Fluids Mechanics III

Patrick

2020
Course Description
Kinematics of fluid element. Potential flow: Rotational and irrotational flows; circula-
tion and vorticity; stream functions and velocity potential functions. Potential flow nets.
Superposition of rectilinear flows, source and sink. Vortex motion; free and forced vor-
tex flow. Flow past a cylinder. Pressure fields and lift forces.

Compressibility effects in moving fluids: basic equations for compressible gases in

steady flow conditions; Mach number. One dimensional isentropic flow in convergent
and divergent nozzles.

Flows in turbines and pumps; Degree of reaction: impulse and reaction stages. Ve-
locity triangles and utilization factors, losses through stages and blade speed ratio.

Concept of laminar and turbulent boundary layers. Lift and drag considerations on
bodies moving in a gas.

The speed of propagation of pressure wave in a gas; the speed of sound, Mach number,
introduction to supersonic flow, the normal and oblique shock waves. Flow with fric-
tion. Flow with heat addition or loss. Averaging techniques for turbulent flows.

Laminar boundary layers; concept, boundary layer thickness, boundary layer equations
for two-dimensional incompressible flow. Turbulent boundary layers. Drag and lift
forces on aero=foils, and other submerged surfaces.

1
Chapter 1
Kinematics of fluid element
Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that deals with quantities involving space and
time only. It treats variables such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, deformation,
and rotation of fluid elements without referring to the forces responsible for such a mo-
tion.

In fluid mechanics, the study of the velocity of various particles on the flow and the
instantaneous flow pattern of the flow field is called flow kinematics or hydrodynamics.
A thorough study of the kinematics of fluids is a necessary preliminary to the study
of the dynamics of fluids. Kinematics investigations carry us very far into the general
theory of fluid motion. The kinematics of fluids presents problems of much greater
complexity than does the kinematics of rigid bodies and requires quite different theo-
retical methods for its treatments.

1.1 Lagrarian and Eulerian Descriptions

Newton’s laws are used to describe the motion of such objects, and we can accurately
predict where they go and how momentum and kinetic energy are exchanged from one
object to another. The kinematics of such experiments involves keeping track of the
position vector of each object, ~xA , ~xB , · · · , and the velocity vector of each object,
V~A , V~B , · · · , as functions of time (Fig. below). When this method is applied to a flow-
ing fluid, we call it the Lagrangian description of fluid motion.

Figure 1.1: In the Lagrangian description, we must keep track of the position and ve-
locity of individual particles.

A more common method of describing fluid flow is the Eulerian description of fluid
motion. In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow domain
or control volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out. Instead of tracking
individual fluid particles, we define field variables, functions of space and time, within
the control volume. The field variable at a particular location at a particular time is the
value of the variable for whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at that
time. For example, the pressure field is a scalar field variable; for general unsteady three

2
dimensional fluid flow in Cartesian coordinates:, Pressure field: P = P (x, y, z, t).
We define the velocity field as a vector field variable in similar fashion,
Velocity field: V~ = V~ (x, y, z, t). Likewise, the acceleration field is also a vector field
variable,
Acceleration field: ~a = ~a(x, y, z, t)
Collectively, these (and other) field variables define the flow field. The velocity field of
velocity equation is expanded in Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), (~i, ~j, ~k) as
V~ = (u, v, w) = u(x, y, z, t)~i + v(x, y, z, t)~j + w(x, y, z, t)~k

Example:
A steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field is given by
V~ = (u, v) = (0.5 = 0.8x)~i + (1.5 − 0.8y)~j
where the x- and y-coordinates are in meters and the magnitude of velocity is in m/s.
A stagnation point is defined as a point in the flow field where the velocity is zero. (a)
Determine if there are any stagnation points in this flow field and, if so, where? (b)
Sketch velocity vectors at several locations in the domain between x = −2m to 2m and
y = 0m to 5m; qualitatively describe the flow field.
SOLUTION: For the given velocity field, the location(s) of stagnation point(s) are to be
determined. Several velocity vectors are to be sketched and the velocity field is to be
described.
Assumptions: 1. The flow is steady and incompressible. 2. The flow is two dimen-
sional, implying no z-component of velocity and no variation of u or v with z.
Analysis: (a) Since V~ is a vector, all its components must equal zero in order for V~
itself to be zero. Using V~ = (u, v, w) = u(x, y, z, t)~i + v(x, y, z, t)~j + w(x, y, z, t)~k
and setting V~ = (u, v) = (0.5 = 0.8x)~i + (1.5 − 0.8y)~jequal to zero,
Stagnation point:
u = 0.5 + 0.8x = 0 → x = −0.625m
v = 1.5 + 0.8y = 0 → y = 1.875m
Yes. There is one stagnation point located at x = −0.625m, y = 1.875m

Figure 1.2: Velocity vectors (blue arrows) for the velocity field.

