CHAPTER

2
FUNCTION WORDS
“A grammar of a particular language is in effect, a hypothesis about the principles of sentence
formation in this language.”
- Noam Chomsky

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 Lesson 1
Determiners

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. explain the use of the articles a, an, the;

2. choose appropriate articles to complete the given sentences: and
3. use a, an, the in written and oral communication.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

When a word is placed in front of a noun to specify quantity (e.g., “one vision,”
“many goals” or to clarify what the nouns refer to (e.g., my vision,” “that goal,” “the
goal”, imperatively, it is called determiner.
Articles
Articles are considered Noun determiners because these determine the
presence of a noun in the structure.
There are two kinds of articles: definite and indefinite. The article the is
used for a definite or specific noun while the articles a and an are used for
indefinite nouns or any one of a class of nouns. The article signals the
presence of a noun.
Types of Determiner
Articles
1. The definite article the. It defines its noun as something specific.
e.g. The Covid-19 virus
The whole world
The face that launched a thousand ship

2. The indefinite articles a, an. They define their noun as something unspecific or
something generic.
e.g. An honorable man
An unforgettable experience
A completely new normal
A renowned university

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Remember this rule of thumb:
Use the article an when the succeeding word has an initial vowel sound such as
an honest man, an honorable man, an unbridled tongue. In these examples, the article
an, is used since the succeeding words have the initial vowel sound that describes the
indicated noun. Use the article a when the succeeding word has an initial consonant
sound such as a loaf of bread, a cup of tea, a bow and arrow, a stupid mistake, etc.,

For an added knowledge, a noun phrase is usually introduced by the articles

which is why these articles are so called noun determiners.

Demonstratives

A demonstrative determiner defines where its noun or pronoun is in relation to

the speaker.

1. The demonstratives this and these define close things in terms of distance,
psychological closeness or time.
e.g. This man looks confident.
During these trying times, all we need to do is to believe that one
day we win against this battle.
2. The demonstratives those and that generally define distant things.
e.g. That barong looks classic.
Those days were golden.

Possessive

This determiner sits before a noun or a pronoun to show who or what owns it.

Personal Pronoun Possessive Determiner Example

I My my intentions
You Your your hopes
He His his goals
She Her her dreams
It Its its sweetness
We Our our strengths
They Their their beliefs
Who Whose whose presence

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 Quantifiers

Any determiner that refers, even loosely, to an amount or a quantity can be classified as a
determiner.

Most common quantifiers are: any, all, many, much, several and some.
e.g. Any learner may attend the symposium.
Many participants enjoyed the workshop.

EXERCISES

A. Directions: Write the appropriate articles to complete the following sentences.

1._______ unprecedented breakthrough in the 20th century is the invention of the

digital tool called computer.

2. My mother always remind me to bring ____ umbrella when I go out of the house.

3. _____ cheapest, easiest and most stupid thing to do is finding fault.

4. Being anxious of another’s success is ____ mark of mediocrity.

5. It is _____ unbearable scene when your head shouts at the subordinate.

6. The pain is more excruciating when ______ student is being bullied not by his/her
classmates but by his/her teachers.

7. The Structure of English course requires ____ BSEd English students to be vigilant
of grammar rules.

8-9. One of ____ richest man in the world who died of cancer once said in his death
bed, “It is not the highest level of degree or the highest honors and awards, medals
and trophies that define the joy of ___ person instead how he/she lived his/her life
for others.”

10. Syntax, ___ study of sentence structure is one of the most enjoyable fields in
linguistics because it allows people to be creative.

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 Lesson 2
Auxiliary Verb

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. identify the auxiliary verbs in the sentences;

2. explain how auxiliary verbs are positioned in sentences; and
3. use auxiliary verbs in written and oral persuasive discourse.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Traditional grammar calls auxiliary verbs as helping verbs or sometimes called

modal auxiliary verbs such as will, can, may, and must, which express notions like
permission, obligation and futurity. These elements are called helping verbs because
they must always occur with a regular or main verb in a complete sentence.

Consider the following examples:

1. The COVID- 19 virus vaccine will soon be available according to the
World Health Organization. (The main verb is be and the helping verb is
will, to express futurity)
2. This vaccine can protect or safeguard the people from being infected with
the COVID-19 virus. (The main verb is protect or safeguard and the modal
can serves as the helping verb to express possibility)
3. This vaccine issue may cause the government a big cost to supply all the
needs of the whole country. (The main verb is cause and the helping verb or
auxiliary verb is may, to express possibility.)

A second type of auxiliary verb is found in the following examples. You take
note that the helping verbs can assist in forming the voice, mode and tense of other
verbs in the sentence.

1. The government through the IATF has adopted and

implemented many safety measures or protocols to protect the
people from being infected with the Corona Virus.

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 (Has serves as the auxiliary verb and the main verbs are adopted and
implemented)
Note that traditional grammar explains that auxiliary verbs are helping
verbs because they assist in the formation of the voices, modes and
tenses of other verbs. Just like this example, the auxiliary verbs has
indicates that the tense of the verb is in the present perfect. This gives
you the cue, that present perfect tense of verb can be formed through
has plus the past participle form of the main verb like has adopted or has
implemented. (This could be discussed further in your lesson on verbs.)
2. Despite the many implemented protocols, still the government is doing
its best to control the pandemic in the country.
(The auxiliary verb here is is and the main verb is doing. The helping verb is
is and the main verb doing expresses an action that is in progress. The
helping verb is agrees with the main subject the government which is
singular so that the grammar rule on subject and verb agreement, “a
singular subject must have a singular verb” is followed.)
3. The professor is lecturing on syntax and semantics.
(The auxiliary verb be- is in the sentence above helps the present participle
form continuous tense verb lecturing)
4. The first experience of lockdown due to Covid 19-pandemic was
experienced in March last year.

