1 The basic equations of fluid dynamics

The main task in fluid dynamics is to find the velocity field describing the flow in
a given domain. To do this, one uses the basic equations of fluid flow, which we
derive in this section. These encode the familiar laws of mechanics:
• conservation of mass (the continuity equation, Sec. 1.2)
• conservation of momentum (the Cauchy equation, Sec. 1.3)
at the level of “fluid elements”, defined in Sec. 1.1. In any domain, the flow equations
must be solved subject to a set of conditions that act at the domain boundary, Sec.
1.5. If the flow leads to compression of the fluid, we must also consider
thermodynamics:
• conservation of energy.
However we defer this complication until later in the course, Sec. 5, assuming initially
that the flow remains incompressible, Sec. 1.4.

1.1 The continuum hypothesis; fluid

elements
At a microscopic scale, fluid comprises individual molecules and its physical properties
(density, velocity, etc.) are violently non-uniform. However, the phenomena
studied in fluid dynamics are macroscopic, so we do not usually take this molecular
detail into account. Instead, we treat the fluid as a continuum by viewing it at a
coarse enough scale that any “small” fluid element actually still contains very many
molecules. One can then assign a local bulk flow velocity v(x, t) to the element at
point x, by averaging over the much faster, violently fluctuating Brownian molecular
velocities. Similarly one defines a locally averaged density ρ(x, t), etc. These locally
averaged quantities then vary smoothly with x on the macroscopic scale of the flow.

1.2 Conservation of mass

1.2.1 The continuity equation
Consider a volume
R V bounded by a surface S that is fixed in space. This mass inside
it is given by V ρ dV , so the
Z Z
d ∂ρ
rate of decrease of mass in V = − ρ dV = − dV. (1)
dt V V ∂t
If mass is conserved, Eqn. 1 must equal the total rate of mass flux out of V . How do
we calculate this? The rate of outward mass flux across any small element dS of S
is ρ v · dS where the magnitude of dS is equal to the element’s area and we take dS
along the outward normal. Integrating over the whole surface we have
Z Z
rate of mass flux out of V = ρ v · dS = ∇ · (ρv)dV (2)
S V

where we used Green’s formula to convert to a volume integral. The integrand ∇ ·

(ρv)
on the RHS is expressed in Cartesian coordinates x = (x, y, z), v = (u, v, w) as

2
 ∂(ρu) ∂(ρv) ∂(ρw)
∇ · (ρv) = + + . (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z

3
 y ✻ ∂(ρv) ✻
ρv + ∂y
δy
∂(ρu)
ρu + δx
✲ δy ✲∂x
ρu δx
✻
ρv
✲
x

Figure 1: Mass fluxes entering and leaving an element.

See Fig. 1, which shows clearly that gradients in the flow field are required for non-zero
net flux. For mass to be conserved everywhere, Eqns. 1 and 2 must be equal for any
volume V and so we get
∂ρ
the continuity equation: + ∇.(ρv) = 0. (4)
∂t

1.2.2 The material

derivative
The continuity equation contains the “time-derivative” of the fluid density. What
does this mean exactly? For any physical quantity f = f (x, t) (density,
temperature, each velocity component, etc.), we must actually take care to
distinguish two different time derivatives. By ∂f /∂t, as in Eqn. 4, we mean the rate
of change of f at a particular point that is fixed in space. But we might instead
ask about the rate of change of f in a given element of fluid as it moves along its
trajectory x = x(t) in the flow. This defines the material (or substantive) derivative

Df d
= f (x(t), y(t), z(t), t)
Dt dt
∂f dx ∂f dy ∂f dz ∂f
= + + +
∂t dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
= +u +v +w
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f
= + v · ∇f (5)
∂t
This. 5 conveys the intuitively obvious fact that, even in a time-independent flow
field (∂f /∂t = 0 everywhere), any given element can suffer changes in f (via v · ∇f
) as it moves from place to place.
Check as an exercise that the continuity equation can also be written in the form

Dρ
+ ρ∇ · v = 0. (6)
Dt
1.2.3 Incompressible continuity equation
If the fluid is incompressible, ρ = constant, independent of space and time, so that
Dρ/Dt = 0. The continuity equation then reduces to

