderly way of doing things. Schools are viewed as a
social system. Instruction / teaching is considered to be a sub-system within the social
system of the school. Classroom, faculty, student etc. are other sub-systems of a school.
Education is considered to be a complex organization of technical, managerial and institutional
systems. It has three parts; instructor, learner, and objectives of instruction.
The systems approach to education, thus, considers education as an input-output system.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.6
Analyze Figure 1.2 and prepare a note to explain how input, process, output, and analysis
& feedback work as effective aspects of the systems approach to educational technology.
16
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
To sum up what has been discussed so far and to arrive at an understanding of the systems
approach to education, let us take a simple example: “computer which is a system has many
components such as, the Central Processing Unit (CPU), monitor, printer, etc.; all these
components have to work coherently to perform a task effectively. Therefore, a systems approach
is the systematic effort to coordinate all the components of interacting systems to achieve the
specific objectives. The systems approach in general includes the steps shown as a flow chart in
figure 1.4
17
Introduction to Educational Technology
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.7
Identify a problem in your teaching subject and prepare and practice a suitable system
approach as stated in Figure 1.4.
Management Technology
Management technology focuses on management of the teaching-learning processes. It helps in
using appropriate educational resources - both human and physical, including planning,
programming, budgeting, management, decision making, operational research system analysis
etc., for effective implementation of the teaching-learning process. Management technology
provides useful models, information systems and organization theory for man-machine systems.
Planning Technology
Planning technology helps in reducing extra expenditure, time and energy and thus, increases the
cost benefit of the educational system. It is concerned with the planning of the teaching-learning
process. It starts from the preparation of teaching materials by teachers and ends with the evaluation
of students’ performance. Planning technology plays a significant role in the transacting of teaching-
learning instructions to students.
Though we discuss the management and planning technology separately, they are part of the
systems approach. An effective systems approach includes both the aspects of management and
planning. The systems approach tells us how to teach students so that they are able to achieve
their learning objectives efficiently. Figure 1.2 and 1.3 can help you understand, how the
management and planning components are effectively inbuilt into the systems approach
methodology.
Activity 1 1.8
ACTIVITY
18
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
read
hear
see
19
Introduction to Educational Technology
The figure 1.5 clarifies that all the taxonomies of educational objectives: cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor, have been inbuilt in the hierarchy (see Figure 1.5). Towards the right it starts from
reading at the top of the pyramids and ends with the do the task at the bottom. It has been
arranged from the lowest to the highest experience and accordingly has covered learning outcomes
from acquiring knowledge aspects to evaluation. Again, towards the left, it has maintained in
hierarchy the remembering percentage of content taught from the lowest at the top to the highest
at the bottom. Use of higher level teaching-learning aids results in better remembering. Both the
hardware and software approaches use Edgar Dale’s classification of the use of the aids to
teaching and learning.
For better understanding of Dale’s classification of educational experiences, let us discuss the
taxonomies of educational objectives suggested by Benjamin S. Bloom.
20
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
Figure 1.6 discussed the action verbs recommended for stating specific instructional objectives
in behavioural terms in Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. In Dale’s Cone of
Experience, learning outcomes are arranged from lowest to highest order, that is from knowledge
to evaluation objectives and more critically all the behavioural aspects of Bloom’s taxonomy, i.e.
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor behavioural aspects. When we critically analyse Figure
1.6, find that the action verbs presented clearly represents Dale’s model.
Activity 1 1.9
ACTIVITY
Analyse the ten (10) points hierarchy of Edgar Dale’s classification of teaching-learning
aids. Discuss, how Dale’s model follows Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
The first classification of educational technology is purely based on the use of teaching-learning
aids. Let us discuss the most widely used classification which has been prepared on the basis of
senses that are stimulated by educational technologies.
Table 1.3: Classification of Educational Technology
Classification Specification
Visual (verbal) Print or Textbook / Supplementary book, Reference book,
Duplicated Encyclopaedia, Magazine, Newspaper, Documents and
Clippings, Duplicated written material , Programme
learning material and self-instructional modules, Case
studies (simulating reality) and Case report
Visual (Pictorial) Non- Blackboard writing and drawing, Charts, Posters, Maps,
Projected Two- Diagrams, Graphs, Photographs, Cartoons, and Comic
dimensional Strips
Audio Human voice, Gramophone records, Audio tapes/discs,
Stereo records, Eadio broadcast, Telephonic conversation
Visual Non-Projected Model, mock-up, Diorama, Globe, Relief map, Specimen,
Three-Dimensional Puppet, Hologram
Visual Projected (Still) Slide, Filmstrip, Transparency (OHP), Microfilm, Micro
card, Computer
Audio-visual Projected Motion picture film, Television & close-circuit television,
with Motion Video cassette/disc
(Multisensory)
22
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
Activity 1 1.10
ACTIVITY
How can more than one sense (multisensory educational technology) be effectively used in
the teaching-learning process to teach the topic “National Integration”?
