Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mollusca 1
Mollusca 1
Mollusca
Mollusca is the second-largest phylum of invertebrate animals after the Arthropoda, the members of which
Mollusca
are known as molluscs or mollusks[a] (/ˈmɒləsk/). Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are
recognized.[3] The number of fossil species is estimated between 60,000 and 100,000 additional species.[4] Temporal range:
The proportion of undescribed species is very high. Many taxa remain poorly studied.[5]
Molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms.
Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats. They are highly diverse, not just in size
and anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and habitat. The phylum is typically divided into 7 or
8[6] taxonomic classes, of which two are entirely extinct. Cephalopod molluscs, such as squid, cuttlefish, and
octopuses, are among the most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates—and either the giant squid or
the colossal squid is the largest known invertebrate species. The gastropods (snails and slugs) are by far the
most numerous molluscs and account for 80% of the total classified species. Clockwise from top-left: Helix pomatia, a
gastropod; Common octopus, a
The three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for
breathing and excretion, the presence of a radula (except for bivalves), and the structure of the nervous cephalopod; Tonicella lineata, a chiton;
system. Other than these common elements, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many Atlantic surf clam, a bivalve.
textbooks base their descriptions on a "hypothetical ancestral mollusc" (see image below). This has a single,
Scientific classification
"limpet-like" shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, and is
secreted by a mantle covering the whole upper surface. The underside of the animal consists of a single Kingdom: Animalia
muscular "foot". Although molluscs are coelomates, the coelom tends to be small. The main body cavity is a
Subkingdom: Eumetazoa
hemocoel through which blood circulates; as such, their circulatory systems are mainly open. The
"generalized" mollusc's feeding system consists of a rasping "tongue", the radula, and a complex digestive Clade: ParaHoxozoa
system in which exuded mucus and microscopic, muscle-powered "hairs" called cilia play various important
Clade: Bilateria
roles. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves. The brain, in species that
have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, Clade: Nephrozoa
vibrations, and touch. The simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization,
but more complex variations occur. Nearly all produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, (unranked): Protostomia
more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults. The coelomic cavity is reduced. They have an open (unranked): Spiralia
circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion.
Superphylum: Lophotrochozoa
Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods, and bivalves in the Cambrian period, Phylum: Mollusca
541–485.4 million years ago. However, the evolutionary history both of molluscs' emergence from the
Linnaeus, 1758
ancestral Lophotrochozoa and of their diversification into the well-known living and fossil forms are still
subjects of vigorous debate among scientists. Classes
Molluscs have been and still are an important food source for anatomically modern humans. Toxins that can
See text.
accumulate in certain molluscs under specific conditions create a risk of food poisoning, and many
jurisdictions have regulations to reduce this risk. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of
important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye, and sea silk. Their shells have Diversity[1]
also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. 85,000 recognized living species.
A handful of mollusc species are sometimes considered hazards or pests for human activities. The bite of the
blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last over a month.
Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, but their sophisticated, though easily produced,
venoms have become important tools in neurological research. Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia,
bilharziosis, or snail fever) is transmitted to humans by water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people.
Snails and slugs can also be serious agricultural pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail
species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems.
Etymology
The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin Cornu aspersum (formerly Helix
molluscus, from mollis, soft. Molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotle's τὰ μαλάκια ta malákia (the soft aspersa) – a common land snail
ones; < μαλακός malakós "soft"), which he applied inter alia to cuttlefish.[7][8] The scientific study of molluscs is
accordingly called malacology.[9]
The name Molluscoida was formerly used to denote a division of the animal kingdom containing the
brachiopods, bryozoans, and tunicates, the members of the three groups having been supposed to somewhat
resemble the molluscs. As now known, these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, so
the name Molluscoida has been abandoned.[10]
Definition
The most universal features of the body structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for
breathing and excretion, and the organization of the nervous system. Many have a calcareous shell.[11]
Molluscs have developed such a varied range of body structures, finding synapomorphies (defining
characteristics) to apply to all modern groups is difficult.[12] The most general characteristic of molluscs is they
are unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical.[13] The following are present in all modern molluscs:[14][16] Fossilized ammonite displayed at
the National Museum of the
The dorsal part of the body wall is a mantle (or pallium) which secretes calcareous spicules, plates or shells. It Philippines
overlaps the body with enough spare room to form a mantle cavity.
The anus and genitals open into the mantle cavity.
There are two pairs of main nerve cords.[15]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 1/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
Other characteristics that commonly appear in textbooks have significant exceptions:
Broad,
Reduced or absent Yes Yes Yes Modified into arms Yes
muscular foot
Dorsal
concentration of
Not obvious Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
internal organs
(visceral mass)
Large digestive No ceca in some
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
ceca Aplacophora
Large complex
metanephridia None Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
("kidneys")
Diversity
Estimates of accepted described living species of molluscs vary from 50,000 to a maximum of 120,000 species.[1]
The total number of described species is difficult to estimate because of unresolved synonymy. In 1969 David
Nicol estimated the probable total number of living mollusc species at 107,000 of which were about 12,000 fresh-
water gastropods and 35,000 terrestrial. The Bivalvia would comprise about 14% of the total and the other five
classes less than 2% of the living molluscs.[18] In 2009, Chapman estimated the number of described living
mollusc species at 85,000.[1] Haszprunar in 2001 estimated about 93,000 named species,[19] which include 23%
of all named marine organisms.[20] Molluscs are second only to arthropods in numbers of living animal species[17] Diversity and variability of shells of
molluscs on display
— far behind the arthropods' 1,113,000 but well ahead of chordates' 52,000.[15]: Front endpaper About
200,000 living species in total are estimated,[1][21] and 70,000 fossil species,[14] although the total number of
mollusc species ever to have existed, whether or not preserved, must be many times greater than the number alive
today.[22]
Molluscs have more varied forms than any other animal phylum. They include snails, slugs and other gastropods;
clams and other bivalves; squids and other cephalopods; and other lesser-known but similarly distinctive
subgroups. The majority of species still live in the oceans, from the seashores to the abyssal zone, but some form a
significant part of the freshwater fauna and the terrestrial ecosystems. Molluscs are extremely diverse in tropical
and temperate regions, but can be found at all latitudes.[12] About 80% of all known mollusc species are
gastropods.[17] Cephalopoda such as squid, cuttlefish, and octopuses are among the neurologically most advanced About 80% of all known mollusc
of all invertebrates.[23] The giant squid, which until recently had not been observed alive in its adult form,[24] is species are gastropods (snails and
one of the largest invertebrates, but a recently caught specimen of the colossal squid, 10 m (33 ft) long and slugs), including this cowry (a sea
weighing 500 kg (1,100 lb), may have overtaken it.[25] snail).[17]
Freshwater and terrestrial molluscs appear exceptionally vulnerable to extinction. Estimates of the numbers of
nonmarine molluscs vary widely, partly because many regions have not been thoroughly surveyed. There is also a shortage of specialists who can
identify all the animals in any one area to species. However, in 2004 the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species included nearly 2,000 endangered
nonmarine molluscs. For comparison, the great majority of mollusc species are marine, but only 41 of these appeared on the 2004 Red List. About
42% of recorded extinctions since the year 1500 are of molluscs, consisting almost entirely of nonmarine species.[26]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 2/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
Because of the great range of anatomical diversity among molluscs, many textbooks start the subject of molluscan anatomy by describing what is
called an archi-mollusc, hypothetical generalized mollusc, or hypothetical ancestral mollusc (HAM) to illustrate the most common features found
within the phylum. The depiction is visually rather similar to modern monoplacophorans.[12][16][27]
The generalized mollusc is an unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical animal and has a single, "limpet-like" shell on top. The shell is secreted by a
mantle covering the upper surface. The underside consists of a single muscular "foot".[16] The visceral mass, or visceropallium, is the soft,
nonmuscular metabolic region of the mollusc. It contains the body organs.[13]
The mantle cavity, a fold in the mantle, encloses a significant amount of space. It is lined with epidermis, and is exposed, according to habitat, to sea,
fresh water or air. The cavity was at the rear in the earliest molluscs, but its position now varies from group to group. The anus, a pair of osphradia
(chemical sensors) in the incoming "lane", the hindmost pair of gills and the exit openings of the nephridia ("kidneys") and gonads (reproductive
organs) are in the mantle cavity.[16] The whole soft body of bivalves lies within an enlarged mantle cavity.[13]
Shell
The mantle edge secretes a shell (secondarily absent in a number of taxonomic groups, such as the nudibranchs[13]) that consists of mainly chitin and
conchiolin (a protein hardened with calcium carbonate),[16][28] except the outermost layer, which in almost all cases is all conchiolin (see
periostracum).[16] Molluscs never use phosphate to construct their hard parts,[29] with the questionable exception of Cobcrephora.[30] While most
mollusc shells are composed mainly of aragonite, those gastropods that lay eggs with a hard shell use calcite (sometimes with traces of aragonite) to
construct the eggshells.[31]
The shell consists of three layers: the outer layer (the periostracum) made of organic matter, a middle layer made of columnar calcite, and an inner
layer consisting of laminated calcite, often nacreous.[13]
In some forms the shell contains openings. In abalones there are holes in the shell used for respiration and the release of egg and sperm, in the
nautilus a string of tissue called the siphuncle goes through all the chambers, and the eight plates that make up the shell of chitons are penetrated
with living tissue with nerves and sensory structures.[32]
Foot
The underside consists of a muscular foot, which has adapted to different purposes (locomotion, grasping the
substratum, burrowing or feeding) in different classes.[33] The foot carries a pair of statocysts, which act as
balance sensors. In gastropods, it secretes mucus as a lubricant to aid movement. In forms having only a top shell,
such as limpets, the foot acts as a sucker attaching the animal to a hard surface, and the vertical muscles clamp
the shell down over it; in other molluscs, the vertical muscles pull the foot and other exposed soft parts into the
shell.[16] In bivalves, the foot is adapted for burrowing into the sediment;[33] in cephalopods it is used for jet
propulsion,[33] and the tentacles and arms are derived from the foot.[34] 0:51
Exceptions to the above are the molluscs Planorbidae or ram's horn snails, which are air-breathing snails that use iron-based hemoglobin instead of
the copper-based hemocyanin to carry oxygen through their blood.