∇ · v = 0, (7)

which in Cartesian coordinates is

∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + = 0. (8)
∂x ∂y ∂z

1.3 Conservation of momentum

1.3.1 The Cauchy equations
Consider a volume V bounded by a material surface S thatRmoves with the flow, always
containing the same material elements. Its momentum is V dV ρ v, so:
Z Z
d Dv
rate of change of momentum = dV ρ v = dV ρ . (9)
dt V V Dt
(The mass ρ dV of each material element is constant.) This must equal the net
force on the element. Actually there are two different types of forces that act in any
fluid:
• Long ranged external body forces that penetrate matter and act equally on all
the material in any element dV . The only one considered here is gravity, ρ g dV
.
• Short ranged molecular forces, internal to the fluid. For any element, the net
effect of these due to interactions with other elements acts in a thin
surface layer. In 3D, each of the 3 sets of surface planes bounding an element
experiences a 3-component force, giving 9 components in all. These form the
stress tensor [Π], defined so the force exerted per unit area across a surface
element dS ≡ nˆ dS (by the fluid on the side to which nˆ points on the fluid on
the other side) is f = [Π] · nˆ.
Z Z
Total force (body + surface) = dV ρg + [Π] · dS
ZV S

= dV (ρg + ∇ · [Π]) . (10)

V

By Newton’s second law, Eqns. 9 and 10 must be equal for any V , so we get finally
Dv
the Cauchy equation: ρ = ρg + ∇ · [Π].
(11)
Dt
The physical meaning of this is seen clearly in Cartesian coordinates (in 2D in Fig. 2):

Du Dv ,
Momentum, x : ρ M :
Dt m Dt = ρgx + = ρgy +
t
 ∂ ∂ (Πyz )
∂
(Πxx ) + (Πxy ) (Πyy ) + ∂ (Πxz ) ∂z
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z
∂ +
∂
(Πyx ) +
∂x
Dw ∂ ∂ ∂
Momentum, z : ρ = ρgz + (Πzx ) + (Πzy ) + (Πzz ). (12)
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z
 y ✻ ∂Πyy ✻
Πyy + δy ∂Πxy
∂y Πxy + ∂y
δy
✲
Πyx ∂Πxx
✛ ❄ δy Πxx + ∂x
δx
✲
Πxx δx ✻ ∂Πyx
✛ Πyx + ∂x
δx
Πxy
Πyy
❄
✲
x

Figure 2: Surface stresses on a fluid element in 2 dimensions.

Πij is the force per unit area in the i direction across a plane with normal in the j
direction. As can be seen from the figure, gradients in the stress tensor are needed for
there to be a net force on any element (consistent with the surface integral of [Π] ·
nˆ equating to a volume integral of ∇ · [Π]). It is possible to show that the stress
tensor is symmetric, i.e.
Πxy = Πyx , Πzx = Πxz , Πyz = Πzy , (13)
otherwise any small fluid element would suffer infinite angular acceleration.

1.3.2 Constitutive relations

The surface stresses [Π] on any element arise from a combination of pressure p
and viscous friction, as prescribed by the constitutive relations
∂u ∂u ∂v
Πxx = −p + λ∇ · v + 2µ , Πxy = + , (14)
∂x ∂y ∂x
µ

∂v ∂v ∂w
Πyy = −p + λ∇ · v + 2µ , Πyz = + , (15)
∂y ∂z ∂y
µ

∂w ∂u ∂w
Πzz = −p + λ∇ · v + 2µ , Πxz = + . (16)
∂z ∂z ∂x
µ

µ and λ are the coefficients of dynamic and bulk viscosity respectively. These expres-
sions assume that the relationship between stress and velocity gradients is
• linear (which is valid for Newtonian fluids) and
• isotropic (i.e., the intrinsic properties of the fluid have no preferred direction).