23
Introduction to Educational Technology
24
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.11
Select a topic of your interest and prepare a structure of input, teaching-learning process,
and output of that topic.
25
Introduction to Educational Technology
The ten points given in Table 1.4 make it clear the areas of educational technology. You may have
observed the wide scope of ET? It covers all the models, variables, phases, levels and dimensions
or aspects of the teaching-learning process. It directs the teacher on the science of teaching, the
students on the science of learning, the academic administrators on the skill of managing and
monitoring teaching-learning tasks, and the educational planners on better construction and
transaction of curriculum effectively. Moreover, it particularly advocates for individualised
instruction, group instruction, and mass education through mass media and other means. For this
purpose, we use the radio, television, Films, OHP, slides, LCD projectors, tele-text, computer-
controlled devices, personal computer, and other modern information and communication
technologies.
Besides that, educational technology has also fulfilled many other educational utilities and engages
in far more needs assessment, product evaluation, and research in the areas of educational
development.
The scope of educational technology till the fourth generation of distance education was to some
extent limited. It worked till the early 1990s and was confined to the use of multimedia, telecoms,
audio-video conferencing, PC, NICT, and asynchronous use of recorded materials. The scope
of educational technology became wider in the first and second generations of Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) started from the early 90’s to till date. Sophisticated educational technologies
entered the educational scenario and could provide solution many of the issues in teaching-
learning process. During this time autonomous and self-directed learning, asynchronous and
26
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
synchronous online learning, mobile, e-learning, blended learning, on-campus and web experience
have been highly used. To go into detail about the scope and evolution of educational technology
you may study Figure 2.6 in Unit-2 of this same Block.
Let us discuss the educational technology syllabus of D.Ed. /B.Ed. /M.Ed. proposed by CIET,
NCERT, New Delhi in 2012.
Table 1.5: Educational Technology Syllabi of D.Ed., B.Ed. and M.Ed.
Teacher Contents
Education
Courses /
Programme
D.Ed. Introduction of Educational Technology: Concept of ET its
scope and approaches, communication, mass teaching
strategies, programme, cooperative, discovery, collaborative
learning, & Open and Distance Education mode.
Multiple Technologies: Relevance and use: audio, audio-
visual, multi-media, interactive video, internet, web 2.0 tools,
teleconferencing, web conference, adaptive & assistive
technologies for inclusive classroom.
Evaluation and Feedback: Role of ET in CCE, preparation and
maintenance of a portfolio, CRC, CRT & NRT, Rubrics for
assessment.
Practices and Challenges of ET: Micro teaching and teaching
skills, reflective teaching, problem solving, simulated
teaching, teaching strategies of multi grade classes, diversified
age group learners, team teaching, action research in ET and
using web 2.0 tools.
B.Ed. Introduction to ET: Concept, technology in education and
technology of education, learning theories, & ICT.
Transactional Strategies: Communication, individualised,
personalised, group, and mass educational strategies,
programmed learning, types of programmed material: SIM,
IEP, Text Book, e-course ware, constructivist learning design,
distance and open learning systems.
Evolution of Educational Media: Educational Radio, TV,
Projected & non-projected aids, storage media, transmission
technology, computer technology etc.
Role of ET in Evaluation: Role of ET in CCE, portfolio and
electronic portfolio assessment, rubrics and digital rubrics, e-
assessment.
Practices and Challenges of ET: Micro teaching, teaching
skills, using web 2.0 tools, teaching strategies for multi-grade
classes, diversified age group learners, action research in ET,
technology integration practices in school.
27
Introduction to Educational Technology
Table 1.5 reveals that, in the teacher education curriculum both the conceptual approach of
educational technology and its practices are included. Teacher education curriculum needs to be
technology oriented and in order to fulfil the needs of the learners, the demands of time need to
be kept in mind. The evolution of new technologies such as, the electronically based information
system has created ample possibilities and has also increased productivity in education. The
possibilities and productivity in education has been made possible by the use of lower cost
educational technologies. As a result of all these innovations, three different functions in the
educational scenario have been developed for accommodating individualisation of educational
practices, integration of technologies in educational practice, and for providing innovation in
education.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 1.12
28
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
Summary
In this unit, you have learnt about the concept of educational technology which includes the
meaning, definition and its characteristics. In the beginning of this unit, you learnt how educational
technology is not merely used as a hardware device or engineering gadget in the educational
process. Rather it emphasised many more aspects such as, programming, system approach,
psychological and pedagogical aspects of teaching-learning process. We defined educational
technology, discussed the different types of technology that is encompassed under the umbrella
of educational technology, such as, hardware, software, and systems approach, which is the
meeting point as well as the complementing and supplementing of the hardware and the software
in an organised system to facilitate the teaching-learning process.