Respiration
Most molluscs have only one pair of gills, or even only a singular gill. Generally, the gills are rather like feathers in shape, although some species have
gills with filaments on only one side. They divide the mantle cavity so water enters near the bottom and exits near the top. Their filaments have three
kinds of cilia, one of which drives the water current through the mantle cavity, while the other two help to keep the gills clean. If the osphradia detect
noxious chemicals or possibly sediment entering the mantle cavity, the gills' cilia may stop beating until the unwelcome intrusions have ceased. Each
gill has an incoming blood vessel connected to the hemocoel and an outgoing one to the heart.[16]
Molluscs use intracellular digestion. Most molluscs have muscular mouths with radulae, "tongues", bearing many rows of chitinous teeth, which are
replaced from the rear as they wear out. The radula primarily functions to scrape bacteria and algae off rocks, and is associated with the odontophore,
a cartilaginous supporting organ.[13] The radula is unique to the molluscs and has no equivalent in any other animal.
Molluscs' mouths also contain glands that secrete slimy mucus, to which the food sticks. Beating cilia (tiny "hairs") drive the mucus towards the
stomach, so the mucus forms a long string called a "food string".[16]
At the tapered rear end of the stomach and projecting slightly into the hindgut is the prostyle, a backward-pointing cone of feces and mucus, which is
rotated by further cilia so it acts as a bobbin, winding the mucus string onto itself. Before the mucus string reaches the prostyle, the acidity of the
stomach makes the mucus less sticky and frees particles from it.[16]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 3/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
The particles are sorted by yet another group of cilia, which send the smaller particles, mainly minerals, to the
prostyle so eventually they are excreted, while the larger ones, mainly food, are sent to the stomach's cecum (a
pouch with no other exit) to be digested. The sorting process is by no means perfect.[16]
Periodically, circular muscles at the hindgut's entrance pinch off and excrete a piece of the prostyle, preventing
the prostyle from growing too large. The anus, in the part of the mantle cavity, is swept by the outgoing "lane" of
the current created by the gills. Carnivorous molluscs usually have simpler digestive systems.[16]
Snail radula at work
As the head has largely disappeared in bivalves, the mouth has been equipped with labial palps (two on each side = Food = Radula
of the mouth) to collect the detritus from its mucus.[13] = Muscles
= Odontophore "belt"
Nervous system
The cephalic molluscs have two pairs of main nerve cords organized around a number of paired ganglia, the
visceral cords serving the internal organs and the pedal ones serving the foot. Most pairs of corresponding ganglia
on both sides of the body are linked by commissures (relatively large bundles of nerves). The ganglia above the gut
are the cerebral, the pleural, and the visceral, which are located above the esophagus (gullet). The pedal ganglia,
which control the foot, are below the esophagus and their commissure and connectives to the cerebral and pleural
ganglia surround the esophagus in a circumesophageal nerve ring or nerve collar.[16]
The acephalic molluscs (i.e., bivalves) also have this ring but it is less obvious and less important. The bivalves
have only three pairs of ganglia— cerebral, pedal, and visceral— with the visceral as the largest and most
important of the three functioning as the principal center of "thinking". Some such as the scallops have eyes
around the edges of their shells which connect to a pair of looped nerves and which provide the ability to
distinguish between light and shadow.
Ecology
Feeding
Most molluscs are herbivorous, grazing on algae or filter feeders. For those grazing, two feeding strategies are predominant. Some feed on
microscopic, filamentous algae, often using their radula as a 'rake' to comb up filaments from the sea floor. Others feed on macroscopic 'plants' such
as kelp, rasping the plant surface with its radula. To employ this strategy, the plant has to be large enough for the mollusc to 'sit' on, so smaller
macroscopic plants are not as often eaten as their larger counterparts.[38] Filter feeders are molluscs that feed by straining suspended matter and
food particles from water, typically by passing the water over their gills. Most bivalves are filter feeders, which can be measured through clearance
rates. Research has demonstrated that environmental stress can affect the feeding of bivalves by altering the energy budget of organisms.[37]
Cephalopods are primarily predatory, and the radula takes a secondary role to the jaws and tentacles in food acquisition. The monoplacophoran
Neopilina uses its radula in the usual fashion, but its diet includes protists such as the xenophyophore Stannophyllum.[39] Sacoglossan sea-slugs suck
the sap from algae, using their one-row radula to pierce the cell walls,[40] whereas dorid nudibranchs and some Vetigastropoda feed on
sponges[41][42] and others feed on hydroids.[43] (An extensive list of molluscs with unusual feeding habits is available in the appendix of GRAHAM, A.
(1955). "Molluscan diets" (http://mollus.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/3-4/144.short). Journal of Molluscan Studies. 31 (3–4): 144..)
Classification
Opinions vary about the number of classes of molluscs; for example, the table below shows seven living classes,[19] and two extinct ones. Although
they are unlikely to form a clade, some older works combine the Caudofoveata and Solenogasters into one class, the Aplacophora.[27][15]: 291–292 Two
of the commonly recognized "classes" are known only from fossils.[17]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 4/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
Described living
Class Major organisms Distribution
species[19]
all snails and slugs including abalone, limpets, conch,
Gastropoda [15]: 300 nudibranchs, sea hares, sea butterflies
70,000 marine, freshwater, land
[15]: 367 clams, oysters, scallops, geoducks, mussels, rudists† 20,000 marine, freshwater
Bivalvia
Polyplacophora
[15]: 292–298 chitons 1,000 rocky tidal zone and seabed
Scaphopoda
[15]: 403–407 tusk shells 500 marine 6–7,000 metres (20–22,966 ft)
† Cricoconarida extinct
Aplacophora
[15]: 291–292 worm-like molluscs 320 seabed 200–3,000 metres (660–9,840 ft)
Classification into higher taxa for these groups has been and remains problematic. A phylogenetic study suggests the Polyplacophora form a clade
with a monophyletic Aplacophora.[46] Additionally, it suggests a sister taxon relationship exists between the Bivalvia and the Gastropoda. Tentaculita
may also be in Mollusca (see Tentaculites).
