]3.

Special Theory of Relativity

Special theory of relativity is not a physical theory, but a condition, which all physical theories
must satisfy. It demands that all laws of nature must remain same in all inertial frame of
references. This restriction is called the Principle of Relativity. Special theory of relativity also
restricts the theories to be consistent with the fact that velocity of light in vacuum is a universal
constant i.e., its value does not dependent on the relative motion of an observer. Following terms
are frequently used in the relativistic treat of a physical theory.
Event: Anything, which happens at particular time and position in space, is called an event. An event is
specified by four co-ordinates – three spatial and one temporal.
Frame of Reference: A frame of reference is a set of three co-ordinates with a clock attached with it.
The co-ordinates and the clock are used to measure the position and time of occurrence of an event.
Observer’s Frame of Reference
A frame of reference in which observer is at rest is called observer’s frame of reference.

Lorentz Transformation
Let 𝑆 and 𝑆′ be two inertial frame of references, such that 𝑆′ is moving with constant relative
velocity 𝑣 with respect to 𝑆. For the sake of simplicity, take 𝑆′ moving along the 𝑥 axis and set
both clocks of 𝑆 and 𝑆′ at zero time when respective co-ordinate coincide (i.e., 𝑡 = 𝑡′ = 0
when 𝑥 = 𝑥′ = 0). Further suppose that an event occurs in space and observers in 𝑆 and 𝑆
measure it as (𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and (𝑡′, 𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′) respectively. The Lorentz transformation is the relation
between the measurements of these observers when observing the same event.
x  =  ( x − vt )
y = y
z = z
t  =  (t − xv / c 2 )

1
Where,  =
1− v2 / c2

Lorentz transformation transforms an event from one frame to other. What about other
observations say velocity, acceleration or any natural phenomena. The answer is very simple, any
natural phenomena can be looked as a series of events, and by transforming this series from one
frame to other we transform the phenomena itself.
Although the coordinates of an event are different in different frame of references, but squared
norm of an event, defined as following, remains constant.
𝐼 2  (𝑐𝑡)2 – 𝑥 2 – 𝑦 2 – 𝑧 2

3. Special Theory of Relativity | Faisal Akram

1
 This form of invariant square norm suggests to define the components of an event 𝑥 𝜇 ,  =
0, 1, 2, 3 as following
𝑥 0 = 𝑐𝑡, 𝑥1 = 𝑥, 𝑥 2 = 𝑦, 𝑥 3 = 𝑧
In term of 𝑥 𝜇 , the Lorentz transformation reduces into the following form.

x  0 =  ( x 0 − x1 )
x 1 =  ( x1 − x 0 )
x 2 = x 2
x 3 = x 3
where, 𝛽 ≡ 𝑣/𝑐
3
More compactly, x   =   x ( = 0, 1, 2, 3)
 =0

The coefficients v may be regarded as the elements of the matrix Λ.

  −  0 0
 −   0 0
=
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1

To avoid writing lots of ’s, we follow Einstein’s “summation convention” which says that
repeated indices are to be summed from 0 to 3. The Lorentz transformations becomes finally,
x   = v x v
It is noted that in terms of these notations 𝑥 𝜇 𝑥 𝜇 = (𝑥 0 )2 + (𝑥1 )2 + (𝑥 2 )2 + (𝑥 3 )2 is not
invariant, as true invariant involves the negative sign with spatial coordinates. In order to
incorporate invariant in these compact notations, we introduce the metric 𝑔𝜇𝜈 = 𝑔𝜇𝜈 , whose
components are given by the elements of following matrix 𝑔.

1 0 0 0
0 − 1 0 0 
g= 
0 0 − 1 0 
 
0 0 0 − 1

With the help of 𝑔𝜇𝜈 the invariant 𝐼 2 can be written as following:

3
I =
2


 g x x
,v = 0
v
v
= g v x  x v

3. Special Theory of Relativity | Faisal Akram

2
 Carrying things a step further, we define the covariant 𝑥𝜇 ≡ 𝑔𝜇𝜈 𝑥 𝜈 (𝑥 𝜇 is called contravariant).
This definition implies that 𝑥𝜇 = (𝑐𝑡, −𝑥, −𝑦 − 𝑧). Hence invariant 𝐼 2 = 𝑥𝜇 𝑥 𝜇

Minkowski and Euclidean space-time:

In Minkowski notations invariant square norm is defined through non-Euclidean metric 𝑔𝜇𝑣

i.e., (𝑐𝑡)2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = 𝑔𝜇𝑣 𝑥 𝜇 𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑥𝜇 𝑥 𝜇

This invariant squared norm can also be written in Euclidean space-time if temporal component
is taken along imaginary axis. In this case space-time coordinates 𝑥𝜇𝐸 ≡ (𝑖𝑐𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Thus, −(𝑐𝑡)2 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥𝐸𝜇 𝑥𝐸𝜇

In Euclidean space-time no distinction is required in covariant and contravariant space-time

coordinates. In this course we will use Minkowski notations.