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1.1.1 Acceleration Field
The equations of motion for fluid flow (such as Newton’s second law) are written for a
fluid particle, which we also call a material particle. If we were to follow a particular
fluid particle as it moves around in the flow, we would be employing the Lagrangian
description, and the equations of motion would be directly applicable. For example,
we would define the particle’s location in space in terms of a material position vector
(xparticle (t), yparticle (t), zparticle (t)). However, some mathematical manipulation is then
necessary to convert the equations of motion into forms applicable to the Eulerian de-
scription.
Consider, for example, Newton’s second law applied to our fluid particle,

Newton’s second law: F~particle = mparticle~aparticle where F~particle is the net force acting
on the fluid particle, mparticle is its mass, and ~aparticle is its acceleration. By definition,
the acceleration of the fluid particle is the time derivative of the particle’s velocity,
~
dV
Acceleration of a fluid particle: ~aparticle = particle
dt

However, at any instant in time t, the velocity of the particle is the same as the lo-
cal value of the velocity field at the location (xparticle (t), yparticle (t), zparticle (t)) of the
particle, since the fluid particle moves with the fluid by definition. In other words,
Vparticle (t) ≡ V~ (xparticle (t), yparticle (t), zparticle (t), t). To take the time derivative, we
must therefore use the chain rule, since the dependent variable (V~ ) is a function of four
independent variables (xparticle , yparticle , zparticle , and t),
~particle
dV ~ (xparticle ,yparticle ,zparticle ,t
dV
aparticle = dt
= dt

~ dt
∂V ~
∂V dxparticle ~
∂V dyparticle ~
∂V dzparticle
= ∂t dt
+ ∂xparticle dt
+ ∂yparticle dt
+ ∂zparticle dt

Since the acceleration is defined as that following a fluid particle (Lagrangian descrip-
tion), the rate of change of the particle’s x-position with respect to time is dxparticle /dt =
u, where u is the x-component of the velocity vector. Similarly, dyparticle /dt = v and
dzparticle /dt = w. Furthermore, at any instant in time under consideration, the material
position vector (xparticle , yparticle , zparticle ) of the fluid particle in the Lagrangian frame
is equal to the position vector (x, y, z) in the Eulerian frame. Equation above thus be-
comes;
~
dV ~
∂V ~ ~ ~
aparticle (x, y, z, t) = dt
= ∂t
+ u ∂∂xV + v ∂∂yV + w ∂∂zV

where, dt/dt = 1. Finally, at any instant in time t, the acceleration field must equal
the acceleration of the fluid particle that happens to occupy the location (x, y, z) at that
time t. Why? Because the fluid particle is by definition accelerating with the fluid flow.
Hence, we may replace ~aparticle with ~a(x, y, z, t) to transform from the Lagrangian to
the Eulerian frame of reference.

Acceleration of a fluid particle expressed as a field variable:

~ ~
~a(x, y, z, t) = ddtV = ∂∂tV + (V~ · ∇)
~ V~ where ∇
~ is the gradient operator or del operator, a

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vector operator that is defined in Cartesian coordinates as;
Gradient or del operator: ∇~ = ( ∂ ∂ ∂ ) = ~i ∂ + ~j ∂ + ~k ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

In Cartesian coordinates then, the components of the acceleration vector are

∂u
ax = ∂t
+ u ∂u
∂x
+ v ∂u
∂y
+ w ∂u
∂z

∂v ∂v ∂v
ay = ∂t
+ u ∂x + v ∂y + w ∂v
∂z

∂w
az = ∂t
+ u ∂w
∂x
+ v ∂w
∂y
+ w ∂w
∂z

~
∂V
∂t
, is called the local acceleration and is nonzero only for unsteady flows. The sec-
ond term, (V~ · ∇)
~ V~ , is called the advective acceleration (the convective acceleration);
this term can be nonzero even for steady flows.

Example
Nadeen is washing her car, using a nozzle. The nozzle is 0.325m long, with an inlet di-
ameter of 0.0350m and an outlet diameter of 0.0152m in the figure below. The volume
flow rate through the garden hose (and through the nozzle) is V̇ = 0.00187 m3/s, and
the flow is steady. Estimate the magnitude of the acceleration of a fluid particle moving
down the centerline of the nozzle.

Figure 1.3: Flow of water through the nozzle

SOLUTION: The acceleration following a fluid particle down the center of a nozzle
is to be estimated.
Assumptions: 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The x-direction is taken along
the centerline of the nozzle. 3 By symmetry, v = w = 0 along the centerline, but u in-
creases through the nozzle.
Analysis: The flow is steady, so you may be tempted to say that the acceleration is zero.
However, even though the local acceleration ∂ V~ /∂t is identically zero for this steady
flow field, the advective acceleration (V~ · ∇)
~ V~ is not zero. We first calculate the average
x-component of velocity at the inlet and outlet of the nozzle by dividing volume flow

5
rate by cross-sectional area:
Inlet speed:

uinlet ∼
= V̇
Ainlet
= 4V̇
2
πDinlet
4×0.00187
π×0.03502
= 1.95m/s

uoutlet = 10.4m/s

Method A
u2outlet −u2inlet
ax ∼
= ∆u
∆t
= uoutlet −uinlet
∆x/uavg
= uoutlet −uinlet
2∆x/(uoutlet −uinlet )
= 2∆x

Method B
∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = +u ∂u
∂x
+ v + w = u ∂u
∂x
∂t
|{z} ∂y ∂z}
| {z
|{z}
steady v=0 along centerline v=0 along centerline

continue with partial differential......