We then examined the classification of educational technology, looking at Edgar Dale’s Cone of
Experience and Kulkarni’s classification of educational technology. The use of multi-sensory and
multimedia technology in education was also highlighted closely. The use of input, output, and the
process (IPO) aspect of technology in education was another key learning point of this unit,
which we explained with suitable examples. At the end of this unit, we discussed the scope and
areas of educational technology. Ten different signifying areas and scope of educational technology
have been discussed in this unit, which made you aware of how educational technology plays an
inseparable part in the modern teaching-learning process.
We have also looked at the development of educational technology during the first to the forth
generation of ‘Distance Education’, and during the first - second generation of ‘Open and Distance
Learning’ which will be useful in the understanding of units 2 & 3 of this Block.
References and Suggested Reading
Dale’s Cone of Experience. Principle of Teaching, Bloomsburg University, Spring 2003.
Wikipedia (2012). Educational Technology retrieved on 14.12.2012. http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/
en/Educational_technology.
29
Introduction to Educational Technology
30
Concept and Scope of Educational Technology
1. Visit a school or any Secondary Teacher Education Institute and make a report on the
change in the use of educational technology over the years.
2. Discuss the objectives of educational technology at both the macro and micro levels of
educational process.
3. Discuss the scope of educational technology in the Indian context relating to global
educational developments and challenges.
4. Explain the role of teacher educators in sensitising trainee teachers on the use of emerging
educational technology.
5. Discuss future perspectives of the use of educational technology.
6. Critically examine the curriculum of Educational Technology and ICT meant for teacher
education programme in different levels at present time.
31
Introduction to Educational Technology
ABBREVIATIONS USED
AVRC : Audio-Video Research Centre
CAI : Computer Assisted Instruction
CBM : Content Based Methodology
CCE : Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
CEC : Consortium for Educational Communication
CEMCA : Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia
CIET : Central Institute of Educational Technology
CMI : Computer Managed Instruction
CRC : Comulative Record Card
CRT : Criterion Referenced Test
EMMRC : Educational Multimedia Resource Centre
ICT : Information and Communication Technology
IEP : Individualised Educational Program
IPO : Input - Process - Output
ISTE : International Society for Educational Technology
LAN : Local Area Network
NIOS : National Institute of Open Schooling
NRT : Norm Referenced Test
OER : Open Educational Resources
RLO : Reusable Learning Objects
SIET : State Institute of Educational Technology
WBI : Web Based Information
32
UNIT
Educational Technology:
Historical Developments
Santosh Panda 2
Emergence, borrowing and convergence
The 1990s
Introduction
By now, you may have developed a fair understanding of the field of educational technology – its
concept and diversified applications. As you have already noticed, educational technology as a
field encompasses design-development-application-evaluation of education and training systems
and processes at all levels of education and training, and in formal (classroom), non-formal,
adult, continuing, and lifelong education. Simultaneously, it has encompassed a wide variety of
media and technology developments – starting from the traditional audio-visual aids to the current
semantic web and web 3.0, including open source software and social networking tools. Based
on the discussion on its concept and scope, we extend the discussion further in this Unit to trace
its historical developments in forms of its emergence, borrowings from other fields, and convergence
with other disciplines and systems. While doing so, we relate this to the developments in the field
of media and technology (and note that while these developments have blurred the concept, they
have extended the scope of educational technology); draw a parallel with the development of the
field in India; and based on all these, reflect on the future of educational technology in its applications
in teaching and learning and training, and its professional development. We shall draw in the
contents of Units 1 and 2 to explain its applications in teaching, learning and evaluation and
training in Unit 3.
Learning outcomes
33
Introduction to Educational Technology
34
ET: Historical Developments
Instructional Instructional
Evaluation
objectives procedures
Feedback
35
Introduction to Educational Technology
36
ET: Historical Developments
there was greater focus on performance technology which took into consideration both
instructional and non-instructional aspects to achieve the desired level of performance.
iii) Individualized learning
The area of individualized learning developed from programmed learning onwards, especially,
following the works of B.F. Skinner (1954). This further led to the development of individualized
learning packages, systems of individualized instruction, and system-based instructional models.
Subsequent to these, further research led to developments in mastery learning, Keller’s personalized
system of instruction, modular instruction, individually guided instruction, Knowles’ (1975) learning
contracts, audio-tutorial systems, among others. With the developments and refinements in
computers (especially, personal computers), computer-assisted learning (CAL) has assumed a
significant place in teaching-learning today. The advent of the web, social software (like Wiki)
and social networking (like Facebook) has contributed significantly to computer-mediated
communication (CMC) in the virtual world.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 2.1
At this stage, take a pause, and reflect on the relationship between audiovisual aids and
instructional development on the one hand, and individualized instruction/learning on the
other. That is, in what way the former have contributed to the quality of the latter (i.e. self
learning). You may write about 150 words in the space given below.