1.3.3 Incompressible Navier-Stokes equations

For incompressible flow, ∇ · v = 0 (Eqn. 7). The constitutive relations then reduce to
 !
∂ui ∂uj
Πij = −pδij + µ + . (17)
∂xj ∂xi

Here we have used suffix notation v = (u1 , u2 , u3 ), x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and defined the
Kronecker delta symbol δij = 1 if i = j and δij = 0 if i = j. Check that you are happy
with this notation by working through the derivation of Eqn. 17 from Eqns. 14 to 16.
Inserting Eqn. 17 into Eqn. 11, assuming constant µ, and utilising again the incom-
pressibility condition 7, we get the incompressible Navier–Stokes (N–S) equations:
∂u ∂v ∂w
Continuity : 0 = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
!
Du ∂p ∂ 2 u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
Momentum, x : ρ = ρgx − +µ + 2 + 2
Dt ∂x ∂x2 ∂y ∂z
!
Dv ∂p ∂ 2v ∂ 2 v ∂ 2v
Momentum, y : ρ = ρgy − +µ + +
Dt ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
!
Dw ∂p ∂2 ∂ 2 w ∂ 2w
Momentum, z : ρ = ρgz − w + + (18)
Dt +µ ∂y 2 ∂z 2
or, in compact notation ∂z ∂x2
Continuity
∇ ·v = 0 (19)

Momentum Dv
ρ = ρg − ∇p + µ∆v, (20)
Dt
in which ∆ is the Laplacian operator. For uniform ρ we can simplify Eqn. 20 by realising
that the gravitational force is exactly balanced by a pressure gradient ∇p0 = g
that does not interact with any flow: defining P = p − p0 , we get
Dv
ρ = −∇P + µ∆v. (21)
Dt

1.3.4 Physical interpretation

The surface stresses (pressure and viscous effects) on any fluid element were introduced
above via the constitutive relation. What is their physical interpretation?
• Viscous stresses are generated by velocity gradients. They oppose relative motion
of fluid elements. Consider Fig. 3. Across any plane AB, a tangential viscous
∂u
stress Πxy = µ ∂y acts: the faster fluid above AB drags the fluid below forward,
and the slower fluid below drags the fluid above back.
• Even in the absence of velocity gradients, each element still experiences an
isotropic pressure p. In rest at equilibrium, this equals the thermodynamic
pressure in the equation of state. In flow this is no longer true: p is now
defined in purely mechanical terms, as a measure of the local intensity of
‘squeezing’ in the fluid.

1.4 Condition for incompressibility

We have seen that the continuity equation, Eqn. 4, and the constitutive relations,
Eqns. 14 to 16, take on much simpler forms (Eqns. 7, 17) when the flow is incom-
pressible. We therefore assume incompressibility for much of the course (deferring
compressible flow to Sec. 5). The criterion1 for this is that the flow speed U should be
much less than the speed of sound a. In practice, this only breaks down for high speed
(subsonic and hypersonic) gas flows.
1 2
Specifically, the Mach number Ma ≡ U/a must obey Ma ≪ 1. (Tritton 5.8 for those interested.)
 v = u(y) x
A B
y
x

Figure 3: Planar shear flow.

1.5 Boundary conditions

In any flow domain, the flow equations must be solved subject to a set of
conditions that act at the domain boundary. For a rigid bounding wall moving at
velocity U and having unit normal nˆ, we assume for the local fluid velocity v that
1. The wall is impermeable: v · nˆ = U · nˆ.
2. The fluid doesn’t slip relative to the wall: v × nˆ = U × nˆ.
Condition 2 is not obvious: why shouldn’t slip occur? The underlying notion is
that the fluid interacts with the wall in the same way as with other fluid: there cannot
exist any discontinuity in velocity, or an infinite viscous stress would arise. But the
ultimate justification comes from experimental verification.

1.6 Summary
In this section, we have derived the basic equations governing incompressible fluid
flow. In what follows, we are mainly concerned with flow fields that are time-
independent and two-dimensional. Eqns. 19 and 21 then reduce, in Cartesian
coordinates (x, y) to:
Continuity:
∂u ∂v
+ = 0, (22)
∂x ∂y

Momentum: !
∂u ∂P ∂2 u ∂2 u
∂u + v = − +µ + , (23)
ρ u 2 2
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
!
∂v ∂v ∂2 v ∂2 v
ρ u
∂P +v = − +µ + 2
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x2 ∂y , (24)

where v = (u, v) is the velocity field. As discussed above, the first term on the RHS in
Eqns. 23 and 24 refers to pressure forces, ∇ · P . The rest of the RHS describes
viscous forces, µ∇2 v. The LHS is the momentum change that any element
experiences as it moves between regions of different velocity in the flow field. This
has the dimensions of a force, and is referred to as the inertia force, ρv · ∇v.
 We will refer back to these basic equations 22 to 24 extensively throughout
the rest of the course.