Evolution
Fossil record
However, the Helcionellids, which first appear over 540 million years ago in Early Cambrian rocks from
Siberia and China,[56][57] are thought to be early molluscs with rather snail-like shells. Shelled molluscs
therefore predate the earliest trilobites.[45] Although most helcionellid fossils are only a few millimeters
long, specimens a few centimeters long have also been found, most with more limpet-like shapes. The
tiny specimens have been suggested to be juveniles and the larger ones adults.[58]
Some analyses of helcionellids concluded these were the earliest gastropods.[59] However, other scientists The tiny
Spirally coiled
are not convinced these Early Cambrian fossils show clear signs of the torsion that identifies modern Helcionellid fossil
shells appear in
gastropods twists the internal organs so the anus lies above the head.[15]: 300–343 [60][61] Yochelcionella is
many
thought to be an [15]: 300–34
gastropods.
Volborthella, some fossils of which predate 530 million years ago, was long thought to be a cephalopod, early mollusc[45]
but discoveries of more detailed fossils showed its shell was not secreted, but built from grains of the
mineral silicon dioxide (silica), and it was not divided into a series of compartments by septa as those of
fossil shelled cephalopods and the living Nautilus are. Volborthella's classification is uncertain.[62] The Middle = Septa
Cambrian fossil Nectocaris is often interpreted as a cephalopod with 2 arms and no shell, but the Late Cambrian
fossil Plectronoceras is now thought to be the earliest undisputed cephalopod fossil, as its shell had septa and a = Siphuncle
siphuncle, a strand of tissue that Nautilus uses to remove water from compartments it has vacated as it grows, and
which is also visible in fossil ammonite shells. However, Plectronoceras and other early cephalopods crept along
the seafloor instead of swimming, as their shells contained a "ballast" of stony deposits on what is thought to be
the underside, and had stripes and blotches on what is thought to be the upper surface.[63] All cephalopods with
external shells except the nautiloids became extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period 65 million years ago.[64]
However, the shell-less Coleoidea (squid, octopus, cuttlefish) are abundant today.[65] Septa and siphuncle in nautiloid
shell
The Early Cambrian fossils Fordilla and Pojetaia are regarded as bivalves.[66][67][68][69] "Modern-looking"
bivalves appeared in the Ordovician period, 488 to 443 million years ago.[70] One bivalve group, the rudists,
became major reef-builders in the Cretaceous, but became extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.[71] Even so, bivalves remain
abundant and diverse.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 5/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
The Hyolitha are a class of extinct animals with a shell and operculum that may be molluscs. Authors who suggest they deserve their own phylum do
not comment on the position of this phylum in the tree of life.[72]
Phylogeny
Molluscs are generally regarded members of the Lophotrochozoa,[73] a group defined by Monoplacophorans
("limpet-like", "living fossils")
having trochophore larvae and, in the case of living Lophophorata, a feeding structure
called a lophophore. The other members of the Lophotrochozoa are the annelid worms
and seven marine phyla.[76] The diagram on the right summarizes a phylogeny
Scaphopods (tusk shells)
presented in 2007 without the annelid worms.
Because the relationships between the members of the family tree are uncertain, it is Gastropods
difficult to identify the features inherited from the last common ancestor of all (snails, slugs, limpets, sea hares)
molluscs.[77] For example, it is uncertain whether the ancestral mollusc was metameric Mollusca
(composed of repeating units)—if it was, that would suggest an origin from an annelid-
like worm.[78] Scientists disagree about this: Giribet and colleagues concluded, in 2006, Cephalopods
the repetition of gills and of the foot's retractor muscles were later developments,[12] (nautiloids,ammonites, octopus,
while in 2007, Sigwart concluded the ancestral mollusc was metameric, and it had a foot Lophotrochozoa squid, etc.)
used for creeping and a "shell" that was mineralized.[51] In one particular branch of the
family tree, the shell of conchiferans is thought to have evolved from the spicules (small
Aplacophorans
spines) of aplacophorans; but this is difficult to reconcile with the embryological origins (spicule-covered, worm-like)
of spicules.[77]
The molluscan shell appears to have originated from a mucus coating, which eventually Polyplacophorans (chitons)
stiffened into a cuticle. This would have been impermeable and thus forced the
development of more sophisticated respiratory apparatus in the form of gills.[45]
Eventually, the cuticle would have become mineralized,[45] using the same genetic Wiwaxia
machinery (engrailed) as most other bilaterian skeletons.[78] The first mollusc shell
† Halwaxiids
almost certainly was reinforced with the mineral aragonite.[28]
Halkieria
The evolutionary relationships within the molluscs are also debated, and the diagrams
below show two widely supported reconstructions: † Orthrozanclus
† Odontogriphus
Solenogastres Solenogastres
A possible "family tree" of molluscs (2007).[73][74] Does not include
Aculifera annelid worms as the analysis concentrated on fossilizable "hard"
Caudofoveata Caudofoveata
features.[73]
Polyplacophorans Polyplacophorans
Monoplacophorans Monoplacophorans
Molluscs Molluscs
Bivalves Bivalves
Testaria
Scaphopods
Scaphopods
Conchifera
Gastropods Gastropods
Cephalopods Cephalopods
Morphological analyses tend to recover a conchiferan clade that receives less support from molecular analyses,[79] although these results also lead to
unexpected paraphylies, for instance scattering the bivalves throughout all other mollusc groups.[80]
However, an analysis in 2009 using both morphological and molecular phylogenetics comparisons concluded the molluscs are not monophyletic; in
particular, Scaphopoda and Bivalvia are both separate, monophyletic lineages unrelated to the remaining molluscan classes; the traditional phylum
Mollusca is polyphyletic, and it can only be made monophyletic if scaphopods and bivalves are excluded.[75] A 2010 analysis recovered the traditional
conchiferan and aculiferan groups, and showed molluscs were monophyletic, demonstrating that available data for solenogastres was
contaminated.[81] Current molecular data are insufficient to constrain the molluscan phylogeny, and since the methods used to determine the
confidence in clades are prone to overestimation, it is risky to place too much emphasis even on the areas of which different studies agree.[82] Rather
than eliminating unlikely relationships, the latest studies add new permutations of internal molluscan relationships, even bringing the conchiferan
hypothesis into question.[83]
Human interaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 6/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
For millennia, molluscs have been a source of food for humans, as well as important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye,
sea silk, and chemical compounds. Their shells have also been used as a form of currency in some preindustrial societies. A number of species of
molluscs can bite or sting humans, and some have become agricultural pests.
Uses by humans
Molluscs, especially bivalves such as clams and mussels, have been an important food source since at least the advent of anatomically modern
humans, and this has often resulted in overfishing.[84] Other commonly eaten molluscs include octopuses and squids, whelks, oysters, and
scallops.[85] In 2005, China accounted for 80% of the global mollusc catch, netting almost 11,000,000 tonnes (11,000,000 long tons; 12,000,000
short tons). Within Europe, France remained the industry leader.[86] Some countries regulate importation and handling of molluscs and other
seafood, mainly to minimize the poison risk from toxins that can sometimes accumulate in the animals.[87]
Most molluscs with shells can produce pearls, but only the pearls of bivalves and some gastropods, whose shells
are lined with nacre, are valuable.[15]: 300–343, 367–403 The best natural pearls are produced by marine pearl
oysters, Pinctada margaritifera and Pinctada mertensi, which live in the tropical and subtropical waters of the
Pacific Ocean. Natural pearls form when a small foreign object gets stuck between the mantle and shell.