1.2 Flow Patterns and Flow Visualization

1.2.1 Continuity Equation for Flow—Cartesian Co-ordinates

Figure 1.4: Derivation of continuity equation

Consider an element of size dx, dy, dz in the flow as shown in Fig 1.4
Applying the law of conservation of mass, for a given time interval, The net mass flow
into the element through all the surfaces = The change in mass in the element.
First considering the y - z face, perpendicular to the x direction and located at x, the
flow through face during time dt is given by;

ρudydzdt (1.1)

The flow through the y – z face at x + dx is given by;

∂
ρudydzdt + (ρudydzdt)dx (1.2)
∂x

6
The net mass flow in the x direction is the difference between the quantities given by eq
1.1 and 1.2 and is equal to;
∂
(ρu)dxdydzdt (1.3)
∂x
Similarly the net mass through the faces z – x and x – y in y and z directions respectively
are given by;
∂
(ρv)dxdydzdt (1.4)
∂x
∂
(ρw)dxdydzdt (1.5)
∂x
The change in the mass in the control volume equals the rate of change of density ×
volume × time or;
∂ρ
dxdydzdt (1.6)
∂t
The sum of these quantities should equal zero, cancelling common terms dxdydzdt

∂(ρu) ∂(ρv) ∂(ρw) ∂ρ

+ + = (1.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
This is the general equation. For steady flow this reduces to;

∂(ρu) ∂(ρv) ∂(ρw)

+ + =0 (1.8)
∂x ∂y ∂z
For incompressible flow this becomes;
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0 (1.9)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Whether a flow is steady can be checked using this equation when the velocity com-
ponents are specified. For two dimensional steady incompressible flow, the equation
reduces to;
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (1.10)
∂x ∂y
For one dimensional flow with varying area, the first term of the general equation alone
need be considered. For steady flow;

∂(ρudydz
=0
∂x
as dydz = dA. Integrating ρuA = constant. or

ρ1 u1 A1 = ρ2 u2 A2 (1.11)

This equation is used to calculate the area, or velocity in one dimensional varying area
flow, like flow in a nozzle or venturi.

7
1.2.2 Irrotational Flow and Condition for such Flows
Irrotational flow may be described as flow in which each element of the moving fluid
suffers no net rotation from one instant to the next with respect to a given frame of refer-
ence. In flow along a curved path fluid elements will deform. If the axes of the element
rotate equally towards or away from each other, then the flow will be irrotational. This
means that as long as the algebraic average rotation is zero, the flow is irrotational.

Figure 1.5: Rotation in Flow

An element is shown moving from point 1 to point 2 along a curved path in the flow
field. At 1 the undeformed element is shown. As it moves to location 2 the element
is deformed. The angle of rotation of x axis is given by (∂v/∂y).∆y.∆t. The angle
of rotation of y axis is given by (∂u/∂y).∆y.∆t. (It is assumed that ∆x = ∆y. For
irrotational flow, the angle of rotation of the axes towards each other or away from each
other should be equal i.e., the condition to be satisfied for irrotational flow is,
∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u
= =⇒ − =0 (1.12)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Another significance of irrotational flow is that it is defined by a potential function φ
for the potential flow.
In case there is rotation, then the rotation is given by (with respect to the Z axis in the
case of two dimensional flow along x and y)

wz = (1/2)(∂v/∂x) − (∂u∂y) (1.13)

wz = 0 for irrotational flow.

1.2.3 Circulation and Vorticity

Considering a closed path in a flow field as shown in Fig.1.6, circulation is defined as
the line integral of velocity about this closed path. The symbol used is Γ.
I I
Γ= uds = cosβdL (1.14)
L L
where dL is the length on the closed curve, u is the velocity at the location and β is the
angle between the velocity vector and the length dL. The closed path may cut across

8
 Figure 1.6: Circulation in flow

several stream lines and at each point the direction of the velocity is obtained from the
stream line, as its tangent at that point.

The integration can be performed over an element as shown in Fig. 1.6(b).

In the cartesian co-ordinate if an element dx.dy is considered, then the circulation can
be calculated as detailed below:
Consider the element 1234 in Fig.1.6b. Starting at 1 and proceeding counter clockwise,

dΓ = udx + [v + (∂v/∂x)dx]dy − [u + (∂u/∂y)dy]dx − vdy = [∂v/∂x − ∂u/∂y]dxdy

(1.15)
Vorticity is defined as circulation per unit area. i.e.,
Vorticity = circulation per unit area, here area is dxdy, so
dΓ ∂v ∂u
V orticity = = − (1.16)
dxdy ∂x ∂y
For irrotational flow, vorticity and circulation are both zero. In polar coordinates
∂vθ 1 ∂vr vθ
V orticity = − + (1.17)
∂r r ∂θ r

1.3 Stream Lines, Stream Tube, Path Lines, Streak Lines

and Time lines
Stream lines are a series of curves drawn tangent to the mean velocity vectors of a num-
ber of particles in the flow. Since stream lines are tangent to the velocity vector at every
point in the flow field, there can be no flow across a stream line.

A bundle of neighbouring stream lines may be imagined to form a passage through

which the fluid flows. Such a passage is called a stream tube. Since the stream tube is
bounded on all sides by stream lines, there can be no flow across the surface. Flow can
be only through the ends. A stream tube is shown diagrammatically in Fig.1.7. Under
steady flow condition, the flow through a stream tube will be constant along the length.

Path line is the trace of the path of a single particle over a period of time. Path line

9
shows the direction of the velocity of a particle at successive instants of time. In steady
flow path lines and stream lines will be identical.