37
Introduction to Educational Technology
strategies, learning experience, assessment evaluation, and feedback – all these form part of a
continuum and move in a cycle towards continuous improvement and change from time to time
so that the teacher’s teaching becomes more effective and student’s learning becomes more
enriching and qualitative. This involves application of systems models which clearly and precisely
record various stages (and activities included in these stages) of analysis, design, development,
implementation, and evaluation of instruction. Various scholars have contributed to the components
of instructional design and development: Rossett for needs assessment, goal analysis by Mager,
task analysis by Merrill, instructional systems design by Romiszowski, media production and
utilization by Heinich, instructional delivery by Clark, and formative and summative evaluation by
Bloom. The present day reforms in curriculum development and instructional design are
contributions from the earlier developments in the systems approach to education and training.
The developmental continuum of the above aspects of educational technology, known as the
Elton Model (given by Lewis Elton in 1977), has been described by Ellington et al (2005) which
is diagrammatically presented in Figure 2.2 and subsequently described.
RESEARCH
MASS DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION
USE
RESEARCH
DEVELOPMENT
INDIVIDUALISED
LEARNING USE
RESEARCH
GROUP DEVELOPMENT
LEARNING
USE
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ET: Historical Developments
As given in Figure 2.2, Elton believed that the development of educational technology can be
organized under three broad areas – mass instruction/communication, individualized instruction/
learning, and group learning. Each of these areas has gone through three stages of research,
development, and use. And, this continuum or the cycle continues forever – i.e. in each area
R&D (research and development) is still being conducted which is leading to its improved
application in education and training, and teaching and learning.
Mass instruction is as old as lecture itself, though this was limited to groups of students.
Developments in audiovisual aids (and related hardware and software) during the post-World
War II period led to emergence of television (and also radio which was much before this) as
mass communication and mass instruction technique. The major objective was to reach as many
as possible and also to achieve economy of scale (i.e. less cost per unit or per person). However,
communication based on this technology was one-way, without any possibility of interaction
between the sender and the receivers. Later, the allied development of audio and video technology
and associated programmes facilitated interaction in groups since the control of stop-and-start
facility rested with the teacher. Another development of mass instruction was close circuit television
(CCTV) which facilitated: i) teaching by one teacher and distributed to other classrooms, and ii)
teaching by more than one teacher from different locations to address only one group of students
in one classroom. Another example is cable television network for teaching-learning. The limitation
in this technology was that students remained passive, and also that higher order educational
objectives could not be addressed by this. In spite of these limitations, mass instruction has
expanded further in forms of ‘open and distance learning’ and ‘virtual education’. In case of
the former (which is basically offline), there is increasing use of industrialized system of education
in which there is mass production of learning resources and mass distribution with continuous
learner support at study centres. This facilitated greater access and equity in education (though it
has been argued that ODL has been more oriented to behaviourism and/or instructional
industrialism). On the other hand, virtual education (which is online and is carried out in the
World Wide Web) facilitates large scale/mass education and training, and at the same time provides
for greater interaction among the learning resources, the teacher and the students. If designed
properly, there is every possibility of addressing constructivist learning in online contexts. During
the past few years, this has led to a new strategy of ‘blended learning’ in which online, face-to-
face, and individual self-learning are blended to achieve the highest quality of student learning
experiences.
Individualized learning got a boost only after B.F. Skinner’s contribution to programmed learning
through behaviourism, even if independent study through correspondence education existed earlier
to this. Unlike mass instruction which stressed on access and equity, the focus of individualized
instruction was to facilitate self-learning. The behaviourist psychology put forward the theory of
stimulus-response and feedback in the process of learning, and the conditions that are very
favourable to learning to take place. These conditions were extended by Robert Gagne in his
famous steps of learning. Learning takes place through a chain of stimulus-response situations.
Reinforcement in the form of feedback is provided for learning to happen and to be retained (if it
is positive reinforcement) or to be discarded (if it is negative reinforcement). The small steps of
stimulus-response and concomitant reinforcement resulted in shaping of human behaviour which
was to overtly expressed and assessed to make sure learning has taken place.
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Introduction to Educational Technology
Skinner introduced linear programming in which the content is provided in small chunks (i.e.
stimulus), there is interaction with content (i.e. response), and there is always immediate feedback
in form of right or wrong answer to self-assessment questions. This slow process as also the
recognition of individual differences in learning led to the development of branching programmed
learning in the 1960s. Instead of proceeding in a linear process of interacting with content, this
was provided through various alternative pathways of contents for students to proceed as per
their learning style and pace of learning. There was remedial loop which facilitated correction of
learning misconceptions. This branching programmed learning with multiple or alternative pathways
of learning facilitated computer-based learning in the 1970s. Later developments in self-learning
provided more flexible pathways to study, the use of various access devices, more engaging
activities, and constant interaction with the learning materials, teacher, and fellow students.