The two methods of culturing pearls insert either "seeds" or beads into oysters. The "seed" method uses grains of
ground shell from freshwater mussels, and overharvesting for this purpose has endangered several freshwater
mussel species in the southeastern United States.[15]: 367–403 The pearl industry is so important in some areas,
significant sums of money are spent on monitoring the health of farmed molluscs.[88]
Saltwater pearl oyster farm in
Seram, Indonesia Other luxury and high-status products were made from molluscs. Tyrian purple,
made from the ink glands of murex shells, "fetched its weight in silver" in the fourth
century BC, according to Theopompus.[89] The discovery of large numbers of Murex
shells on Crete suggests the Minoans may have pioneered the extraction of "imperial purple" during the Middle Minoan
period in the 20th–18th centuries BC, centuries before the Tyrians.[90][91] Sea silk is a fine, rare, and valuable fabric
produced from the long silky threads (byssus) secreted by several bivalve molluscs, particularly Pinna nobilis, to attach
themselves to the sea bed.[92] Procopius, writing on the Persian wars circa 550 CE, "stated that the five hereditary
satraps (governors) of Armenia who received their insignia from the Roman Emperor were given chlamys (or cloaks)
made from lana pinna. Apparently, only the ruling classes were allowed to wear these chlamys."[93]
Mollusc shells, including those of cowries, were used as a kind of money (shell money) in several preindustrial societies.
However, these "currencies" generally differed in important ways from the standardized government-backed and -
controlled money familiar to industrial societies. Some shell "currencies" were not used for commercial transactions, but
Byzantine Emperor
mainly as social status displays at important occasions, such as weddings.[94] When used for commercial transactions, Justinian I clad in Tyrian
they functioned as commodity money, as a tradable commodity whose value differed from place to place, often as a result purple and wearing
of difficulties in transport, and which was vulnerable to incurable inflation if more efficient transport or "goldrush" numerous pearls
behavior appeared.[95]
Bioindicators
Bivalve molluscs are used as bioindicators to monitor the health of aquatic environments in both fresh water and the marine environments. Their
population status or structure, physiology, behaviour or the level of contamination with elements or compounds can indicate the state of
contamination status of the ecosystem. They are particularly useful since they are sessile so that they are representative of the environment where
they are sampled or placed.[96] Potamopyrgus antipodarum is used by some water treatment plants to test for estrogen-mimicking pollutants from
industrial agriculture.
Harmful to humans
Some molluscs sting or bite, but deaths from mollusc venoms total less than 10% of those from jellyfish stings.[98]
All octopuses are venomous,[99] but only a few species pose a significant threat to humans. Blue-ringed octopuses in the
genus Hapalochlaena, which live around Australia and New Guinea, bite humans only if severely provoked,[97] but their
venom kills 25% of human victims. Another tropical species, Octopus apollyon, causes severe inflammation that can last
for over a month even if treated correctly,[100] and the bite of Octopus rubescens can cause necrosis that lasts longer than
one month if untreated, and headaches and weakness persisting for up to a week even if treated.[101]
All species of cone snails are venomous and can sting painfully when handled,
although many species are too small to pose much of a risk to humans, and only a few
fatalities have been reliably reported. Their venom is a complex mixture of toxins,
some fast-acting and others slower but deadlier.[102][98][103] The effects of individual The blue-ringed octopus's
cone-shell toxins on victims' nervous systems are so precise as to be useful tools for rings are a warning signal;
this octopus is alarmed, and
research in neurology, and the small size of their molecules makes it easy to
its bite can kill.[97]
synthesize them.[102][104]
Disease vectors
Live cone snails can be dangerous
to shell collectors, but are useful to
neurology researchers.[102]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 7/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis or snail fever), a disease caused by the fluke worm
Schistosoma, is "second only to malaria as the most devastating parasitic disease in tropical countries. An
estimated 200 million people in 74 countries are infected with the disease – 100 million in Africa alone."[105] The
parasite has 13 known species, two of which infect humans. The parasite itself is not a mollusc, but all the species
have freshwater snails as intermediate hosts.[106]
Pests
Skin vesicles created by the
Some species of molluscs, particularly certain snails and slugs, can be serious crop pests,[107] and when
penetration of Schistosoma.
introduced into new environments, can unbalance local ecosystems. One such pest, the giant African snail
(Source: CDC)
Achatina fulica, has been introduced to many parts of Asia, as well as to many islands in the Indian Ocean and
Pacific Ocean. In the 1990s, this species reached the West Indies. Attempts to control it by introducing the
predatory snail Euglandina rosea proved disastrous, as the predator ignored Achatina fulica and went on to
extirpate several native snail species instead.[108]
See also
Land snail
Sea slug
Sea snail
Explanatory notes
a. The formerly dominant U.K. spelling mollusk is still used in the U.S.—see the reasons given by Gary Rosenberg (1996).[2] For the spelling
mollusc, see the reasons given in: Brusca & Brusca. Invertebrates (2nd ed.)..
References
1. Chapman, A.D. (2009). Numbers of Living Species in Australia and 12. Giribet, G.; Okusu, A.; Lindgren, A.R.; Huff, S.W.; Schrödl, M.;
the World (http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publicatio Nishiguchi, M.K. (May 2006). "Evidence for a clade composed of
ns/other/species-numbers/2009/04-02-groups-invertebrates.html#mol molluscs with serially repeated structures: monoplacophorans are
lusca) (2nd (printed) ed.). Canberra: Australian Biological Resources related to chitons" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC14
Study. ISBN 978-0-642-56860-1. Retrieved 12 January 2010.; 72512). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
ISBN 978-0-642-56861-8 (online edition). United States of America. 103 (20): 7723–7728.
2. Rosenberg, Gary (1996). "Mollusckque – Mollusk vs. Mollusc" (http Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.7723G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
s://web.archive.org/web/20120303002304/http://www.conchologistsof 006PNAS..103.7723G). doi:10.1073/pnas.0602578103 (https://doi.or
america.org/articles/y1996/9609_rosenberg.asp). Archived from the g/10.1073%2Fpnas.0602578103). PMC 1472512 (https://www.ncbi.nl
original (http://www.conchologistsofamerica.org/articles/y1996/9609_r m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472512). PMID 16675549 (https://pubm
osenberg.asp) on 3 March 2012. ed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16675549).
3. Rosenberg, Gary (2014). "A new critical estimate of named species- 13. Hayward, PJ (1996). Handbook of the Marine Fauna of North-West
level diversity of the recent mollusca". American Malacological Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 484–628. ISBN 978-0-19-
Bulletin. 32 (2): 308–322. doi:10.4003/006.032.0204 (https://doi.org/1 854055-7.
0.4003%2F006.032.0204). S2CID 86761029 (https://api.semanticsch 14. Brusca, R.C. & Brusca, G.J. (2003). Invertebrates (2 ed.). Sinauer
olar.org/CorpusID:86761029). Associates. p. 702. ISBN 978-0-87893-097-5.
4. Taylor, P.D.; Lewis, D.N. (2005). Fossil Invertebrates. Harvard 15. Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S.; Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology
University Press. (https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821) (7 ed.). Brooks /
5. Fedosov, Alexander E.; Puillandre, Nicolas (2012). "Phylogeny and Cole. ISBN 978-0-03-025982-1.
taxonomy of the Kermia–Pseudodaphnella (Mollusca: Gastropoda: 16. [15]: 284–291
Raphitomidae) genus complex: A remarkable radiation via 17. Ponder, W.F.; Lindberg, D.R., eds. (2008). Phylogeny and Evolution
diversification of larval development" (http://www.sevin.ru/laboratorie of the Mollusca. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 481.
s/Marine_Invertebrates/fedosov/Fedosov_Puillandre_2012.pdf) ISBN 978-0-520-25092-5.
(PDF). Systematics and Biodiversity. 10 (4): 447–477.
18. Nicol, David (June 1969). "The Number of Living Species of
doi:10.1080/14772000.2012.753137 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F147
Molluscs". Systematic Zoology. 18 (2): 251–254.
72000.2012.753137). S2CID 55028766 (https://api.semanticscholar.o
doi:10.2307/2412618 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412618).
rg/CorpusID:55028766).
JSTOR 2412618 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412618).
6. Phylogeny and evolution of the Mollusca (https://www.worldcat.org/oc
19. Haszprunar, G. (2001). "Mollusca (Molluscs)". Encyclopedia of Life
lc/152581003). W. F. Ponder, David R. Lindberg. Berkeley: University
Sciences. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0001598 (http
of California Press. 2008. ISBN 978-0-520-25092-5.
s://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnpg.els.0001598). ISBN 978-0470016176.
OCLC 152581003 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/152581003).