Streak lines provide an instantaneous picture of the particles, which have passed through
a given point like the injection point of a dye in a flow. In steady flow these lines will
also coincide with stream lines.
Path lines and streak lines are shown in Fig. 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Stream tube, Path lines and Streak lines

Particles P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , starting from point P at successive times pass along path

lines shown. At the instant of time considered the positions of the particles are at 1, 2,
3 and 4. A line joining these points is the streak line.

If a number of adjacent fluid particles in a flow field are marked at a given instant,
they form a line at that instant. This line is called time line. Subsequent observations of
the line may provide information about the flow field. For example the deformation of
a fluid under shear force can be studied using time lines.

1.3.1 Stream Line

In a flow field if a continuous line can be drawn such that the tangent at every point on
the line gives the direction of the velocity of flow at that point, such a line is defined as
a stream line. In steady flow any particle entering the flow on the line will travel only
along this line. This leads to visualisation of a stream line in laminar flow as the path
of a dye injected into the flow.

There can be no flow across the stream line, as the velocity perpendicular to the stream
line is zero at all points. The flow along the stream line can be considered as one dimen-
sional flow, though the stream line may be curved as there is no component of velocity
in the other directions. Stream lines define the flow paths of streams in the flow. The
flow entering-between two stream lines will always flow between the lines. The lines
serve as boundaries for the stream.
In the Cartesian co-ordinate system, along the stream line in two dimensional flow it
can be shown that:
Referring to Fig.1.8 considering the velocity at a point and taking the distance ds
and considering its x and y components as dx and dy, and noting that the net flow across
ds is zero,

10
 Figure 1.8: Velocity components along a stream line

the flow along y direction = dxv

the flow along x direction = dyu
These two quantities should be equal for the condition that the flow across ds is zero.

1.3.2 Stream Function

Figure 1.9: Stream function—Definition

Stream function is a mathematical expression that describes a flow field. The defini-
tion is based on the continuity principle. It provides a means of plotting and interpreting
flow fields.

Let the slow rate be denoted as Ψ. Then Ψ is a constant of the streamline A. If Ψcan be
described by an equation in x and y then stream line A can be plotted on the flow field.
Consider another stream line B close to A. Let the flow between stream lines A and B
be dΨ. The flow across any line between A and B will be dΨ. Now taking components
in the x and y directions,
dΨ = udy − vdx (1.18)
If the stream function Ψ can be expressed as Ψ = Ψ(x, y) (as it has a value at every
point) then;
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
dΨ = dx + dy (1.19)
∂x ∂y

11
and comparing the above two equations, it is seen that
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
u= and v= (1.20)
∂y ∂x
In the practical point of view equation 1.20 can be considered as the definition of stream
function.
As a result of the definition, if the stream function for a stream line is known, then the
velocity at each point can be determined and vice versa. If the velocity is expressed
for a flow field in terms of x and y then the stream function value can be obtained by
integrating equation 1.18
Z Z
∂Ψ ∂Ψ
Ψ= dx + dy + c (1.21)
∂x ∂y
By substituting for the values of u and v in the continuity equation in terms of Ψ,
∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ
− =0 (1.22)
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
As the value of the derivative is the same irrespective of the order in which it is taken
the continuity equation is automatically satisfied by the stream function. If the value
of stream function is expressed in terms of x and y, stream lines can be plotted and the
flow values can also be obtained between the stream lines.

1.3.3 Potential Function

Flow is caused by a driving potential. It will be useful to have an idea of the potential
at various locations. If a fluid flow is irrotational, then equation is satisfied
∂v ∂u
= (1.23)
∂x ∂y
Fluid flows which approximate to this condition are found to be large in number. Con-
verging flows, and flows outside the boundary layer are essentially irrotational.

If this condition is satisfied everywhere in a flow except at a few singular points, it

is mathematically possible to define a velocity potential function φ as;
∂φ ∂φ
u=− , v=− (1.24)
∂x ∂y
The negative sign indicates that φ decreases in the direction of velocity increase.

These partial derivatives are known as potential gradients and give the flow velocity in
the direction of the gradient. Potential functions exist only in irrotational flow whereas
stream functions can be written for all flows. Substituting these in the continuity equa-
tion, an equation known as Laplace’s equation results. Considering the continuity equa-
tion;
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y

12
 ∂u ∂ 2φ ∂v ∂ 2φ
= − 2, =− 2
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
Substituting;
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
+ =o (1.25)
∂x2 ∂y 2
This is similar to heat conduction equation with temperature T replacing φ as potential.
Substituting this in equation (irrotational flow)
∂v ∂u
− =0
∂x ∂y

∂v ∂ 2 φ ∂u ∂ 2φ
= . = (1.26)
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y ∂y∂x
as these two quantities are equal the irrotationality condition is satisfied.

Example: Prove that the stream function and potential function lead to orthogonality
of stream lines and equipotential flow lines.

Ψ = Ψ(x, y)

1.4 Two Dimensionsional Flows - Types of Flows

There are only a few types of flow for which stream and potential functions can be
determined directly. For other flows can be generally approximated as combinations of
these flows.

1.4.1 Rectilinear/ Uniform Flow

The convention for numbering the streamlines is that the stream function is considered
to increase to the left of the observer looking in the direction of flow as shown in the
figure 1.10.