(The auxiliary verb-was in example 2 helps the past participle form passive
voice verb experienced.

5. “You see, since the outbreak of Covid-19 in the US, I had been working,
treating kids and patients without being able to see my daughter so she
would not be exposed to the corona virus.”
(Had is a modal plus the past participle form been and the progressive
form of the main verb working makes the sentence Perfect past
progressive tense while the modal would not be help the main verb
exposed. Take note, not makes the sentence negative.
In structural- descriptive grammar, auxiliary verbs are known as structure
words or function words because they are used to mark verbs the way
determiners or articles mark nouns. Note, auxiliary verbs combine with other
verb (main verbs) to form verb phrases. A verb phrase is a verb with one or two or
three helping verbs before it. These helping verbs or auxiliaries add meaning to other
verbs.

Take this example.

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 A. The university installed a new equipment for online learning. (Single verb-
transitive verb to express simple past action)
B. The university did install a new equipment for online learning. (Aux.v.- did
is used to emphasize past action)
C. The university has installed a new equipment for online learning. (Aux.v.
has-is used to indicate present perfect tense meaning the action is just
recently done)
D. The university had installed a new equipment for online learning before
the school year started. (Aux.v. had is used to indicate past perfect action
before another past action happened)
E. The university will install a new equipment for online learning. (Aux.v will is used
to indicate future tense or future action.)

Now when using the modal auxiliaries:

A. The university should have installed a new equipment for online learning
today.
B. The university might have installed a new equipment for online learning
today.
C. The university must have installed a new equipment for online learning
today.
D. The university must install a new equipment for online learning next
semester.
E. The university will install a new equipment for online learning next
semester.

There are also verb phrases called interrupted verb phrases where you can
always find the necessity of helping verbs. To find the complete verb phrase in the
sentence, locate the key or main verb first; then check for helping verbs that may
precede it.

Examples
1. The institution will probably install a new equipment for on-line learning today.
2. Will the institution install a new equipment for on-line learning today?
3. She shall definitely rise from all these challenges and she shall certainly reap
the fruits of these moments. (The main verb phrases in the above sentence
are: shall rise and shall reap. The intervening words are the adverbs
definitely and certainly.)

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4. I can sing praises for Your Name every morning and night. The verb phrase in the
sentence below can sing. It is made up of the modal, can and the main verb, sing.
The modal, can signals the presence of the verb, sing. Also the modal verb, can
indicates ability.
5. I will sing praises of Your Name forever. (Will is a modal that signals
willingness.)
6. Have you decided on who to follow yet? (Note that the word have signals a
main verb follows and the main verb is decided.)
7. I have always been made a victim of circumstance, and an object of
criticism; yet never will I allow these experiences to rob me of my bright
perspective of the future. (Have been made- the main verb is made and see
how the auxiliary verb have been help to express present perfect tense .
Will allow- will is the modal and allow is the main verb)
8. I may join the Zoom meeting as soon as I will receive the link. (The modal
verb may indicates possibility and the verb will indicates futurity.)
May join- may is the modal and join is the main verb
Will receive – will is the modal and receive is the main verb.
9. Jandia will readily welcome you . (The modal verb will shows willingness, the
main verb is welcome)

The common auxiliary verbs used that are inflected in number ( singular or
plural ) and tense ( present or past) are the following:
The verbs be:
Present Past
Be was, were, been
Am
Is (singular) was
Are (plural) were

Examples:
1. I am teaching not only facts and skills but also the right values.
2. She is listening not simply hearing to my words.
3. The administrators, professors and students are waiting for the final verdict.
4. He was teaching not only facts and skills but also the right values.
5. They were waiting for the verdict.

B. Has and Have:

Has (singular) had

Have (plural) had

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 Examples:
1. She has been teaching since 2000. (has + been + teaching and the main verb
is teaching)
2. She has taught the subject. (has + the main verb taught)
3. Both of them have been teaching in the university since 2000. (have + been
+ the main verb teaching.
4. They had found what they had been searching. (had + main verb found; had+
been + main verb searching)

C. Does and Do

Does (singular) did

Do (plural) did

Note:
Do, Does and did are used to make emphatic verb phrases.
Examples:

1. I do appreciate challenging mentors but do abhor rude manners.

(The emphatic verb do in the sentence emphasizes the act appreciate which is the
main verb. Same is true to the main verb abhor being emphasized by the verb do)
They do accept the challenge and do act on it with team efforts.

(In this sentence, the verb do emphasizes the main verb accept and take
note why use do? Use do because the subject is plural - the pronoun they
referring to third person plural nominative pronoun. Third person nominative
pronoun means, the pronoun they is used as a subject or noun substitute.

2. A. He does care so much about the future of his family so he does

work so hard and does save with all his might.
B. You can also say in simple way: “ He cares so much about the future of
his family so he works hard and saves with all his might.”

If you observe, the two sentences, you can find the first sentence that it uses
emphatic verb does. Why? It is because the subject He is singular and the
tense is in the present; so, as a rule pair it with the base form of the
verb like does care , does work, and does save!

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3. She did feel being underrated , underestimated but when she did
realize, God is her Waymaker, Provider and Saviour, she did stand up
wiser and stronger.
(Note in this sentence, the emphatic verb did expresses past tense and
when the past form did is used, always pair it with the base form of the
verb or the so called plural form of the verb as the main verb.)