Ex. 3.1: Find the relation between the time interval between two events and proper time interval.
Proper time is the time interval between the events in the frame of reference where both events
occur at same point.
Ex. 3.2: Find the relation between the length of moving rod and its proper length. Proper length
is defined as the length of rod in its rest frame of reference. Use these results and find the relation
between the volume of a container in its rest frame of reference and in the frame where it is
moving with velocity 𝑣.
Ex. 3.3: Cosmic ray muons () are produced high in the atmosphere (at 8000 m, say) and travel
towards the earth at very nearly the speed of light (0.998 c, say)
(a) Given the life time of the muon (2.2 × 10−6 sec), how far would it go before
disintegrating, according to pre-relativistic physics? Would the muons make it to ground
level?
(b) Now answer the same question using relativistic physics.
(c) Now analyze the same process form the perspective of the muon.

Ex. 3.4: Derive the relation between measurement of the velocity (𝒖) of a particle by two
observers in 𝑆 and 𝑆′ frame of references.
𝑢𝑥 −𝑣
Ans: 𝑢′𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑣 , 𝑢′𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 , 𝑢′𝑧 = 𝑢𝑧
1− 𝑥2
𝑐

Classification of physical quantities:

The invariance of laws of physics under Lorentz transformation can easily be studied if they are
expressed in terms of those physical quantities whose transformation properties are well defined

3. Special Theory of Relativity | Faisal Akram

3
 under Lorentz transformation. It is, therefore, desirable to first classify the physical quantities on
the basis of their transformation properties before we analyze invariance of laws of physics.
a) Scalar: A quantity which remains invariant under the Lorentz transformation is called scalar.
E.g. rest mass, charge, proper time, proper length, invariant squared norm, etc.
b) Four-Vector: A quantity having four components transforming in the same way as the event
𝑥 𝜇 , when we go from one inertial frame to another. For example if 𝐴𝜇 is four-vector
𝜇 𝜇
(contravariant 4-vector) then 𝐴𝜇 → 𝐴′𝜇 = Λ 𝜈 𝐴𝜈 under 𝑥 𝜇 → 𝑥′𝜇 = Λ 𝜈 𝑥 𝜈 .
c) Tensor of rank two: A quantity having 16 components transforming in the same as 𝑥 𝜇 𝑥 𝜈 ,
𝜇
called direct product of event. Under Lorentz transformation 𝑥 𝜇 𝑥 𝜈 → 𝑥′𝜇 𝑥′𝜈 = Λ 𝛼 Λ𝜈𝛽 𝑥 𝛼 𝑥 𝛽 .
𝜇
Thus a tensor of rand two 𝐴𝜇𝜈 transforms as 𝐴𝜇𝜈 = 𝐴′𝜇𝜈 = Λ 𝛼 Λ𝜈𝛽 𝐴𝛼𝛽 .
𝜇
Generally a tensor of an arbitrary rank 𝐴𝜇…𝜈 transforms as 𝐴𝜇…𝜈 → 𝐴′𝜇…𝜈 = Λ 𝛼 … Λ𝜈𝛽 𝐴𝛼…𝛽 .

It is noted that above classification of physical quantities is based on their transformation

properties under Lorentz transformation. In non-relativistic theories physical quantities are also
classified, but on basis of the transformation properties of space coordinates in 3-D space. As a
result physical quantities are tensors of dimension three in that case.
Some Contraction results:

Scalars: 𝐴𝜇 𝐵𝜇 , 𝐴𝜇𝜈 𝐵𝜇𝜈 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐

Vectors: 𝐴𝜇𝜈 𝐵𝜈 , 𝐴𝜇𝜈 𝐵 𝜈 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐

𝜇
Tensors of rank 2: 𝐴𝜇𝜈𝜆 𝐵𝜆 , 𝐴 𝜆
𝜈𝜆 𝐵 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐

Some notations: 𝐴𝜇 = (𝐴0 , 𝑨) = (𝐴0 , 𝐴𝑖 ), 𝐴𝜇 = 𝐴, 𝐴𝜇 𝐴𝜇 = 𝐴2 , 𝐴𝜇 𝐵𝜇 = 𝐴. 𝐵

Some physical quantities:

4-Velocity
Velocity of a particle in a frame of reference is defined as 𝑑𝒙/𝑑𝑡, where 𝑑𝒙 and 𝑑𝑡 be the
infinitesimal displacement and time to cover that displacement as measured by an observer in
that frame of reference. Bur, this velocity is not 4-vector as it does not transfer like space-time
vector. However, if we define the velocity as displacement traveled in space-time divided by the
proper time interval to complete this displacement i.e., 𝑑𝑥 𝜇 /𝑑𝜏 then it becomes a four-vector as
it has same transformation as that of space-time coordinate. We call this 4-vector velocity as 4-
velocity.
𝑑𝑥 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝜇
4-velocity 𝜂𝜇 ≡ =𝛾 ,
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝑡

𝜇 = (𝑐, 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 ),

and the invariant 𝜂𝜇 𝜂𝜇 = 𝛾 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣𝑥2 − 𝑣𝑦2 − 𝑣𝑧2 ) = 𝛾 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = 𝑐 2

3. Special Theory of Relativity | Faisal Akram

4
 4-Momentum
4-momentum 𝑝𝜇 is defined as the rest mass times the 4-velocity of the particle.
𝑝 𝜇 ≡ 𝑚0 𝜂 𝜇

𝑝𝜇 = 𝑚0 (𝑐, 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 ) = (𝑚𝑐, 𝑚𝑣𝑥 , 𝑚𝑣𝑦 , 𝑚𝑣𝑧 )

where, 𝑚 ≡ 𝑚0 . Let us define 𝐸 ≡ 𝑚𝑐 2 and 𝑝𝑖 ≡ 𝑚𝑣𝑖 (𝑖 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Hence, 𝑝𝜇 = (𝐸/𝑐, 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 , 𝑝𝑧 )
𝐸2
and the invariant 𝑝𝜇 𝑝𝜇 = − 𝑝𝑥2 − 𝑝𝑦2 − 𝑝𝑧2 = 𝑚02 𝑐 2
𝑐2

or, 𝐸 2 = 𝑐 2 𝒑2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4
Law of Conservation of Energy and Momentum
In Newtonian mechanics we define momentum 𝒑 as the product of rest mass and velocity of the
particle, i.e., 𝒑 = 𝑚0 𝑑𝒙/𝑑𝑡 and demand that total momentum of any isolated system remains
conserved. Law of conservation of momentum is the law of nature and according to special
theory of relativity it must be invariant in all inertial frame of references. But the simple
transformation law of velocity for inertial frame of references shows that this law does not satisfy
the Principle of Relativity. Same is true about the law of conservation of energy. Are these laws
do not exist or there is something wrong with the definition of energy and momentum? If there
are laws of conservation of energy and momentum then they must be consistent with principle
of relativity i.e., they must hold in all inertial frame of references.
Following is the form of law of conservation of energy and momentum which is consistent with
the Principle of relativity.
Suppose we have a collection of 𝑛 particles, each with its own 4-momentum 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , …, then total
4-momentum of particles remains remain constant.
𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … 𝑝𝑛 = 𝐶
Conservation of 4-momentum implies the conservation of each of its component.
i.e., 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , … 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐶𝐸
and, 𝒑1 , 𝒑2 , … 𝒑𝑛 = 𝑪

Here, momentums and energies are defined by 𝒑 = 𝛾𝑚0 𝒗, 𝐸 = √𝑐 2 𝒑2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4. Under classical
𝑝2
limit (𝑣 << 𝑐) 𝛾 ≈ 1, 𝒑 ≈ 𝑚0 𝒗, and 𝐸 ≈ 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 2𝑚 . Hence the modified definitions agree
0
with those given in the Newtonian mechanics apart from a constant term 𝑚0 𝑐 2 in the result of
energy. Finally we note that the mass of a moving particle, which is given by the ratio of
𝑝
momentum and velocity (𝑚 ≡ 𝑣 ) become equal to 𝛾𝑚0 , as the result of modified definition of
momentum.

3. Special Theory of Relativity | Faisal Akram

5
 𝑝2
Ex. 3.5: Show that under classical limit (𝑣 << 𝑐) 𝐸 ≈ 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 2𝑚 .
0

Ex. 3.6: Prove that laws of conservation of energy and momentum are not invariant. If energy
𝒑𝟐
and momentum are defined by 𝒑 = 𝑚0 𝒗, 𝐸 = 2𝑚
0

Ex. 3.7: Prove that laws of conservation of energy and momentum are invariant. If energy and
momentum are defined by 𝒑 = 𝛾𝑚0 𝒗, 𝐸 = √𝑐 2 𝒑2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4

3. Special Theory of Relativity | Faisal Akram

6