Figure 1.10: Uniform flow in the x-direction

If the velocity of the rectilinear flow v is inclined to the x axis at an angle α, then its
components are;

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1.4.2 Source Flow
A source flow consists of a symmetrical flow field with radial stream lines directed
outwards from a common point, the origin from where fluid is supplied at a constant
rate q. As the area increases along the outward direction, the velocity will decrease and
the stream lines will spread out as the fluid moves outwards. The velocity at all points
at a given radial distance will be the same.

Figure 1.11: Potential and stream lines for source flow

The equations describing the flow are:

Velocity at radius r for flow rate of strength q is given
By:
ur = q/2πr (1.27)
The velocity in the tangential direction is zero;
uθ = 0 (1.28)
Stream function is represented by;
Ψ = (q/2π)θ (1.29)
The potential function is represented by;
φ = −(q/2π) ln r (1.30)
The origin is a singular point. The circulation Γ around any closed curve is zero. The
stream lines are shown in Fig. 1.11.
q


Here C1 , C2 .... are simply 2π θ , where θ is the angle of the stream function.

1.4.3 Sink Flow

Sink is the opposite of source and the radial streamlines are directed inwards to a com-
mon point, origin, where the fluid is absorbed at a constant rate. The velocity increases
as the fluid moves inwards or as the radius decreases, the velocity will increase. In this
case also the velocity at all points at a given radial distance from the origin will be the
same. The origin is a singular point. The circulation around any closed curve is zero.
The equations describing the flow are;
ur = −(q/2πr), uθ = 0 (1.31)
Ψ = −(q/2π)θ, φ = (q/2π) ln r (1.32)

14
 Figure 1.12: Stream and potential lines for sink flow

1.4.4 Irrotational Vortex of Strength K

(Free vortex, counter clockwise is taken as +ve. The origin is at the centre and is a
singular point).
The equations describing the flow are;

ur = 0, uθ = (K/2πr) (1.33)

Ψ = −(K/2π) ln r, φ = −(K/2π)θ (1.34)

Circulation Γ = K for closed curve enclosing origin and Γ = 0 for any other closed
curves. In this case the velocity varies inversely with radius. At r = o, velocity will
tend to be ∞ and that is why the centre is a singular point.

Figure 1.13: Irrotational vortex

1.4.5 Doublet of Strength Λ

The centre is at the origin and is a singular point. Such a flow is obtained by allowing
a source and sink of equal strengths merge and Λ = qds/2π, where ds is the distance
between them.

15
The equations describing the flow are;

ur = −(Λ/r2 ) cos θ, uθ = (Λ/r2 ) sin θ (1.35)

Ψ = −(Λ sin θ/r), φ = −(Λ cos θ/r) (1.36)

The equation and the plot are for the limiting condition, ds → 0. In this case Λ takes a
definite value.

Figure 1.14: Potential and stream line for doublet

16
1.5 Principle of Superposing of Flows (or Combining of
Flows)
For example, if in uniform flow a cylinder like body is interposed, the flow area re-
duces. The stream lines nearer the body move closer to each other and the flow far
removed from the body is still uniform. This flow can be visualised by the combination
of uniform flow and a source. The wake flow (behind the body) can be visualised by
means of a sink and uniform flow. As equations for stream lines are available for flows
like uniform flow, source, sink etc, it is found useful to study such combination of flows.

The simple rule for such a combination of two flows A and B is;
Ψ = Ψ A + ΨB
where Ψ describes the combined flow and ΨA and ΨB describe the component flows.
Similarly φ = φA + φB

1.5.1 Source and Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Half Body)

The combined stream lines are shown in Fig 1.15.

Figure 1.15: Source and uniform flow (Flow Past a Half Body)

The velocity in uniform flow along the x direction is u and along y direction is zero.
The flow rate of the source is q.
The equations describing the flows are;
For source flow Ψ1 = (q/2π)θ, For uniform flow Ψ1 = cy = uy

Therefore, Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ2 = (q/2π)θ + uy, In polar coordinates Ψ = (q/2π)θ + ur sin θ

For uniform flow φ = −ux, For source flow φ = −(q/2π) ln r, Combining;

φ = φ1 + φ2 = −(q/2π) ln r − ux, in polar coordinates; φ = −(q/2π) ln r − ur cos θ

1.5.2 Source and Sink of Equal Strength with Separation of 2a Along

x-axis
For source flow Ψ1 = (q/2π)θ1 , for sink flow Ψ2 = −(q/2π)θ2 ,
Combining; Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ2 = (q/2π)θ1 − (q/2π)θ2 = (q/2π)(θ1 − θ2 )

17
Similarly using;
φ1 = −(q/2π) ln r1 and φ2 = (q/2π) ln r2
φ = φ1 + φ2 = (q/2π) ln(r2 /r1 )

Figure 1.16: Source and sink of equal strength

1.5.3 Source and Sink Displaced at 2a and Uniform Flow (Flow

Past a Rankine Body)

Figure 1.17: Source, sink and uniform flow

Ψ1 = (q/2π)(θ1 − θ2 ), Ψ2 = uy
∴ Ψ = (q/2π)(θ1 − θ2 ) + uy = Ψ = (q/2π)(θ1 − θ2 ) + ur sin θ
φ1 = (q/2π) ln(r2 /r1 ) and φ2 = −ux
∴ φ = (q/2π) ln(r2 /r1 ) − ur cos θ

here r is the distance from the origin to the point and θ is the angle made by this line
with x axis.