With more stress gradually given to the development of self-learning resources in print, audio and
video, a variety of models was developed to facilitate individualized learning at a distance, and
online. The most famous and used theory of learning at a distance was developed by Michael
Moore in 1972 in the name of independent study which is presented in Figure 2.3 below.
Dialogue
Learner
Structure autonomy
+S–D = Limited content negotiation.
Right balance = depends on educational sophistication of learning and subject content.
‘Interaction’ in transactional distance: learner-instructor; learner-content; learner-learner (Moore, 1989);
learner-interface (Hillman et al, 1994).
40
ET: Historical Developments
Activity 1 2.2
ACTIVITY
Based on what you have reflected in Activity 2.1, in this activity you need to extend the
relationship between AV aids and instructional design with individualized instruction to
the context of non-classroom based instruction and learning, especially in the context of
offline distance learning and computer-mediated communication online (i.e. online
learning). You may write down your response within 100 words in the space given below.
The developments of various media and technology have also contributed significantly contributed
to the evolution and application of educational technology.
42
ET: Historical Developments
As noted earlier, activities on the Net (the Web) increased and diversified following the creation
of the semantic web by Sir Bernard Lee and colleague. As noted in Table 2.2, the general use of
the internet along can be stated to have started in 1990, the World Wide Web (WWW) with
simulation and games. Development of web browsers, wireless networks and mobile technology
was put to use in the mid-nineties; followed by e-portfolio (electronic portfolio development and
use) and YouTube (for live storage and play of recorded videos) in mid-2000s. The actual use of
electronic books (including kindle), 3G technology, and cloud computing (and cloud learning) is
a more recent phenomenon.
Table 2.2: Technologies for teaching (1990 onwards)
As you can see from Table 2.2, the last decade saw technological developments reach the
pinnacle with significant progress in areas of social technologies, social software, and social
networking. Such developments like YouTube, Flicker, Facebook and Twitter transformed the
way people generally communicate, collaborate, network, and socialize/professionalize. The
emergence of cloud computing, data centres, and cloud learning transformed the traditional
bounded learning either within the classroom, or through a network of study centres, or even
through the traditional computer-mediated communication.
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Introduction to Educational Technology
C ellphone P D As C omputers
44
ET: Historical Developments
education resource (OER) – resources which are collaboratively created and used by all under
the Creative Commons License (the legal mechanism to support the copyright/intellectual property
rights).
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Introduction to Educational Technology
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 2.3
By now you have a fair understanding of media and technology developments used for
teaching-learning and training. At this stage, reflect on those media and technologies that
you are using regularly or occasionally, and examine the combinations that you will like to
use for teaching the subject of your choice. Also, justify your choice of media and their
combination, and examine the purpose each media will address. Write in about 200 words
using the space given below.
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ET: Historical Developments
48
ET: Historical Developments
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 2.4
Based on the above trends of the 1990s which were basically American, what trends do
you see in educational technology in the national contexts in your own country? You may
look into at any level of education or the education system as a whole. Write in about 150
words in the space given below.
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Introduction to Educational Technology
experiment which combined education with community participation and development. In 1974,
the union government created an ET unit in the Education Ministry, the Centre for Educational
Technology (CET) at NCERT, and ET cells in six site states. In 1980, when INSAT (Indian
National Satellite) was launched, the government Doordarshan (national television) took over
production and especially telecast of educational television programmes. The CIET of NCERT
later started educational television programmes for school children and for primary teachers in
the eighties. The GoI in collaboration with UNDP and UNESCO started INSAT for Education
project; simultaneously an ET Division was established at the Ministry; the CET of NCERT was
merged with its Department of Teaching Aids to be renamed as CIET; and many ET cells of state
governments were also renamed as State Institutes of Educational Technology. Classroom 2000+
experiment on interactive conferencing was conducted by CIET the results of which though
could not be implemented widely thereafter. However, concurrently, the GoI undertook a scheme
of distributing radio-cum-cassette players (about 228,118) and colour TV sets (about 31,129)
and using those in various schools in the country, though, the scheme also failed to integrate
media and technology with classroom teaching-learning (Mukhopadhyay, et. al. 1993).