MODAL Auxiliary Verbs

Modal Auxiliaries always occur as part of verb phrases. The common

modal auxiliaries or so called modal are can, could, may, might, must, ought.

Shall should
Will would
May might
Can could
Must
Ought

Essential Rules to Remember on the Uses of Modals:

Can and could denote ability, may and might denote permission or ability, must
denotes necessity or obligation, ought denotes duty.
Should is used:
1. To express obligation or duty
e.g. You should care for the widow, sick and orphans.
I should report for duty tomorrow and I should know
better now.

They should help one another not pointing the blame with
one another.

2. To express probability
e.g. They should be home at about eleven o’clock in the
morning.

A little saving everyday should buffer your budget for that

dream car then.

3. To express condition or supposition in an If clause;

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 e.g. If I should leave Philippines again, I know , they would
not mind.
If you should utter encouraging and kind words, I would
not mind giving you this diamond.
If you should demoralize, I would mind.

Would is used with all persons and both numbers to express habitual
action or a tendency:
e.g. When I was a girl, my late father would always cook for
us fresh catch from the fishpond.( habitual action)

Many young people today would simply sit the whole

day and would live a sedentary life .( habitual)

My students would always clamor for stable wifi

connection every time we schedule zoom or messenger meeting.
( habitual tendency)

As a polite expression for commands and requests:

e.g. Would you mind to close the door? ( No, I wouldn’t mind
so I would close the door)
Would you mind if I would ask you a favor? ( No, I
wouldn’t, what is it that I would do for you?
Used to suggest willingness in a conditional clause:
e.g. I would do it if I could.

I would rather have bad times with you than good times
with someone else.( line of a song)

Remember that a helping verb or auxiliary verb always comes

before the Main verb.
A verb phrase is made up of a main verb and helping verbs. The
main verb is the most important verb in the phrase. Other verbs in the
verb phrase are helping or auxiliary verbs. They help the main verb make its
statement.

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EXERCISES
A. Directions: Complete each of the following sentences with an
appropriate verb phrase that includes the verb in the parenthesis.

1. Over the last twenty-five years, there _______ ________ major changes in
the theory and practice of second language teaching and learning.( be )
2. Francis Bacon _______ ________ _________ ( called) the Father of Modern
Essay.
3.The profits from the concert by the Filipino artists ______
________( donated) to the victims of floods in Cagayan.
4. She _____ _____ ______( search) for her purpose until this time.
5. It _____ ______ ______ (be ) love, but it is over now.
6. John ______ ______ _______ ( take) the key with him.
7. Brey _______ ( sing ) melodiously and (dance) gracefully.
8. If you compare yourself with others, you _____ ( become ) vain and bitter.
9. Developing communication skills _______ ( bring) you to the pedestal of
success.
10. Verbal linguistic intelligence _______ not always _____ ( guarantee) success
in life.

B. Directions: Supply the correct modals.

1. “If you _______ conceive it, you _____ can achieve it.”
2. “_____ not distress yourself with imaginings, many fears are born
of fatigue and loneliness”
3. I _______ rather die many times with my principle than live in
pleasure wishing I were alive!
4. You _____ stop smoking or you ______ die young.
5. ________ you excuse Moira for necessity.
6. People ______ wear masks and face shield to protect them from
the infectious Covid-19.
7. “Those who exalt themselves _____ be humbled and those who
humble themselves ________ be exalted”
8. “I _______ tasted and seen the sweetest of love in Your presence
Oh Lord!”
9.There is nothing I ______ ever close with except You.
10. “______ you mind if I _______ leave?”

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C. Directions: On the use of do, does did. Supply the correct verbs for the tag
phrases.( Adopted from the book of Ida Yap Patron, 2011)

1. Genuine peace is consolidated in sincerity and loyalty, ________ it?

2. It precludes economic and social conditions , _______it?
3. It will not lead to new conflicts, _______it?
4. Nations and leaders must be governed by God’s laws, ______they?
5. Justice gives to each what is his or hers, _______it?

Supply the appropriate emphatic / auxiliary verb.

6. Justice _______not give all things to all.

7. All humans ______(give ) love to all.
8. God _____ not let us down.
9. Temporal prosperity _____ replace eternal happiness.
10. Nations _____be ruled with kindness for world peace.

D. Directions: Write a persuasive essay or speech why every Filipino

should be vaccinated with the Anti - Covid- Virus vaccine.

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 Lesson 3
Preposition

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. determine the appropriate usage of prepositions; and

2. use correct prepositions in oral and written discourse.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase

modifying another word in the sentence. Therefore, a preposition is always part of a
prepositional phrase. The prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or
as an adverb.

Time

at, for, on, until, after, till, during

Place or location and position

before from close to next to along beyond

against near beside by outside inside
ahead of in front of beneath under below after
behind above at over throughout far
among between around in on across
about toward underneath off that

Direction and Motion

over down onto off up at

across via about around in along

Agents or things

by the sea (e.g. She likes to relax by the sea and feel the cool breeze.

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by the pencil (he wrote the masterpiece by the pencil.

Position of Preposition in the Sentence

1. The preposition is found before the noun or pronoun that serves as its
object.

under the table with me

in the library for us
into the office between them
on the space to them
beyond the sunset beside her

Note: The noun or pronoun at the end of the phrase is called the object of the
preposition.

2. The preposition may also be placed at the end of the sentence.

I don’t want to remember what you talked
about. I found her to be difficult to deal with.
You must know pretty well the reason I called you for?