1.5.4 Vortex (Clockwise) and Uniform Flow

For vortex Ψ = (K/2π) ln r (clockwise)
For uniform flow
Ψ = uy
∴ Ψ = (K/2π) ln r + uy
In polar coordinates,

18
Ψ = (K/2π) ln r + ur sin θ
For vortex φ1 = (K/2π)θ, For uniform flow φ2 = −ux
∴ φ1 = (K/2π)θ − ux
In polar coordinates,
φ1 = (K/2π)θ − ur cos θ

Figure 1.18: Vortex and uniform flow

1.5.5 Doublet and Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Cylinder)

For doublet Ψ1 = Λ sin θ/r,
For uniform flow Ψ2 = uy = ur sin θ
∴ Ψ = Λ sin θ/r + ur sin θ
Defining; a2 = Λ/u, Ψ = ur[1 − (a2 /r2 )] sin θ
φ1 = −(Λ cos θ/r),
φ2 = −ux = ur cos θ
∴ φ = −ur[1 + (a2 /r2 )] cos θ

Figure 1.19: Flow past a cylinder

1.5.6 Doublet, Vortex (Clockwise) and Uniform Flow

Ψ = ur[1 − (a2 /r2 )] sin θ + (K/2π) ln r
φ = −ur[1 + (a2 /r2 )] cos θ + (K/2π)θ
Where; a2 = Λ/u, and K < 4πau

19
 Figure 1.20: Doublet, vortex and uniform flow

1.5.7 Source and Vortex (Spiral Vortex Counterclockwise)

Ψ = (q/2π)θ − (K/2π) ln r
φ = −(q/2π) ln r − K/2π)θ

Figure 1.21: Source and vortex

1.5.8 Sink and Vortex (Spiral Vortex Counterclockwise)

Ψ = −(q/2π)θ − (K/2π) ln r
φ = (q/2π) ln r − K/2π)θ

Figure 1.22: Sink and vortex

20
1.5.9 Vortex Pair (Equal Strength, Opposite Rotation, Separation
by 2a)
Ψ = (K/2π) ln(r2 /r1 )
φ = (K/2π)(θ2 − θ1 )

Figure 1.23: Vortex pair

1.6 Flow Net

The plot of stream lines and potential flow lines for a flow in such a way that these form
curvilinear squares is known as flow net. The idea that stream lines and potential lines
are orthogonal is used in arriving at the plot.

An example is shown in Fig. 5.19.1 for flow through a well rounded orifice in a large
tank. The flow rate along each channel formed by the stream lines will be equal. The
pressure drop between adjacent potential lines will also be equal.

Figure 1.24: Flow Net

1.7 Vortex
Votex motion is defined as a motion in which the whole fluid mass rotates about an axis.
A mass of fluid in rotation about a fixed axis is called vortex.

It is characterized by curved streamline patterns. When fluid flows between curved

streamlines, centrifugal forces are set up which are counterbalanced by the pressure

21
force acting in the radial direction. The vortex flow is of two types, namely forced
vortex flow and free vortex flow. When a vessel containing a liquid is rotated about a
vertical axis at a constant angular velocity, after a small initial adjustment period, the
liquid rotates as a solid mass.

1.7.1 Forced Vortex

In a forced vortex flow, the fluid mass is made to rotate by means of some external
power source, which exerts a constant torque on the fluid mass. The force vortex is also
called flywheel vortex or rotational vortex. Therefore, this torque induces the whole

Figure 1.25: Forced vortex flow

mass of fluid to rotate at constant angular velocity (ω). Thus, in a forced vortex flow, a
constant external torque is to be applied to the fluid mass resulting in an expenditure of
energy. In this flow, the tangential velocity (v) of any fluid particle at a radius (r) from
the axis of rotation is given below.
v = ωr (1.37)
Thus, angular velocity is given by,
v
ω= (1.38)
r
A most common example of a forced vortex flow is the motion of a vertical cylinder
containing liquid rotated about its central axis with a constant angular velocity. Some
of the other examples of forced vortex flow are fluid motion inside the runner of a
hydraulic turbine or inside the impeller of a centrifugal pump.

1.7.2 Free Vortex Flow

Its one in which the fluid mass rotates without any external impressed contact force.
The motion may be due to the rotation imparted previously to the fluid particles or due
to some internal action (i.e., fluid pressure itself or the gravity force). Some of the ex-
amples of free vortex flow are (i) flow of liquid through a hole (or an orifice) provided
at the bottom of a vessel or tank, (ii) a whirlpool in a river, (iii) flow of liquid around a
circular bend in a pipe, (iv) flow of water in a turbine casing before it enters the guide
vanes and (v) flow of liquid in a centrifugal pump casing after it has left the impeller.

Let m be the mass of a fluid particle at a radius r from the axis of rotation and V
be its tangential velocity. The rate of change of angular momentum (or moment of
momentum) is given below.
∂
(mvr) (1.39)
∂t

22
Since in free vortex flow, no external torque is required to be exerted on the fluid mass.
Thus, the rate of change of angular momentum of the flow must be zero and it is given
below.
∂
(mvr) = 0 (1.40)
∂t
Integrating Equation
mvr = Constant = k
vr = C [∴ k/m = C] (1.41)
The constant C is also known as strength of the vortex.
C
v= (1.42)
r
It can be observed from Equation above that the velocity of flow in a free vortex flow
varies inversely with the radial distance from the axis of rotation. As r → 0, V → ∞, it
mathematically signifies a point of singularity at r = 0, which is practically impossible.
Thus, the definition of a free vortex flow cannot be extended as r = 0. For a free vortex
flow, vorticity (Γ) becomes zero. Therefore, free vortex flow is irrotational and hence,
it is also referred to as irrotational vortex.