In so far as the computer is concerned, its experiment and use in classrooms dates back to 1984
when the CLASS (computer literature and studies) project was started as a joint venture of the
Department of Electronics (DoE), GoI and NCERT. Microcomputers provided by the BBC
were supplied to 2582 schools and 42 resource centres. The experiment concluded not-so-
effective use of microcomputers in teaching due largely to the gap between teacher orientation
and actual use, installation and other problems, and lack of sufficient training. Attitude to technology
was also another factor. The revised CLASS was revived during 1993-2004 with new PCs,
followed by CLASS 2000 in which the government had to introduce computer literacy in 10,000
schools, and computer based learning in 100 smart schools. The experience of NCERT showed
that IT was not integrated into teaching-learning, rather was used as add on; and also that lack of
significant policy and committed practice led to its negligence by the teachers. Subsequently,
there have been a few experiments like IIT (D)-NIIT experiment on ‘Hole in the Wall’ computer
literacy project, 1-month summer course for Class V students by TeNet group of IIT (Madras),
among others. A large number of urban schools today use a number of interactive multimedia
CD-ROMs in the classroom, along with ETV and web resources. The use of interactive multimedia
CD-ROMs on hard spots and computers was enhanced under the Computer Based Elementary
Education (CBEE) of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in schools in various states under a Public-
Private-Partnership (PPP) model in collaboration with private IT companies, government
organization, and NGOs.
In the case of higher education, after the successful launch of INSAT-1B, the UGC initiated the
UGC-INSAT Television Project (known as Countrywide Classroom-CWCR) on August 15,
1984, to produce and broadcast enrichment programmes on week days for one hour to
undergraduate college students, coordinated by the Mass Communicating Cell (now Consortium
for Educational Communication) of UGC, and produced by four Educational Media Research
Centres and two Audio Visual Research Centres in Universities. The Mass Communication
Research Centre of Jamia Millia Islamia (now a central university) was to conduct R&D besides
also producing television programmes to the related undergraduate curriculum (Panda, 1995).
Later the enrichment programmes were replaced by curriculum-based video lectures which were
broadcast as are also available at a price in the market. The UGC provided television sets and
50
ET: Historical Developments
VCRs to (selected) colleges under various Five-Year Plans. Many universities today both teachers
and students have access the to internet and web resources, online journals and books, access
to the literature base of INFLIBNET, and the digital curriculum-based printed modules under
the Sakshat project of MHRD, GoI and the online video repository in engineering and technology
of NPTEL (of IITs). Almost all IITs, the IIMs, the IISc, Jadavpur University, among others have
developed online learning management systems (LMS) for online teaching-learning as also
multimedia-based interaction through institutional network. Some also do web casting of their
teleconferencing lectures.
The use of media and technology got a wider platform after the initiation of correspondence
education both at the school level and in higher education. Besides audio and video, and radio
(Gyan Vani) and television (Gyan Darshan), the distance teaching institutions including the open
universities and open schools also use teleconferencing, web casting, and online platforms, IGNOU,
besides all these, uses interactive radio counseling (IRC) through its FM radio stations, mobile
technology for learner support, online lecturing/presentation through Adobe Connect, and online
resource repository of digital print modules, audio and video programmes (as Open Education
Resource) through its eGyankosh. The Open School system, especially the National Institute of
Open Schooling, uses audio and video, radio and television, teleconferencing for teaching-learning.
Besides, there is online admission, and on-demand online examination. Parallel to these media
and technology deployment and use in all levels of open and distance learning, there is constant
updating and diversification in course design and development models, and different styles of
self-learning materials in print, audio-video, multimedia, and online LMS.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 2.5
Based on what you have read so far and also based on the fact that media and technology
developments shall continue to upscale in future, reflect on and categorically specify what
you think could be the future developments in educational technology internationally and
in your own country. Use the space given below to write your views.
The views that you have jotted down above may have covered areas such as instructional system
development, curriculum design and development, instructional design/development, course design
and development, media and technology especially social technologies and social networking,
mobile technology, bases of learning especially the constructivist perspective, management of
databases and networks, dynamic platforms like cloud computing and cloud learning, open
educational resources, among others. To consolidate some of the future developments in educational
51
Introduction to Educational Technology
technology through some broad parameters, go through the following points and see if you thought
of these and also if you agree to these or have altogether different views.
While the use of audio, radio, video and television in teaching-learning will continue, the use
of CD-ROM (multimedia) is reducing; teleconferencing and video conferencing especially
through web casting and through the 3G mobile technology (mobile phone) will increase;
schools and colleges will opt for more computer-mediated communication, network/LAN
based resource storage and use, use of online resource repositories, and some form of
blended learning. Since there is/will be an increasing convergence of broadcasting,
telecommunications, and computing, converged technologies and blended learning will
continue to dominate the educational media and technology scenario in the future. In case of
open learning and self learning materials (or learning resources), authentic proprietary materials
will be still of value, though authentic and appropriate open education resources will be the
issue to deal with along with its instructional design, repurposing and copyright.