Note: The preposition that ends a sentence is idiomatic, natural English;

though it is more frequent in informal than in formal usage.

Examples of prepositional phrases used as idiomatic expressions.

1. Her desk is so neat; everything’s always in apple pie order.

2. Her desk is so neat; everything’s always in apple pie order.
3. I need to get a job now, I’m the one who has to bring home the bacon.
4. We should beef-up the program by adding more numbers.
5. I really like doing this job; after all, it is my bread and butter.
6. Several people were trying to manage the program but it didn’t turn out well.
I guess many cooks spoiled the broth.

Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase is a word - group modifier, used either as an

adjective or an adverb. As an adjective, it modifies a noun or noun equivalent. As
an adverb, the prepositional phrase answers the questions when, where, why or

15
how. The preposition , its object and its modifiers make up a prepositional
phrase.
Examples:
by the door, near the end, in the story, down the road, of my favorite uncle,
from his experience, after a few days, by the train

Uses of the Prepositional Phrase

1. As an adjective to modify a noun or noun equivalent.
e.g. The beautiful sunset in the west captured my eye. (the prepositional
phrase modifies the noun sunset)
2. The prepositional phrase as an adjective modifier to the subject
e.g. Peace on earth is so elusive to achieve.( on earth , modifies
the subject Peace) The lady in a long tube dress is an
Italian fashion model.

The man with dreamy eyes appears bored.

Many of them were surprised.

A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
3. The prepositional phrase used as an adjectival modifier of the predicate
nominative or subjective complement.
e.g. He is a firm believer in democratic ideals.
She is a professor of English.
He is the captain of the team.
He is a man of honor.
Those men are the guests of the mayor.
4.The prepositional phrase may be used as an adverbial modifier.
e.g. He is eligible for membership. (Modifies eligible, which is an adjective so it
functions as adverb)
She was absent, from the class. (modifies the adjective absent)
He acted within bounds. (modifies the verb acted)
They worked until dusk. (it modifies the worked)

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EXERCISES
A. Directions: Underline the prepositional phrases and tell how these functions:
Adjective or adverb.
_____________1. He is one among the lucky ones.
_____________2. The stranger leaned against the post.
_____________3. The Filipino artist performed before foreign audience.
_____________4. Some parts of the city are below sea level.

_____________5. They haven’t accomplished anything during the last six days.
_____________6. They play for money.
_____________7. It was exposed to the wind, the rain and the scorching sun.
_____________8. Contrary to our expectation, he came early.
_____________9. They could not have had a more perfect day for a garden-
party.

_____________10. “To speak ill of others is a dishonest way of praising ourselves”.

Will Durant
B. Directions: Choose the correct preposition in the parenthesis.
1. Some students are absent (from, in) the class.

2. They have been (to, from) church.

3. Our lesson begins (from, on) page 10.

4. Let us listen (in, to) the speech of the opposing parties.

5. I am born (of, to) poor but well-mannered parents.

6. They were discouraged (in, from) attending the party.

7. The merchant deals (in, with) hardware.

8. His mother was deaf (to, with) her request.

9. Some news reporters write (for, from) money.

10. There is an exception (to with) every rule.

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 Lesson 4
Pronoun

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. determine appropriate usage of pronouns; and

2. use correct pronouns in oral and written discourse.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

God is my way maker He is my forever refuge, promise keeper, miracle worker

and light in the darkness”

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. It is usually substituted for a specific noun,
which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun He is God.
Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things;
possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize another noun
or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause and demonstrative pronouns
identify, point to, or refer to nouns.
.
Kinds of Pronouns

1. Personal Pronouns. These are used instead of nouns naming persons. They enable us to
identify the person speaking (First Person), the person spoken to (Second Person) and the
person spoken about (Third Person). Personal pronouns change their forms according to case
and number.

Now complete the matrix below on the different personal pronouns, their number
and cases. Use the spaces below. This is test of your Mastery of Pronouns.

Persons Nominative Case Objective Case Possessive Case

Singular Singular Singular

First
Second
Third
Person Plural Nominative Plural Objective Plural Possessive
First

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Second
Third

Functions of personal pronouns in the sentence

1. The nominative form of the pronouns are used as subjects of the verb – I, we, you,
she, he, it, they, who and whoever.
e.g. Dr. Rosales and He are friends.

They, the faculty members of the college will work from home.

It was John and Jan who came to the rescue.

He is the one who we feel will win.

2. The nominative forms of the pronouns are used after the verb be or predicate
nominative. (subjective complement)

e.g. Was it they you were talking about.

Who’s there? It is I.
I thought it was he who came.
Whoever I hear those three taps on the door, I know it is he.
The leaders of the group are John, Jan and she.
3. With sentences where the verb is omitted, use the nominative forms, too. a. He is taller
than I.
e.g. He sang as well as she.

4. Use the objective form when the pronoun is used as an object of the verb.
e.g. The president appointed him to the position. (the pronoun him is used as
direct object.)
She gave me the Special Order yesterday. (indirect object)
Whom were you thinking about to take the post. (object of the preposition
about)
5. Used the objective form when used as indirect object of the verb.

e.g. My best friend Redz sent me a beautiful sling bag as a gift on my birthday.

My husband bought me a new cellphone because I need it for on- line

teaching .

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 The government granted them aid during the pandemic.
6. Use the objective form when used as object of the preposition

e.g. Catherine submitted her report on the student publication to me.

The project proposal was made by us.

The letters that arrived came from them.
7. Use the objective form as the subject of the infinitive.

e.g. I wanted him to win.

They invited me and him to attend the occasion.

We asked her to repeat her report.