1.7.3 Equation of Motion For a Vortex Flow

Consider a fluid element PQSR rotating at a uniform velocity in a horizontal plane
about a vertical axis passing through O as shown in Figure 1.26 (a). Let the fluid ele-
ment PQSR of radial thickness dr subtends an angle δα at the centre of rotation and is
at a radial distance r from the centre. Let dA be the area of the element perpendicular
to the radial direction, V be its tangential velocity, m = ρdAdr be its mass, p be the
pressure intensity and ρ be the fluid density.

Figure 1.26: Vortex flow

Pressure force acting on face PR= p × dA

∂p


Pressure force acting on face QS= p + ∂r
dr × dA

23
 mV 2 V2
Centrifugal force acting on PQSR= r
= ρdAdr × r

here is no variation of pressure in the tangential direction because tangential veloc-

ity is constant. However, there is a slight difference in the pressure forces at the two
radial faces due to centrifugal force on the fluid element. Thus, by equating the forces
in the radial direction, we get the following expression.
V2
 
∂p
p + dr dA − pdA = ρdAdr
∂r r
∂p V2
drdA = ρdAdr
∂r r
2
∂p V
=ρ (1.43)
∂r r
Consider the vertical plane of the fluid element as shown in Figure 1.26(b). If there is
no acceleration other than gravity, then the following forces will act on the fluid element.

Pressure force at the bottom = p × rδαdr

∂p


Pressure force at the top = p + ∂z dz × rδαdr
Gravity force acting downwards = W = mg = (ρrδαdrdz)g
Considering the equilibrium of the fluid element in the vertical direction, we get the
following expression.
 
∂p
prδαdr − p + dz rδαdr = (ρrδαdrdz)g
∂z
∂p
− dzrδαdr = ρgrδαdrdz
∂z
∂p
= −ρg (1.44)
∂z
It can be seen that p is the function of both r and z. Thus, the total derivative of p is
given below
∂p ∂p
dp = dr + dz (1.45)
∂r ∂z
Substituting;
ρV 2
dp = dr − ρgdz (1.46)
r
The Equation (1.46) is the fundamental equation for vortex flow. By this equation, the
variation of pressure in a vortex flow can be measured.

1.7.4 Equation of Forced Vortex Flow

In case of forced vortex flow, the velocity distribution is given by Equation v = ωr
Substituting the value of v given by the above equation in Equation
ρω 2 r2
dp = dr − ρgdz (1.47)
r
24
Considering forced vortex flow in a cylinder subjected to rotation as illustrated in Figure
1.27 in which AB shows the free liquid surface before rotation and A O’B’ shows the
new free surface after attaining steady state.
Let the points 1 and 2 be at radial distance r1 and r2 from the centre of rotation and at
elevation z1 and z2 , respectively.
By integrating Equation (1.47) between 1 and 2, we get the following expression.

Figure 1.27: Forced vortex flow

Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
2
dp = ρω rdr − ρg dz
1 1 1

1
(p2 − p1 ) = ρω 2 (r22 − r12 ) − ρg(z2 − z1 )
2
ρ 2 2
(p2 − p1 ) = (ω r2 − ω 2 r12 ) − ρg(z2 − z1 ) (1.48)
2
since v = ωr
ρ
(p2 − p1 ) = (v22 − v12 ) − ρg(z2 − z1 ) (1.49)
2
From Equation (1.48) it can be seen that fluid pressure increases with the radial distance
from the centre of the vortex.
When the points 1 and 2 lie on the free surface of the liquid, then p1 = p2 and thus,
Equation (1.49) is expressed as follows.
ρ
0 = (v22 − v12 ) − ρg(z2 − z1 )
2
v22 − v12
z2 − z1 = (1.50)
2g
When the point 1 lies on the axis of rotation, r1 = 0 and v1 = ω × 0 = 0 and let
(z2 − z1 ) = z From Equation (1.50), we get:

v22 ω 2 r22
z= = (1.51)
2g 2g
The Equation (1.51) is an equation of parabola, since z varies with square of r. There-
fore, the free liquid surface is a paraboloid of revolution.

25
1.7.5 Rotation of Liquid in a Closed Cylindrical Vessel
A cylindrical vessel of radius R closed at the top containing liquid up to some level (h1 )
is shown in Figure 1.28(a). When it is given a rotation (ω1 ), the shape of paraboloid
of revolution will be as shown in Figure 1.28(b). As the speed of rotation is increased
to ω2 , the shape of the paraboloid will be different as illustrated in Figure 1.28(c). In
this case, the radius (r) of the parabola at the top of the cylinder and the height of the
parabola (z) are not known. These two parameters can be found out by equating the
volume of air before rotation (Figure 1.28a) and after rotation (Figure 1.28c). Volume

Figure 1.28: Rotation of liquid in a closed cylinder

of air before rotation = πR2 (h2 − h1 )

Volume of air after rotation = (1/2)πr2 z

Simplifying the above Equations;

1
πR2 (h2 − h1 ) = πr2 z (1.52)
2
The height of the paraboloid is given by,

ω22 r2
z= (1.53)
2g
By solving the Equations (1.52) and (1.53), the unknown parameters r and z can be
determined.