20. Hancock, Rebecca (2008). "Recognising research on molluscs" (http
7. μαλάκια (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:tex
t:1999.04.0057:entry=mala/kia2), μαλακός (https://www.perseus.tufts. s://web.archive.org/web/20090530042720/http://www.austmus.gov.a
u/display.cfm?id=2897). Australian Museum. Archived from the
edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=malako/s).
original (https://australian.museum/learn/animals/molluscs/) on 30
Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the
May 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
Perseus Project.
21. Ponder, Winston F. & Lindberg, David R. (2004). "Phylogeny of the
8. Aristotle. "Book I part 1, Book IV part 1, etc.". History of Animals.
Molluscs" (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/museum/news/news_briefs/
9. Little, L.; Fowler, H.W.; Coulson, J.; Onions, C.T., eds. (1964). perth08042004.html) (Press release). World Congress of Malacology.
"Malacology". Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Retrieved 9 March 2009.
press.
22. Raup, David M. & Stanley, Steven M. (1978). Principles of
10. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Molluscoida" (https://en.wikisource.org/ Paleontology (https://archive.org/details/principlesofpale0000raup_g1
wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Molluscoida). k1/page/4) (2 ed.). W.H. Freeman and Co. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University 0716700227.
Press. p. 675.
23. Barnes, R.S.K.; Calow, P.; Olive, P.J.W.; Golding, D.W.; Spicer, J.I.
11. Hogan, C. Michael. (2010). "Calcium" (http://www.eoearth.org/article/ (2001). The Invertebrates: A synthesis (3 ed.). UK: Blackwell Science.
Calcium?topic=49557). In Jorgensen, A.; Cleveland, C. (eds.).
Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the
Environment.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 8/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
24. Kubodera, T.; Mori, K. (22 December 2005). "First-ever observations 37. Ducker, James; Falkenberg, Laura J. (2020). "How the Pacific Oyster
of a live giant squid in the wild" (https://web.archive.org/web/2016060 Responds to Ocean Acidification: Development and Application of a
3005459/http://www.canarias7.es/pdf/docs/informecalamargigante.pd Meta-Analysis Based Adverse Outcome Pathway" (https://doi.org/10.
f) (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 272 (1581): 2583– 3389%2Ffmars.2020.597441). Frontiers in Marine Science. 7.
2586. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3158 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2 doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.597441 (https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.20
005.3158). PMC 1559985 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ 20.597441). ISSN 2296-7745 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2296-77
PMC1559985). PMID 16321779 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16 45).
321779). Archived from the original (http://www.canarias7.es/pdf/doc 38. Steneck, R.S.; Watling, L. (July 1982). "Feeding capabilities and
s/informecalamargigante.pdf) (PDF) on 3 June 2016. Retrieved limitation of herbivorous molluscs: A functional group approach".
22 October 2008. Marine Biology. 68 (3): 299–319. doi:10.1007/BF00409596 (https://do
25. Black, Richard (26 April 2008). "Colossal squid out of the freezer" (htt i.org/10.1007%2FBF00409596). S2CID 84207061 (https://api.semant
p://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sciv/tech/7367774.stmv). BBC News. icscholar.org/CorpusID:84207061).
Retrieved 1 October 2008. 39. Tendal O.S. (1985). "Xenophyophores (Protozoa, Sarcodina) in the
26. Lydeard, C.; Cowie, R.; Ponder, W.F.; et al. (April 2004). "The global diet of Neopilina galatheae (Mollusca, Monoplacophora)" (https://web.
decline of nonmarine mollusks" (https://web.archive.org/web/2007033 archive.org/web/20121130190856/http://www.zmuc.dk/InverWeb/Gala
1150735/http://www.unc.edu/~keperez/lydeard_bioscience.pdf) thea/Pdf_filer/Volume_16/galathea-vol.16-pp_095-098.pdf) (PDF).
(PDF). BioScience. 54 (4): 321–330. doi:10.1641/0006- Galathea Report. 16: 95–98. Archived from the original (http://www.z
3568(2004)054[0321:TGDONM]2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1641%2 muc.dk/InverWeb/Galathea/Pdf_filer/Volume_16/galathea-vol.16-pp_
F0006-3568%282004%29054%5B0321%3ATGDONM%5D2.0.CO% 095-098.pdf) (PDF) on 30 November 2012. Retrieved 14 September
3B2). Archived from the original on 31 March 2007. 2013.
27. Healy, J.M. (2001). "The Mollusca". In Anderson, D.T. (ed.). 40. Jensen, K. R. (February 1993). "Morphological adaptations and
Invertebrate Zoology (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 120–171. plasticity of radular teeth of the Sacoglossa (= Ascoglossa) (Mollusca:
ISBN 978-0-19-551368-4. Opisthobranchia) in relation to their food plants". Biological Journal of
28. Porter, S. (1 June 2007). "Seawater Chemistry and Early Carbonate the Linnean Society. 48 (2): 135–155. doi:10.1111/j.1095-
Biomineralization". Science. 316 (5829): 1302. 8312.1993.tb00883.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1993.tb
Bibcode:2007Sci...316.1302P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/200 00883.x).
7Sci...316.1302P). doi:10.1126/science.1137284 (https://doi.org/10.11 41. Wägele, H. (March 1989). "Diet of some Antarctic nudibranchs
26%2Fscience.1137284). PMID 17540895 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.n (Gastropoda, Opisthobranchia, Nudibranchia)". Marine Biology. 100
ih.gov/17540895). S2CID 27418253 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/ (4): 439–441. doi:10.1007/BF00394819 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FB
CorpusID:27418253). F00394819). S2CID 83444088 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
29. Yochelson, E. L. (1975). "Discussion of early Cambrian "molluscs" " sID:83444088).
(http://jgs.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/reprint/131/6/661.pdf) (PDF). 42. Publishers, Bentham Science (July 1999). Current Organic Chemistry
Journal of the Geological Society. 131 (6): 661–662. (https://books.google.com/books?id=0HO-3M534nEC&pg=PA327).
Bibcode:1975JGSoc.131..661. (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19 Bentham Science Publishers.
75JGSoc.131..661.). doi:10.1144/gsjgs.131.6.0661 (https://doi.org/10. 43. Lambert, W.J. (1 October 1991). "Coexistence of hydroid-eating
1144%2Fgsjgs.131.6.0661). S2CID 219540340 (https://api.semantics Nudibranchs: Do feeding biology and habitat use matter?" (https://we
cholar.org/CorpusID:219540340). b.archive.org/web/20211203191606/http://fbiolbull.org/). Archived
30. Cherns, L. (December 2004). "Early Palaeozoic diversification of from the original (http://FBiolbull.org) on 3 December 2021.
chitons (Polyplacophora, Mollusca) based on new data from the 44. Clarkson, E.N.K. (1998). Invertebrate Palaeontology and Evolution (ht
Silurian of Gotland, Sweden". Lethaia. 37 (4): 445–456. tps://books.google.com/books?id=g1P2VaPQWfUC&pg=PA221).
doi:10.1080/00241160410002180 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F002411 Blackwell. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-632-05238-7.
60410002180).
45. Runnegar, B.; Pojeta, J. Jr. (October 1974). "Molluscan Phylogeny:
31. Tompa, A. S. (December 1976). "A comparative study of the the Paleontological Viewpoint". Science. 186 (4161): 311–317.
ultrastructure and mineralogy of calcified land snail eggs (Pulmonata: Bibcode:1974Sci...186..311R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974
Stylommatophora)" (https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.4 Sci...186..311R). doi:10.1126/science.186.4161.311 (https://doi.org/1
2/50263/1/1051500406_ftp.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Morphology. 150 0.1126%2Fscience.186.4161.311). JSTOR 1739764 (https://www.jsto
(4): 861–887. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051500406 (https://doi.org/10.100 r.org/stable/1739764). PMID 17839855 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.
2%2Fjmor.1051500406). hdl:2027.42/50263 (https://hdl.handle.net/20 gov/17839855). S2CID 46429653 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Co
27.42%2F50263). PMID 30257539 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ rpusID:46429653).
30257539). S2CID 52844967 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus
46. Kocot, K. M.; Cannon, J. T.; Todt, C.; Citarella, M. R.; Kohn, A. B.;
ID:52844967).