8. Use the objective form after the infinitive to be.

e.g. The girls expected the visitor to be me.

We thought the author of the command to be him.

9. As appositive

e.g. Only two heads, you and I must attend the council meeting.

The professor as the culprits, he and she to be investigated upon.

2. Possessive pronouns. They are pronouns showing possession, but they function as adjectives
because they follow nouns. They are related to questions with “whose”.

e.g. Can you describe to me their characters?

Have you evaluated our research paper?
My first impression of you will last to my tomb.
This is our humble share for this academic endeavor.

Your intimidation never conquered my spirit.

Life is our own making!
His own judgment reflects his character not yours.

* To indicate possession
e.g. Come over to our farm house.
It is still anybody’s game.
Whose book is that.

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 *Preceding a gerund.
e.g. His playing well of the piano astounded the audience.
He was surprised at my accepting the proposal.

3. Relative Pronouns. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, that what and
occasionally us. The compound relative pronouns are whoever, whichever or whatever.
The relative pronouns whosoever, whichever, whatsoever and whomsoever are archaic
or old forms.

Note only the relative pronoun who is fully inflected.

Nominative (who), possessive (whose) and objective (whom) all refer to
persons.
Examples:

1. The man who predicted the so many catastrophes in 2020 is he.(

The relative pronoun who refers to the subject man while the pronoun
he is used as subject complement)
2. The woman whom you met yesterday is the current Campus
Executive Officer.(The relative pronoun whom refers to the woman
but it serves as the object of the subtle preposition like with whom
you met)
3. Joel Osteen, whose preachings are known all over the world is one
of the most sought after preachers in the universe.( Whose is a
relative pronoun to show possession)
4. Whose fault” is not supposed to be the question. Whose turn to help
solve this problem should be the question.( The pronoun whose is
used to ask question of ownership or possession)
Which and that refer to things and ideas may be used as object of a verb or a
preposition in a sentence.
e.g. I have always been reading books which are inspirational such
as The Secret, The Purpose Driven Life and The Seeds of
Greatness.( Which refers to the books)

Who, what, which may be used as subjects of verbs in a sentence.

e.g. He who humbles himself will be exalted. (The subject is the pronoun
he and the relative pronoun who refers to he, thus who is the
subject of the verb humbles)

She cannot just explain what is wrong with herself.( What is the
subject of the verb is )

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 He can’t decipher which is telling the truth between these sides.
Whom, which ,what maybe used as object of a verb or a preposition in a
sentence.
e.g. For whom is this pothos plant? (whom is the object of the
preposition)

He is the man whom I admire of his honesty and generosity

(whom is the object of the verb admire.

I know which one calls for celebration. (which is the object of

the verb calls)
You have to be careful what you allow in your spirit. (Object of the
verb allow)

The pronouns who, which, that, what, with their compounds , whoever ,
whichever, whatever, as are often used to introduce a subordinate clause
and relate to its main clause.
e.g. Many are the unrest of the society which upset people. (The subordinate
clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which)
It is not easy now to find the happiest people who can control
their own atmosphere and who do not steal dreams.( The relative
pronoun who refers to the people )
But is so easy to find people who pull you down and not pull you up. (
the relative pronoun who refers to people)
He is the man whom I trusted my heart- my husband.( whom is the
relative pronoun used for the man.)

5. Indefinite Pronouns. The indefinite pronouns point out persons, places or things.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
everyone everybody everything each either no one
someone somebody one anybody anything anyone
another

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Both many few several

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 e.g. Both of my foster parents are now in their old age as they are both in their
80’s.
Both of the colors violet and blue are my favorites.
Many are called but few are chosen.
Several books are indeed great sources of wisdom and inspirations.

Singular or Plural Pronouns: Some none most all any

Some, all and most are singular when they refer to a quantity. They are plural
when they refer to a number.

e.g. Some of the vinegar has been spilled.

Some of the chocolate bars have melted.
Most of the juice is finished.
Most of the clothes are soaked with water.
Most of her speech does penetrate to the heart.
Most of the vloggers do their job for money.
None may either be singular or plural but it is now more
common used as plural.
None of the people I trust the most have ever tricked me.

None of the prepared researches have ever satisfied one of

the panelists.
None of the drinks was rejected.
6. Interrogative Pronouns. These pronouns are simply used to ask questions. Note
whose is used for possessive and whom for objective case. They have the same
forms for the singular and plural.
e.g. Who is she?
Who are they?
Whose is this so intriguing box?

Whose are these beautiful handcrafts?

Whom are you addressing that remark?

Whom did you call for help?

Whom did they vote to be the next President?

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 Who, whose and whom questions refer to persons while which and what refer to
things or objects.
e.g. What is the truest self you can ever possess?

Which is a better place to live in - planet Earth or Mars?

Whose point? Whose principle do you stand up with? Whose bet won?
Whom do you monumentalize your heart melting moment?
Whom do you confide with?

Who is feisty? Who is soulful? Who is true?

Note whom is used as an object of the verb and object of the preposition.

e.g. What is an Ad interim appointment? (what is used as subject of the verb

is)
Which is a better choice - to resign or re-designate? (which is the subject of
the verb is)

Whom is used as object of a verb and a preposition.

Whom did they elect as President? (whom is the object of the verb did
elect)

To whom shall I apply for the position of an enumerator? Whom is the

object the preposition to.

7. Demonstrative Pronouns.

This, These, That Those. These pronouns point to definite or particular person,
place thing or object called an antecedent. They are inflected to number only.
e.g. This is my stand. This is indeed impressive.