1.7.6 Closed Cylindrical Rotating Vessel Completely Filled With a

Liquid
Let a cylindrical vessel of radius R and height h be completely filled with liquid of
density ρ is given a rotation ω as shown in Figure 1.29.

The pressure distribution at any radius along a horizontal plane is given by;

∂p ρv 2 ρω 2 r2
= = = ρωr
∂r r r
∂p = ρωr∂r

26
 Figure 1.29: Rotation of a closed cylinder completely filled with a liquid

Integrating the above expression, we get:

Z Z
2
∂p = ρω r∂r

ρω 2 r2
p= (1.54)
2
Consider an elementary ring of radius r and width dr on the top of the vessel (Figure
1.29). The pressure force on the ring is given by the product of pressure and area as
given below.
ρω 2 r2
dFt = p × 2πrdr = × 2πrdr = ρω 2 πr3 dr
2
The total force on the top of the vessel (Ft ) can be obtained by integrating the above
expression and it is given below.
Z Z R
2
dFt = ρω π r3 dr
0

R
r4 ρω 2 πR4

2
∴ Ft = ρω π = (1.55)
4 0 4
The total force acting on the bottom of the vessel (Fb ) is given by the sum of Ft and
weight of liquid in the vessel as represented below.

ρω 2 πR4
Fb = + ρgπR2 h (1.56)
4

1.7.7 Equation of Free Vortex Flow

For free vortex flow, we have Equation as given below.
C
v=
r

27
Substituting the value of v in Equation, we get:

(C/r)2 C2
dp = ρ dr − ρgdz = ρ 3 dr − ρgdz (1.57)
r r
Let r1 and r2 be the radii of two points 1 and 2, respectively, in the fluid from the central
axis and z1 and z2 be the corresponding heights from the bottom of the vessel (Figure
1.30). Integrating Equation (1.57) between the points 1 and 2, we get:

Figure 1.30:

Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
2 dr
dp = ρC − ρg dz
1 1 r3 1
2 2
r−3+1
 
2 2 1
p2 − p1 = ρC − ρg(z2 − z1 ) = ρC − 2 − ρg(z2 − z1 )
−3 + 1 1 2r 1
ρC 2 1 ρ C2 C2
   
1
p2 − p1 = − − − ρg(z2 − z1 ) = − 2 − ρg(z2 − z1 )
2 r22 r12 2 r12 r2
ρ
p2 − p1 = (v12 − v22 ) − ρg(z2 − z1 )
2
p2 − p1 v 2 − v22
= 1 − (z2 − z1 )
ρg 2g
p1 v2 p2 v2
+ 1 + z1 = + 2 + z2 (1.58)
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Therefore, the Equation (1.58) is the Bernoulli’s equation which is also applicable to
free vortex flow.

28
 Exercises.

1. Determine the stream function in the case of free vortex.

2. The stream function for a flow is given by Ψ = xy. Is the flow irrotational?
Determine (i) u, v (ii) the vorticity and (iii) circulation.

3. Explain how the validity of a given potential function φ is established. Validate

the potential function given as (i) φ = y 2 –x2 (ii) φ = xy

4. Derive Flow past a cylinder. Ψ = Λ sin θ/r + ur sin θ

5. In a 2-D incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by Vx =

x − 4y and Vy = −y − 4x. show that the flow satisfies the continuity equation and
obtain the expression for the stream function. If the flow is potential, obtain also
the expression for the velocity potential. (Assume that the reference streamline
passes through the origin)

6. In the ideal flow around a half-body, the free srtream velocity is 0.5 m/s and the
stregnt of the source is 2.0 m/s. Determine the fluid velocity and its direction at a
point, r = 1.0m and θ = 1200

7. A 40 mm diameter cylinder is immeresed in a stream having a velocity of 1.0 m/s,

determine the radial and normal components of velocity at a point on a streamline
where r = 50mm and θ = 1350 , measured from the positive x axis. Assume flow
to be ideal.

8. An open cylindrical tank of diameter 0.4 m and height 2 m contains water up to

a depth 1.4 m. If the cylinder rotates about its vertical axis at a speed of 240
rpm, then determine the height of the paraboloid formed at the free surface. Also
determine the speed of rotation required for the water to start spilling.

9. An open cylindrical vessel of diameter 0.15 m and depth 0.375 m is filled with
water up to the top. Determine the volume of water left in the vessel when it is
rotated about its vertical axis with a speed of (i) 250 rpm and (ii) 500 rpm.

10. A cylindrical vessel closed at both ends is 0.25 m in diameter and 1.5 m deep. It
is filled with a liquid up to a height of 1 m. Determine (i) the height of paraboloid
formed, if it is rotated about its vertical axis at 240 rpm and (ii) speed of rotation
of the vessel, when axial depth of liquid is zero.

11. A cylindrical shaped vessel closed at both ends contains water up to a height of
0.64 m. The diameter of the vessel is 0.2 m and its length is 1 m. If the vessel
rotates at 600 rpm, then determine the area uncovered at the bottom of the vessel.

12. In the free cylindrical vortex water flow at a point 0.2 m radius, the velocity and
pressure are 7.5 m/s and 155 kPa, respectively. Determine the pressure at a radius
of 0.3 m.

29