With increasing R&D and expansion in social software, social technologies, and social
networking technologies, there shall be greater need for these technologies to be
systematically designed within instructional design and blended learning frameworks to address
diversified educational and training requirements at especially tertiary education and in cases
of continuing education, lifelong learning, training, and adult education. Open software and
open source social technologies will capture the mainstream, and mobile (with converged)
technology will assume greater significance. Further, there shall be increasing use of ICT in
adult basic education, continuing education, and lifelong learning.
Since constructivist approaches to learning have (and shall continue to) come to the forefront
of educational design and organization of teaching-learning, the future will see more of
instructional systems design, instructional design, learning resources development, interaction
and knowledge construction and negotiation being influenced by this. This will possibly be
more in the case of online learning and training.
Due to these development, curriculum design and selection and use of learning resources
may happen in a cloud learning environment which shall provide for dynamic, 24×7, and
customized learning design to meet the needs of individual learners. Also, there shall more
resource generation and sharing on the web through Web 2.0 and social technologies,
though there shall be further questions raised about authentic resources and authentic learning,
especially in the context of open education resources.
Summary
You have seen in this unit that the initiation of educational technology movement started with
audiovisual aids (within ‘technology in education’) and behaviourism and programmed learning
(within ‘technology of education’). In the process educational technology/ instructional technology
systems got developed, learning was more personalized (i.e. oriented to one’s own ability, need
and style), and group ‘interaction’ was frequent and enriched. The later developments in distance
education largely used the educational technology developments so much so that today both
constructivist learning and personalized learning environment on the web can combine together
to offer customized and enriched learning experiences. We shall look at the application of
educational technology to teaching, learning and training more closely in Unit 3
52
ET: Historical Developments
Describing the future scenario of education and educational technology research for the next 25
years, Facer and Sandford (2010) point out that the stress in the future shall shift from pedagogy
to curriculum (for networked learning); from school to cover the community, home and workplace;
and beyond social sciences to relate to the fields of medical and bio-ethics.
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Introduction to Educational Technology
1. While tracing the historical developments in educational technology especially in your country,
critical reflects on the trends which the teachers of all the generations have found useful and
effective in their own teaching and in facilitating student learning. Write in about 600 words.
2. Based on the media and technology developments on the one hand, and the developments
in theories explaining how human beings learn, contemplate on and describe the design of a
learning environment which can best facilitate students’ learning (of any subject or subject of
your choice). Write in about 600 words.
54
UNIT
Training Technology
Santosh Panda 3
Introduction
This is the last unit of this Block which is based on the discussions that have taken place in the
preceding two units. Since you have gathered considerable idea about and clarifications on the
concept and scope of educational technology, and its historical development including the
developments in India, you may find it convenient now to think of the field of training technology,
i.e. the scope of educational technology within the field of training. To appreciate this better, we
have undertaken some discussion on technology based learning to distinguish it from technology
based training; and finally on web-based training which is in use currently. The application of the
field of educational technology shall be visible to you through all the blocks contained in this
course, and through your reflection on all that you do for your own teaching.
Learning outcomes
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Introduction to Educational Technology
interaction may take place through the intranet as well (without getting into the world wide web–
www).
Instead of the traditional concept or practice of a linear model of learning, TBL includes customized
learning and self pacing; and emphasis is given to learning context, personalization, and learning
solutions. In case of continuing professional development (which takes place continuously
throughout the employment period in any profession), learning takes place as and when needed,
and based on the requirement of each employee. This can be achieved through the use of CD-
ROM, or intranet, or the internet. TBL goes beyond the F2F (face-to-face) classroom learning
with the advantages that: there is greater access and learning can take place anywhere and
anytime; learning is self-selected and self-paced as per one’s own requirements; TBL can address
larger number than what classroom learning can do; this is more up-to-date and instant than F2F
learning; and that TBL can be more motivating (in addition to F2F interaction).
However, both teachers and students need to take care of a few factors for TBL to work more
effectively. If TBL is made a regular part of classroom teaching-learning, those children who do
not have access to computers at home shall be at a severe disadvantage in their learning. A pre-
requisite to a good TBL programme is that the programme/courses should be interactive, and
that there should be enough personalized learner support to address individual learning needs.
Cost is an important factor – the unit cost shall increase unless the number of users is increased
and/or unless the use of cost-intensive animation and video aspects are reduced.
As we shall see later, either or F2F teaching along or TBL alone has not been able to achieve the
desired effects in learning; therefore, blended learning (by combining TBL with F2F interaction)
has been advocated so that in a good combination and by designing the mix well the learning
effectiveness can be enhanced.
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Training Technology
interaction (through Mobile phones). These technologies have been mixed and designed in different
variations to suit the requirements to meet the learners and to meet the learning objectives of
various programmes.
TBT takes place through various forms. We discuss below a few important ones; and you may
still think of any other TBT scenarios that you may have encountered so that you can relate those
with the ones discussed below.