Meyer, A.; Santos, S. R.; Schander, C.; Moroz, L. L.; et al. (22
32. Moore, Janet (21 September 2006). An Introduction to the September 2011). "Phylogenomics reveals deep molluscan
Invertebrates (https://web.archive.org/web/20200114192746/https://b relationships" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC402447
ooks.google.no/books?id=bZw-ntFxp-YC&pg=PA126&dq=%22Each+ 5). Nature. 477 (7365): 452–456. Bibcode:2011Natur.477..452K (http
plate+is+penetrated+by+living+tissue+with+sensory+structures+and+ s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.477..452K).
nerves%22&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjHqMTh_NDiAhXusYsKHT6 doi:10.1038/nature10382 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature10382).
gCTYQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=%22Each%20plate%20is%20pene PMC 4024475 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC40244
trated%20by%20living%20tissue%20with%20sensory%20structure 75). PMID 21892190 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21892190).
s%20and%20nerves%22&f=false). ISBN 9781139458474. Archived
47. Budd, G. E. & Jensen, S. A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of
from the original (https://books.google.com/books?id=bZw-ntFxp-YC the bilaterian phyla. Biol. Rev. 75, 253–295 (2000).
&q=%22Each+plate+is+penetrated+by+living+tissue+with+sensory+s
tructures+and+nerves%22&pg=PA126) on 14 January 2020. 48. Fedonkin, M.A.; Waggoner, B.M. (28 August 1997). "The Late
Retrieved 4 June 2019. Precambrian fossil Kimberella is a mollusc-like bilaterian organism".
Nature. 388 (6645): 868. Bibcode:1997Natur.388..868F (https://ui.ads
33. Wilbur, Karl M.; Trueman, E.R.; Clarke, M.R., eds. (1985), The
abs.harvard.edu/abs/1997Natur.388..868F). doi:10.1038/42242 (http
Mollusca, vol. 11. Form and Function, New York: Academic Press,
s://doi.org/10.1038%2F42242). S2CID 4395089 (https://api.semantics
ISBN 0-12-728702-7 page 4 cholar.org/CorpusID:4395089).
34. Shigeno, S.; Sasaki, T.; Moritaki, T.; Kasugai, T.; Vecchione, M.;
49. Fedonkin, M.A.; Simonetta, A.; Ivantsov, A.Y. (2007). "New data on
Agata, K. (January 2008). "Evolution of the cephalopod head
Kimberella, the Vendian mollusc-like organism (White Sea region,
complex by assembly of multiple molluscan body parts: Evidence
Russia): palaeoecological and evolutionary implications" (https://web.
from Nautilus embryonic development". Journal of Morphology. 269
archive.org/web/20121122063627/http://www.geosci.monash.edu.au/
(1): 1–17. doi:10.1002/jmor.10564 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjmor.1
precsite/docs/workshop/prato04/abstracts/fedonkin2.pdf) (PDF).
0564). PMID 17654542 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17654542).
Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 286 (1): 157–179.
S2CID 13109195 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1310919
Bibcode:2007GSLSP.286..157F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
5).
007GSLSP.286..157F). doi:10.1144/SP286.12 (https://doi.org/10.114
35. Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Mollusca". 4%2FSP286.12). S2CID 331187 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Cor
Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 290–291. pusID:331187). Archived from the original (http://www.geosci.monash.
ISBN 0030259827. edu.au/precsite/docs/workshop/prato04/abstracts/fedonkin2.pdf)
36. Marin, F.; Luquet, G. (October 2004). "Molluscan shell proteins". (PDF) on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (6–7): 469.
doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.07.009 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crpv.200
4.07.009).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 9/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
50. Butterfield, N.J. (2006). "Hooking some stem-group "worms": fossil 62. Hagadorn, J.W. & Waggoner, B.M. (2002). "The Early Cambrian
lophotrochozoans in the Burgess Shale". BioEssays. 28 (12): 1161–6. problematic fossil Volborthella: New insights from the Basin and
doi:10.1002/bies.20507 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.20507). Range". In Corsetti, F.A. (ed.). Proterozoic-Cambrian of the Great
PMID 17120226 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17120226). Basin and Beyond, Pacific Section SEPM Book 93 (https://web.archiv
S2CID 29130876 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2913087 e.org/web/20060911152548/http://www.amherst.edu/~jwhagadorn/pu
6). blications/volb.pdf) (PDF). SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology).
51. Sigwart, J. D.; Sutton, M. D. (October 2007). "Deep molluscan pp. 135–150. Archived from the original on 11 September 2006.
phylogeny: synthesis of palaeontological and neontological data" (htt 63. Vickers-Rich, P.; Fenton, C.L.; Fenton, M.A.; Rich, T.H. (1997). The
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2274978). Proceedings Fossil Book: A Record of Prehistoric Life (https://archive.org/details/fo
of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 274 (1624): 2413–2419. ssilbookrecor00rich/page/269). Courier Dover Publications. pp. 269–
doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0701 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0 272 (https://archive.org/details/fossilbookrecor00rich/page/269).
701). PMC 2274978 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2 ISBN 978-0-486-29371-4.
274978). PMID 17652065 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1765206 64. Marshall C.R.; Ward P.D. (1996). "Sudden and Gradual Molluscan
5). For a summary, see "The Mollusca" (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.ed Extinctions in the Latest Cretaceous of Western European Tethys".
u/taxa/inverts/mollusca/mollusca.php). University of California Science. 274 (5291): 1360–1363. Bibcode:1996Sci...274.1360M (http
Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 2 October 2008. s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Sci...274.1360M).
52. Budd, G. E., and S. Jensen. 2016: The origin of the animals and a doi:10.1126/science.274.5291.1360 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscien
"Savannah" hypothesis for early bilaterian evolution. Biological ce.274.5291.1360). PMID 8910273 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Reviews 7:Online ahead of print. 8910273). S2CID 1837900 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:
53. Caron, J.B.; Scheltema, A.; Schander, C.; Rudkin, D. (13 July 2006). 1837900).
"A soft-bodied mollusc with radula from the Middle Cambrian Burgess 65. Monks, N. "A Broad Brush History of the Cephalopoda" (http://www.th
Shale". Nature. 442 (7099): 159–163. Bibcode:2006Natur.442..159C ecephalopodpage.org/evolution.php). Retrieved 21 March 2009.
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.442..159C). 66. Pojeta, J. (2000). "Cambrian Pelecypoda (Mollusca)". American
doi:10.1038/nature04894 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04894). Malacological Bulletin. 15: 157–166.
hdl:1912/1404 (https://hdl.handle.net/1912%2F1404).
67. Schneider, J.A. (2001). "Bivalve systematics during the 20th century".
PMID 16838013 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16838013).
Journal of Paleontology. 75 (6): 1119–1127. doi:10.1666/0022-
S2CID 4431853 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4431853).
3360(2001)075<1119:BSDTC>2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1666%2F
54. Butterfield, N.J. (May 2008). "An Early Cambrian Radula". Journal of 0022-3360%282001%29075%3C1119%3ABSDTC%3E2.0.CO%3B
Paleontology. 82 (3): 543–554. doi:10.1666/07-066.1 (https://doi.org/ 2). S2CID 85583173 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85583
10.1666%2F07-066.1). S2CID 86083492 (https://api.semanticscholar. 173).
org/CorpusID:86083492).
68. Gubanov, A.P.; Kouchinsky, A.V.; Peel, J.S. (2007). "The first
55. Cruz, R.; Lins, U.; Farina, M. (1998). "Minerals of the radular evolutionary-adaptive lineage within fossil molluscs". Lethaia. 32 (2):
apparatus of Falcidens sp. (Caudofoveata) and the evolutionary 155. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1999.tb00534.x (https://doi.org/10.111
implications for the Phylum Mollusca" (https://www.biodiversitylibrary. 1%2Fj.1502-3931.1999.tb00534.x).
org/part/31306). Biological Bulletin. 194 (2): 224–230.
69. Gubanov, A.P.; Peel, J.S. (2003). "The early Cambrian helcionelloid
doi:10.2307/1543051 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1543051). mollusc Anabarella Vostokova". Palaeontology. 46 (5): 1073–1087.