These are my enumerated comments. These are true.

That is precisely unnecessary.

That talk is senseless. That is an exact talk about exceptional people!

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 Those who like you and those who do not like you are still people
and the matter is not about them. It is about you.

Those who hunger of justice are those who are denied of what are due
them.

That joke seem true.

Those unprecedented events tickled me to the bone.
How do you overcome these challenges besetting the human race?
This piece of a morsel is so bitter to swallow.

8. Reflexive Pronoun. These are made from the personal pronouns added with the suffix
self or selves. These are also referred to as compound pronouns in some grammar books.

Singular Plural

First Person myself ourselves

Second Person yourself yourselves
Third Person himself themselves
herself
itself
oneself

e.g. There are tendencies that we hurt ourselves. (Object of the verb hurt)
There are people who always put themselves to where they are benefited. (Object
of the verb put)

Foster mom always thinks of herself weak and frail now. (object of the
preposition.)
Nothing can offend yourself without your permission.
You are not yourself today. Is there anything wrong? (predicate nominative)
They have not been themselves for the past three weeks after the
storm. ( predicate nominative)

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 8. Intensive Pronouns. These are pronouns used to emphasize the substantive (noun or
pronoun to which they refer, in other words, they may be used as appositives.
e.g. I myself sketched the plan of our house.
She herself accepts the Will of Heaven and not her own.
My husband manages his small business himself.
The siblings , themselves agree on how they could divide equally the
parcel of lot.

9. Reciprocal Pronouns. Each other and one another are called reciprocal pronouns
because these show or express mutual relationship .Note: Each other refer only to
TWO, one another more than two.
Formal: The leader and follower help each other.
All the athletes are cheering at one another.

Informal: The leader and follower are helping one another.

All the athletes are shouting at each other.

10. Impersonal Pronouns

It is an impersonal pronoun with no definite antecedent. It is also called

pronominal expletive, which means a filler.

e.g. It is always best to tell the truth It is a fact.

It has ten thousand reasons to thank God each day.
It is always a privilege to be of service to the Filipino people

Another is the expletive There .

e.g. There was no sign of progress at all.

There was silence , deafening There was you .

You is used in informal while one is used for formal.

Informal: You can see the corrupt practices of government.

Formal: One can always see the corrupt practices of the government officials.

10. Numerical Pronouns

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 The cardinal numbers, one two three and ordinal numbers first, second and third may be
used as pronouns .

e.g. Fifty of them were considered for the scholarship slots.

Ten of the chickens were brought to the poultry.
A hundreds of the praise songs he played soothed my soul.
The ninth amazed me most.

EXERCISES
A. Directions: On Pronoun - Antecedent Agreement. Improve the sentences by removing the
confused pronoun references.
1. Her sister met her at the airport and she ran to her and embraced her.
2. Students need to communicate with their professors for academic consultation,
and if they need help, they should give it to them.
3. The story The Necklace teaches a lesson that “she who cannot afford to
wear expensive gem should not resort to borrowing from her.”
4. No one should make such a statement about our President unless he was
trying to undermine our university.
5. John told Raben that he had bought a new dumptruck for an installment
basis.
6. As she ran up the stairs and hurriedly opened the door, it squeaked.
7. JM told his dad he will soon get a big bike.
8. After Uncle Fred brought Paul home, we took pictures of him.
9. I encode my assignment in the MTB MLE training while I am listening to the
news , which saves a great deal of time.
10. Brett knew that Ralp was cheating on the test but the other students appeared
not to be aware of this.

B. Directions: Choose the correct pronoun from the parenthesis. Write it on your
answer sheet.
1. Everyone wants to live in peace with (their, his) family.
2. Someone told me, (he, they) have been victims of fake news.

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 3. Each of the tourists entered the hidden garden speechless and ( they, he)
picked ( their , his) own choice plant.
4. Every person should be careful of ( their, his, her) manners.
5. Each of the citizens should do ( his, their) share for the country.
6. Neither of the candidates is willing to draw out from ( their , his/her ) own
pockets for the starving people.
7. Instead, the persons in posts only amass money for ( his, their ) own
welfare .
8. Everyone ( is , are ) expected to live by example and strive to live for others.
9. (Who, Whom) do you think will be elected as the next president?
10. She didn’t know ( who, whom) to follow.

C. Directions: Supply the reflexive or intensive pronoun on the blank. Underline the
antecedent of the pronoun.
1. I__________ will stand for my decision and will not waive for it.
2. Captain, can’t you __________ please seriously work on your project proposal for
your constituents?
3. The constituents braced _________ for whatever decision that the higher authorities
will declare.
4. They have only ___________ to blame after their lost.
5. Both my niece and nephew hurt ________by playing with the seesaw.
6. She _________ cooked exotic dishes for the ten visitors .
7. After the bankruptcy of his business, he has not been__________.
8. The song__________ is so penetrating to the soul.
9. He has been so insistent that he took all the risk by ________.
10. The people _________ create their own destruction .

D. Directions: Write a one minute descriptive essay about your mother using pronouns
correctly or you may write one for that person whom you consider a hero or heroes.

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

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 Lesson 5
Conjunctions

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. identify the types of conjunction; and

2. use conjunctions appropriately in written and oral discourse.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases or clauses. Traditional grammar

classifies it as part of speech. Structural – descriptive grammar categorizes it as a function
word. Conjunctions denote or imply relationships between words or group of words that they
connect. Conjunctions do not have objects, unlike prepositions. These are sometimes called
transitional devices or connectors.