Computer-based training: This involves use of the computer, either in groups or individually
(more often as individuals for learning skills and gathering/updating information on one’s own
field of work. This may include computer simulations, tutorials, and computer games.
Network-based training: Computer tutorials and games which may take place through any
network (either intranet comprising computer network of an institutions or any local network)
are included in this. Individual interact from their computer to a network comprising other individuals
sitting with their PCs.
Web-based training: This, which we shall discuss in a later section below, includes all kinds of
training and professional development which take place on the web (through internet), including
the use of social software and social technologies (like Wiki and Facebook).
A variety of technologies are included in training. All kinds of technological developments that
you have studied in Unit 2 can be used in one form or the other in training and professional
development. The training may take place in a face-to-face workshop context, or through
videoconferencing (where people scattered is different places joint or the conferencing for
interaction), or through distance learning (comprising the traditional print-based self-learning
materials, and/or online resource study and interaction). Therefore, all kinds of technological
devices, systems, and networks are included in this – starting from the traditional audiovisual
aids, through CD-ROM and DVDs, to videoconferencing and web-based study and interaction.
Web-based training may involve simple texts and graphics, or integration of multimedia, hyperlinks
to other resources, communication systems, and online assessment tools. At the high end are
included electronic performance support system (EPSS), intelligent tutoring systems, distributed
interactive simulations, game-based training, and distributed mission training.
ACTIVITY
Activity 1 3.1
At this stage, before proceeding further on TBT (and its extension to WBT), take a pause
and briefly examine in what way TBL can be practically used in your classroom teaching.
Write in about 150 words.
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Introduction to Educational Technology
58
Training Technology
People, who may have inhibition to attend physically training workshops with other
colleagues, may find virtual interaction acceptable and interesting too. People with any sort
of disability will also find technology-based communication and interaction convenient.
TBT can bring in variety into content, interaction, takes and assignment, and assessment.
Trainees can also have individual freedom and flexibility to access an immense amount of
resources, often guided and modulated by the trainer/mentor.
iii) Challenges of TBT
It is not easy to handle and conduct TBT, nor is it easy for trainees to be able to effectively
participate in this kind of training. TBT assumes at least a minimum level of technology competency
in the trainees. Even if there is competency, there may not be favourable attitudinal pre-disposition
towards technology.
There is every possibility that individual trainees who do not want to proceed in a linear manner
to get lost in the process. This may pose difficulty for the tutor/mentor to be able to effectively
guide each trainee participant. Learner control on learning/training may not always work to the
advantage of the trainees.
Except interactive technologies, most of the technologies do not have possibility of interaction
and collaboration. Therefore, the trainer/mentor shall have to work hard to design such training
including the trainer’s physical interaction or interaction through technology. In case of web-
based training, both the trainer and the participants must have adequate expertise to professionally
interact with content, technology, peers, and the trainer. This is a very high demand on people
involved in TBT. In any case, some kind of face-to-face collaborative interaction is essential,
along with TBT. Therefore, a promising strategy for teaching-learning and training is ‘blended
learning’ and/or ‘blended training’ in which web 2.0, open education resources (Ores), and F2F
interaction can be judiciously combined, and in which social interaction and networking should
be ensured.
The critical issue is the design of training. TBT shall be doomed to be a failure if the classroom-
based training is exactly repurposed for TBT/technological delivery. The TBT design given by
Bell and Kozlowski (2007) as drawn in Figure 3.1 and which is self-explanatory is very useful to
think of any alternative training design you may have in mind. You may also like to try out this
design approach and see how effective this can be.
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Introduction to Educational Technology
Content
Immersio Communication
Interactivity
Summary
You have seen in this unit that, based on what we had discussed in the first two units of this block,
the discussion was extended to the field of training through technology based training (TBT). We
revisited technology based learning, and based on are knowledge and understand of it, we moved
to discuss technology based training. As you have seen the effective use of TBT uses both the
traditional technologies as also the recent social technologies and social networks. Following
this, we discussed various factors that need to be kept in mind and taken care of for TBT; the
benefits that may be derived by properly planning and designing TBT including capacity building
of people involved in this; and various challenges that are faced while designing and implementing
TBT. Based on your reflections on what you have read, you may like to think further about how
you are going to organize any training programme in the near future.
Bell, B.S. and Kozlowski, S.W.J. (2007). Advances in technology-based training. USA:
Cornell University.
Keegan, D. (2000). Distance training. London: Routledge.
Salas, E. and Cannon-Bowers, J.A. (2001). The science of training: A decade of progress.
Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 471-499.
Schreiber, D.A. and Berge, Z.L. (1998). Distance training. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Training Technology
1. Based on what you have read about technology-based learning, technology-based training,
and various factors that you need to consider for an effective TBT, critically reflect on (and
write down) which of the technologies or technology combinations you may choose to
design and implement any training programme for teachers, (that you may be comfortable in
organizing).
61