JSTOR 1543051 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1543051).
doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00334 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1475-4983.
PMID 28570844 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28570844).
00334). S2CID 84893338 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8
56. Parkhaev, P. Yu. (2007). The Cambrian 'basement' of gastropod 4893338).
evolution (https://books.google.com/books?id=GA7-8JIh9IwC&pg=PA
70. Zong-Jie, F. (2006). "An introduction to Ordovician bivalves of
415). Geological Society, London, Special Publications. Vol. 286.
southern China, with a discussion of the early evolution of the
pp. 415–421. Bibcode:2007GSLSP.286..415P (https://ui.adsabs.harv Bivalvia". Geological Journal. 41 (3–4): 303–328. doi:10.1002/gj.1048
ard.edu/abs/2007GSLSP.286..415P). doi:10.1144/SP286.31 (https://d
(https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fgj.1048). S2CID 129430674 (https://api.s
oi.org/10.1144%2FSP286.31). ISBN 978-1-86239-233-5.
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129430674).
S2CID 130979274 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130979
274). Retrieved 1 November 2009. 71. Raup, D.M.; Jablonski, D. (1993). "Geography of end-Cretaceous
marine bivalve extinctions". Science. 260 (5110): 971–973.
57. Steiner, M.; Li, G.; Qian, Y.; Zhu, M.; Erdtmann, B.D. (2007).
Bibcode:1993Sci...260..971R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993
"Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian small shelly fossil assemblages Sci...260..971R). doi:10.1126/science.11537491 (https://doi.org/10.11
and a revised biostratigraphic correlation of the Yangtze Platform
26%2Fscience.11537491). PMID 11537491 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
(China)". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 254
nih.gov/11537491).
(1–2): 67. Bibcode:2007PPP...254...67S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/2007PPP...254...67S). doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.03.046 (http 72. Malinky, J.M. (2009). "Permian Hyolithida from Australia: The Last of
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2007.03.046). the Hyoliths?". Journal of Paleontology. 83: 147–152. doi:10.1666/08-
094R.1 (https://doi.org/10.1666%2F08-094R.1). S2CID 85924056 (htt
58. Mus, M.M.; Palacios, T.; Jensen, S. (2008). "Size of the earliest ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85924056).
mollusks: Did small helcionellids grow to become large adults?".
Geology. 36 (2): 175. Bibcode:2008Geo....36..175M (https://ui.adsab 73. Sigwart, J.D.; Sutton, M.D. (October 2007). "Deep molluscan
s.harvard.edu/abs/2008Geo....36..175M). doi:10.1130/G24218A.1 (htt phylogeny: synthesis of palaeontological and neontological data" (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1130%2FG24218A.1). ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2274978). Proceedings
of the Royal Society B. 274 (1624): 2413–2419.
59. Landing, E.; Geyer, G.; Bartowski, K.E. (2002). "Latest Early
doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0701 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2007.0
Cambrian Small Shelly Fossils, Trilobites, and Hatch Hill Dysaerobic
701). PMC 2274978 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2
Interval on the Quebec Continental Slope". Journal of Paleontology.
274978). PMID 17652065 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1765206
76 (2): 287–305. doi:10.1666/0022-
5). For a summary, see "The Mollusca" (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.ed
3360(2002)076<0287:LECSSF>2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1666%2
u/taxa/inverts/mollusca/mollusca.php). University of California
F0022-3360%282002%29076%3C0287%3ALECSSF%3E2.0.CO%3
Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
B2). JSTOR 1307143 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1307143).
S2CID 130381069 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130381 74. "The Mollusca" (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/inverts/mollusca/
069). mollusca.php). University of California Museum of Paleontology.
Retrieved 2 October 2008.
60. Frýda, J.; Nützel, A.; Wagner, P.J. (2008). "Paleozoic Gastropoda" (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=nm0IZAQQ6S0C&pg=RA1-PA239). 75. Goloboff, Pablo A.; Catalano, Santiago A.; Mirande, J. Marcos;
In Ponder, W.F.; Lindberg, D.R. (eds.). Phylogeny and evolution of the Szumik, Claudia A.; Arias, J. Salvador; Källersjö, Mari; Farris, James
Mollusca. California Press. pp. 239–264. ISBN 978-0-520-25092-5. S. (2009). "Phylogenetic analysis of 73 060 taxa corroborates major
eukaryotic groups" (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-0031.2009.002
61. Kouchinsky, A. (2000). "Shell microstructures in Early Cambrian
55.x). Cladistics. 25 (3): 211–230. doi:10.1111/j.1096-
molluscs" (http://app.pan.pl/archive/published/app45/app45-119.pdf)
0031.2009.00255.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-0031.2009.002
(PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 45 (2): 119–150. Retrieved
55.x). PMID 34879616 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34879616).
4 November 2009.
76. "Introduction to the Lophotrochozoa" (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/
phyla/lophotrochozoa.html). University of California Museum of
Paleontology. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 10/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
77. Henry, J.; Okusu, A.; Martindale, M. (2004). "The cell lineage of the 89. The fourth-century BC historian Theopompus, cited by Athenaeus
polyplacophoran, Chaetopleura apiculata: variation in the spiralian (12:526) around 200 BC; according to Gulick, C.B. (1941).
program and implications for molluscan evolution" (https://doi.org/10. Athenaeus, The Deipnosophists. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
1016%2Fj.ydbio.2004.04.027). Developmental Biology. 272 (1): 145– Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99380-8.
160. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.04.027 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yd 90. Reese, D.S. (1987). "Palaikastro Shells and Bronze Age Purple-Dye
bio.2004.04.027). PMID 15242797 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1 Production in the Mediterranean Basin". Annual of the British School
5242797). of Archaeology at Athens. 82: 201–6.
78. Jacobs, D.K.; Wray, C. G.; Wedeen, C. J.; Kostriken, R.; Desalle, R.; doi:10.1017/s0068245400020438 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs00682
Staton, J. L.; Gates, R.D.; Lindberg, D.R. (2000). "Molluscan 45400020438). S2CID 129588313 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
engrailed expression, serial organization, and shell evolution". orpusID:129588313).
Evolution & Development. 2 (6): 340–347. doi:10.1046/j.1525- 91. Stieglitz, R.R. (March 1994). "The Minoan Origin of Tyrian Purple".
142x.2000.00077.x (https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1525-142x.2000.000 Biblical Archaeologist. 57 (1): 46–54. doi:10.2307/3210395 (https://do
77.x). PMID 11256378 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11256378). i.org/10.2307%2F3210395). JSTOR 3210395 (https://www.jstor.org/st
S2CID 25274057 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2527405 able/3210395). S2CID 163601220 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Co
7). rpusID:163601220).
79. Winnepenninckx, B; Backeljau, T; De Wachter, R (1996). 92. Webster's Third New International Dictionary (Unabridged) 1976. G.
"Investigation of molluscan phylogeny on the basis of 18S rRNA & C. Merriam Co., p. 307.
sequences" (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a0255
93. Turner, R.D.; Rosewater, J. (June 1958). "The Family Pinnidae in the
77). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 13 (10): 1306–1317.
Western Atlantic". Johnsonia. 3 (38): 294.
doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025577 (https://doi.org/10.1093%
2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a025577). PMID 8952075 (https://pubmed.n 94. Maurer, B. (October 2006). "The Anthropology of Money" (https://web.
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/8952075). archive.org/web/20070816070943/http://www.anthro.uci.edu/faculty_
bios/maurer/Maurer-AR.pdf) (PDF). Annual Review of Anthropology.
80. Passamaneck, Y.; Schander, C.; Halanych, K. (2004). "Investigation
35: 15–36. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123127 (https://do
of molluscan phylogeny using large-subunit and small-subunit nuclear
i.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.35.081705.123127).
rRNA sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution. 32 (1): 25–
S2CID 51797573 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5179757
38. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2003.12.016 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ym
3). Archived from the original (http://www.anthro.uci.edu/faculty_bios/
pev.2003.12.016). PMID 15186794 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
maurer/Maurer-AR.pdf) (PDF) on 16 August 2007.
15186794).