Kinds of Conjunctions
1. Coordinating conjunctions connect word or group of words of the similar structure.
They connect noun to noun, pronoun to pronoun, verb to verb, adverb to adverb,
adjective to adjective, phrases and clauses that are grammatically alike.

Addition :and, further, furthermore, besides, also, moreover, nor,

too, and, then
Contrast :but, however, yet, and yet, still, nevertheless,
notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand
Result : therefore, hence, consequently, so, accordingly, thus,
wherefore, then
Alternation :or, nor, otherwise, else, either…or, neither…nor, so…as ,
both…and, not only… but also, the one…the other, on
the one hand…on the other hand, as…as
Cause :for

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Repetition, exemplification, intensification: in fact, in other words, that is, for
instance, for example, thus
e.g. Jesus is my comfort and my shelter. (connects nouns)
He is gracious and merciful. (connect adjectives)
She speaks frankly and quickly. (connects adverbs)
I cried and wept and sobbed! (connects verbs)
I travelled to the ethnic states and to the regions. (connects prepositional
phrases)

I easily flare up but easily subside like a fire. (connects clause)

You may walk or you may ride. ( connects clauses or two simple sentences)
The times are difficult, yet, we need to be strong and wise.( Connects
clauses)
It rained hard so he did not come.( Connects clauses)
People abused democracy, so they suffered the consequences of their own actions.
(connects clauses)

NOTE:

For is used as coordinating conjunction only between clauses.

e.g. I did not heed right away for I was trying to weight things.

I did not come for I was not feeling well. I did not panic for I knew
the truth.

Nor is used as coordinating conjunction only when it is preceded by another negative

word.

e.g. There was no nurse, nor oxygen, nor do they have a ready ambulance for
the emergency.

Hatred has no place in my heart, nor jealousy, nor greed nor will I live in
bitterness because if God is for us , who can be against us?

Pure conjunctions :and, but, for, or, neither, nor

Correlatives : either…or, neither…nor, as…as, both…and, not only…but also,
the one…the other, on the one hand… on the other hand,
so… as

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Conjunctive Adverbs are also known as transition adverbs or adverbial connectives: further,
furthermore, besides, also, moreover, likewise, again, then, so, finally, however, yet, still, nevertheless,
notwithstanding, therefore, hence, consequently, so, accordingly, thereupon, thus, wherefore, , indeed,
namely.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions are used to introduce a subordinate or dependent clause; it

joins the main clause (independent clause) to the subordinate clause (dependent clauses).
The subordinate clause depends on its main clause for its meaning

Relative pronouns used as subordinating conjunctions: who, which, what, that, as

Subordinating Conjunctions Examples:

I will go Lord, if you lead me. (The subordinate clause, if you lead me is introduced by
subordinating conjunction, if. The subordinating conjunction connects two clauses. The
main clause, I will go Lord, and the subordinate clause, if You lead me.)

You will make it if you act on it. (Main clause (MC) is You will make it, Dependent
clause (DC) is If you act on it. Subordinator is if.

We heard the mass before the moon rose. (MC or IC, We heard the mass, Dependent
Clause or Subordinate Clause - before the moon rose)

You need to study hard so that you pass the test. (Main Clause or Independent
Clause - You need to study hard, so that you pass the test (Dependent clause or
Subordinate clause). Notice that the subordinating conjunction, so that is used to begin
the Subordinate clause.

Time :when, whenever, while, before, after, since, as soon as, as long as, as
often as, now, now that, once
Place : where, wherever, whence, whensoever, whereto
Cause : because, as, since, inasmuch as, seeing that, now that, owing to
the fact that
Purpose : that, so that, in order that, lest
Degree : as, than, more than, rather than, as…as, not so… as, such as…just as
Condition : if, so, unless, on condition that, provided that, supposing, in case that,
but that, so that, so long as,
Concession :though, although, even if, no matter how
Result : that, so that, so…that, such…that
Manner : as, as if, as though

3. Coordinating conjunctions join sentences elements of same rank or structure, but they come in
pairs.

Both…and

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 Either…or
Neither…nor
Not only…but also
Whether…or

e.g. Neither the fame nor the honor will lure me to denounce my principles and beliefs
in the Bible. (connect nouns)

The detained leader did not only ignite the voice of the youth but also rekindle
the spirit of the adults to fight for democracy. (connect clauses)

Either we will sow love or we will spread peace. (connect clauses)

Whether you like it or not, life is full of surprises.

4. Conjunctive Adverbs are adverbs functioning as transitions. They connect complete ideas by
showing comparisons, contrasts, results, etc. Hence they are also called sentence linkers. The
conjunctive adverbs are preceded with a semicolon (;) and followed by a comma (,).

accordingly finally nevertheless again also

besides consequently furthermore however thus
moreover nevertheless otherwise nonetheless therefore

e.g. People tend to abuse the natural resources; thus, natural catastrophes have become

vindictive of these human abuses.

(The conjunctive adverb thus connects two independent clauses. It bridges between
different ideas showing result.)

Institutions now lack the construct of the supreme values; hence, the moral
degradation is
one of the social issues that calls for urgent response.

(In this sentence, the conjunction used hence shows cause and effect relationship.
If you
notice the sentence, it consists of two independent clauses and one dependent
clause. ICs
or MCs are: (Institutions now lack the construct of the supreme values and the
moral
degradation is one of the social issues and that calls for urgent response is its DC.

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 Whether or not it is clear to you, no doubt the universe is unfolding as it should;
therefore,
be at peace with God, whatever you conceive him to be.

Note:

When using coordinating conjunction, be sure that the sentence elements you are joining
are of equal rank.

When using correlative conjunctions, be sure that each member of the pairs must be
followed by the same kind of conjunctions.

Put ideas of lesser importance in a subordinate clause.

EXERCISE:

A. Directions: Using appropriate conjunctions, write an essay describing the cause

and effect of climate change!

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___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
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 Lesson 6
Interjections

OBJECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. express emotions using interjections.

BACKGROUNDINFORMATION

Interjection is a part of speech that expresses an attitude or emotion. This is also called the
emotive or affective part of language. A number of grammarians classify Interjections as an independent
word. In some books, interjections and exclamations are interchangeable.

Variety of Interjections and Uses

Used as an expression of:

sorrow, regret, appeal, disappointment, remorse

e.g. Ah, alack, oh, ah me, alas, O,

contempt, disgust, disbelief, repugnance, scorn

e.g. Boh, pooh, ugh, huh, pah, fie, pish, faugh

Joy, surprise, suspicion, indignation

e.g. Ha, oh, huh

Impatience, rebuke, annoyance, disapproval

e.g. Tush, pshaw, poohs, pooh-pooh

Doubt, hesitation, warning

e.g. Hmmmm, hem

Triumph, exultation, wonder, joy

e.g. Aha, hurrah, ho, ah, wow

Approbation, encouragement, agreement, resignation

e.g. Amen, (so be it) Bravo, Hurrah

Pleasure, greeting
e.g. Hallo, hello, ho, lo, aloha, hush,

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 Pain
e.g. Ouch

Encouragement
e.g. Heigh, Cheer up

Weariness
e.g. heigh- ho

Interrogative
e.g. eh

Some interjections are imitations of sounds/onomatopoeic. These are usually followed

by a comma or exclamation point.

e.g. Bang bang! Bowowowow (dog) mow, screech, splash, Ahem, hiss , Ssshhhh

Exclamations used such as nouns, pronouns, adjectives adverbs, short phrases are often
used but are not classified as interjections.

O and Oh are both used as interjections. It may be followed by a comma or an exclamatory

point. The O is used before a nominative address. It is used to express pain, terror, shame,
derisive, astonishment or disapproval. O is always capitalized while Oh is only capitalized at the
beginning of a sentence but not in the middle.

Examples:

O Jerusalem!
Oh! So you are here!” O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore are
thou Oh, I wish I would come.

Miscellaneous Function Words

Attention claimers (hey, okay)

Attention signal (yes, no, uh, huh, ooh)
Responses (yes, yeah, nope, not, not all, maybe)
Hesitator (well)

EXERCISE:

35
A. Directions: Fill in the blanks with the appropriate interjection. Choose between O or
Oh with the correct punctuation mark.

1. _____ yes, I do remember the face but not the name.

2. _____ my Myanmar, how I miss the places so rich with natural resources.
3. _____ you could have done it better.
4. _____ what a magnificent panoramic view!
5. _____ it is so frustrating!
6. _____ what a great challenge I was able to conquer!
7. _____ precisely! You got it right
8. ______my Lord!
9. Bless the Lord, _____my soul.
10. _____I long to see you Lord.

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 Lesson 7
Transitions, Signal Words or Markers

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. use signal words in constructing a lead paragraph for news article.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Transitions, like sign posts on the road that guide the traveler, are words and phrases that
show the connection between ideas. The use of the right transition word can change the
relationship and meaning of two sentences. Trans means “across” makes transitional devices or
signal words or signal markers useful when the writer or speaker wants to express emphasis,
addition, comparison or contrast, illustration and cause and effect.

e.g. obey humbly, Jesus inspires me to always humbly obey.

obey humbly because Jesus inspires me to always humbly
obey. (see the relationship of the second
sentence)

Emphasis: important to note, most of all, a significant factor, a primary concern, a key
feature, the main value, especially valuable, most noteworthy, remember that, a major
event, the chief outcome, the principal item, pay particular attention to, the chief
factor, a vital force, above all, a central issue, a distinctive quality, should be noted, the
most substantial issue

Addition : first of all, second, third …, for one thing, furthermore, likewise, also,
another, finally, last, in addition

Comparison or Contrast: to compare is to point out similarities of two unlike

subjects, to contrast is to point out the differences of two subjects.

Compare: like, likewise, just, as, equally, in like manner, in the same way, alike, similarly,
as in, Contrast: but, however, in contrast, yet, differ, variation, difference, on the contrary,
conversely, otherwise, on the other hand.

Illustration : to give an example for a clearer point or idea or definition. For

example, to illustrate, once, specifically, for instance, such as,

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Cause and Effect: because, for the reason that, since, cause, thus, therefore, as a result,
consequently, if…then, so that

EXERCISE:

Using signal words, construct a lead paragraph for a news article.

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__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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REFERENCES
Alcantara, Rebecca and Josefina Cabanilla. 1999. Essentials of English Grammar( English Plus).
Quezon City: Katha Publishing Incorporated.

Byrne,Rhonda. The Power. 2010.New York: Atria Books:

O’Grady , William and Dobvolsky, Michael.1989. Contemporary Linguistics, An Introduction.US

Edition Prepared by Mark Aronoff. State University of New York: St Martins Press

Patron, Ida Yap. 2011.English Plus. A Communicative Approach. Revised Edition. QuezonCity: Great
Books Publishing

Vinuya, Remedios V et.al. 1997. Communication and Study Skills in English Across
Disciplines..Makati City :Grandwater Publications and Research Corporation

https://www. cpp. edu. ramp/ program- materials/recognizing -transitions.shtml.

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/87257311516831876/

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