95. Hogendorn, J. & Johnson, M. (2003). The Shell Money of the Slave
81. Wilson, N.; Rouse, G.; Giribet, G. (2010). "Assessing the molluscan
Trade. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521541107.
hypothesis Serialia (Monoplacophora+Polyplacophora) using novel
Particularly chapters "Boom and slump for the cowrie trade" (pages
molecular data". Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution. 54 (1): 187–
64–79) and "The cowrie as money: transport costs, values and
193. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.07.028 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.y
inflation" (pages 125–147)
mpev.2009.07.028). PMID 19647088 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/19647088). 96. Université Bordeaux; et al. "MolluSCAN eye project" (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20161113173444/http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux
82. Wägele, J.; Letsch, H.; Klussmann-Kolb, A.; Mayer, C.; Misof, B.;
1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en). Archived from the original
Wägele, H. (2009). "Phylogenetic support values are not necessarily (http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accuei
informative: the case of the Serialia hypothesis (a mollusk l&lang=en) on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2017.
phylogeny)" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC271032
3). Frontiers in Zoology. 6 (1): 12. doi:10.1186/1742-9994-6-12 (http 97. Alafaci, A. (5 June 2018). "Blue ringed octopus" (http://www.avru.org/
s://doi.org/10.1186%2F1742-9994-6-12). PMC 2710323 (https://www. compendium/biogs/A000060b.htm). Australian Venom Research Unit.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2710323). PMID 19555513 (http Retrieved 3 October 2008.
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19555513). 98. Williamson, J.A.; Fenner, P.J.; Burnett, J.W.; Rifkin, J. (1996).
83. Vinther, J.; Sperling, E. A.; Briggs, D. E. G.; Peterson, K. J. (2011). "A Venomous and Poisonous Marine Animals: A Medical and Biological
molecular palaeobiological hypothesis for the origin of aplacophoran Handbook (https://books.google.com/books?id=YsZ3GryFIzEC&pg=
molluscs and their derivation from chiton-like ancestors" (https://www. PA75). UNSW Press. pp. 65–68. ISBN 978-0-86840-279-6.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3282371). Proceedings of the 99. Anderson, R.C. (1995). "Aquarium husbandry of the giant Pacific
Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1732): 1259–68. octopus". Drum and Croaker. 26: 14–23.
doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1773 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2011.17 100. Brazzelli, V.; Baldini, F.; Nolli, G.; Borghini, F.; Borroni, G. (March
73). PMC 3282371 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC32 1999). "Octopus apollyon bite". Contact Dermatitis. 40 (3): 169–70.
82371). PMID 21976685 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2197668 doi:10.1111/j.1600-0536.1999.tb06025.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.
5). 1600-0536.1999.tb06025.x). PMID 10073455 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
84. Mannino, M.A.; Thomas, K.D. (2002). "Depletion of a resource? The m.nih.gov/10073455). S2CID 35988014 (https://api.semanticscholar.o
impact of prehistoric human foraging on intertidal mollusc rg/CorpusID:35988014).
communities and its significance for human settlement, mobility and 101. Anderson, R.C. (1999). "An octopus bite and its treatment". The
dispersal". World Archaeology. 33 (3): 452–474. Festivus. 31: 45–46.
doi:10.1080/00438240120107477 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00438 102. Concar, D. (19 October 1996). "Doctor snail—Lethal to fish and
240120107477). JSTOR 827879 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/82787 sometimes even humans, cone snail venom contains a
9). S2CID 161085658 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1610 pharmacopoeia of precision drugs" (https://www.newscientist.com/arti
85658). cle/mg15220523.900-doctor-snail--lethal-to-fish-and-sometimes-even
85. Garrow, J.S.; Ralph, A.; James, W.P.T. (2000). Human Nutrition and -humans-cone-snail-venom-contains-a-pharmacopoeia-of-precision-d
Dietetics. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-443-05627-7. rugs-david-concar-finds-out-how-the-toxins-target-nerve-cells.html).
86. "China catches almost 11 m tonnes of molluscs in 2005" (http://www.f New Scientist. Retrieved 3 October 2008.
ao.org/figis/servlet/TabLandArea?tb_ds=Capture&tb_mode=TABLE&t 103. Livett, B. "Cone Shell Mollusc Poisoning, with Report of a Fatal Case"
b_act=SELECT&tb_grp=COUNTRY). FAO. Retrieved 3 October (https://web.archive.org/web/20121107123624/http://grimwade.bioche
2008. m.unimelb.edu.au/cone/deathby.html). Department of Biochemistry
87. "Importing fishery products or bivalve molluscs" (https://web.archive.o and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne. Archived from the
rg/web/20121030181014/http://www.food.gov.uk/business-industry/im original (http://grimwade.biochem.unimelb.edu.au/cone/deathby.html)
ports/want_to_import/fisheryproducts/). United Kingdom: Food on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 3 October 2008.
Standards Agency. Archived from the original (http://www.food.gov.uk/ 104. Haddad Junior, V.; Paula Neto, J.O.B.D.; Cobo, V.L.J. (September–
foodindustry/imports/want_to_import/fisheryproducts/) on 30 October October 2006). "Venomous mollusks: The risks of human accidents
2012. Retrieved 2 October 2008. by conus snails (gastropoda: Conidae) in Brazil" (https://doi.org/10.15
88. Jones, J.B.; Creeper, J. (April 2006). "Diseases of Pearl Oysters and 90%2FS0037-86822006000500015). Revista da Sociedade
Other Molluscs: a Western Australian Perspective". Journal of Brasileira de Medicina Tropical. 39 (5): 498–500. doi:10.1590/S0037-
Shellfish Research. 25 (1): 233–238. doi:10.2983/0730- 86822006000500015 (https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS0037-8682200600
8000(2006)25[233:DOPOAO]2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.2983%2F07 0500015). PMID 17160331 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/171603
30-8000%282006%2925%5B233%3ADOPOAO%5D2.0.CO%3B2). 31).
S2CID 85652762 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8565276 105. "The Carter Center Schistosomiasis Control Program" (http://www.car
2). tercenter.org/health/schistosomiasis/index.html). The Carter Center.
Retrieved 3 October 2008.
106. Brown, D.S. (1994). Freshwater Snails of Africa and Their Medical
Importance. CRC Press. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-7484-0026-3.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 11/12
24/03/2023, 21:19 Mollusca - Wikipedia
107. Barker, G.M. (2002). Molluscs As Crop Pests. CABI Publications. 108. Civeyrel, L.; Simberloff, D. (October 1996). "A tale of two snails: is the
ISBN 978-0-85199-320-1. cure worse than the disease?". Biodiversity and Conservation. 5 (10):
1231–1252. doi:10.1007/BF00051574 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF
00051574). S2CID 43071631 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus
ID:43071631).
Further reading
Sturm, C.; Pearce, T.A. & Valdes, A. The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, and Preservation. Universal Publishers. 2006. 454 pages.
ISBN 1581129300
Trigo, J.E.; Díaz Agras, G.J.; García-Álvarez, O.L.; Guerra, A.; Moreira, J.; Pérez, J.; Rolán, E.; Troncoso, J.S. & Urgorri, V. (2018). Troncoso,
J.S., Trigo, J.E. & Rolán, E., ed. Guía de los Moluscos Marinos de Galicia. Vigo: Servicio de Publicacións da Universidade de Vigo. 836 pages.
ISBN 978-84-8158-787-6
External links
"Mollusca" (https://www.eol.org/pages/2195) at the Encyclopedia of Life
Researchers complete mollusk evolutionary tree; 26 October 2011 (https://phys.org/news/2011-10-mollusk-evolutionary-tree.html)
Hardy's Internet Guide to Marine Gastropods (https://conchology.be/?t=261)
Rotterdam Natural History Museum (http://www.nmr-pics.nl/) Shell Image Gallery
Mussel Watch Programme (https://web.archive.org/web/20150907012135/http://ccma.nos.noaa.gov/about/coast/nsandt/musselwatch.aspx)
Online biomonitoring of bivalve activity, 24/7: MolluSCAN eye (http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161113173444/http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en) 2016-
11-13 at the Wayback Machine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollusca 12/12