4.

1 OFFSHORE PRODUCTION OPERATION

As discussed in Chapter 2, a chain of platforms are located offshore to accommodate

facilities such as unmanned well (only wells-W) Platform to facilitate production from wells,
production testing, and data transmission with the help of remote terminal units (RTU) and
telemetry. Process platform to receive produced fluid from Unmanned Well platforms and
form other platforms along with well data for further processing and transporting of partially
stabilized fluid through pipelines to onshore, where process platform plays the key role. Till
pipeline comes, stablised crude can be transported to onshore terminal through tanker. A
typical flow diagram depicting the various elements of a production system located on and
large platforms is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Overviewof offshore production operation.

Process platform is the nerve center of all controls; however, monitoring and emergency
control can be also exercised from land-based control through the SCADA system. With
advancement in technologies (smart and intelligent well concept), the traditional well
platform, with common testing facilities, RTU, and telemetry for data transmission, is slowly
becoming obsolete. The major elements of offshore pro- duction systems are explained in
the below section.

4.1.1 MAJOR ELEMENTS OF OFFSHORE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

4.1.1.1 Wells (Subsea/Platform Wells)

Wells are the first element of the production system, and can be either platform completed
(dry wells) or subsea completed (wet wells).
 4.1.1.2 Platform Wells/Dry Trees

A dry tree has its wellbore extended vertically up all the way to the host platform. The tree
with its various valves and chokes is placed on the platform. The wellbore can be directly
accessed from the top for interventions. Platform completed wells are all dry, easy to
maintain, and workover in such wells provides comfortable operation.

4.1.1.3 Subsea Wells/Wet Trees

\A subsea well is one in which the wellhead - Christmas tree and production - control
equipment is located on the seabed. Subsea oil production systems can consist of either
single satellite well flowing to a fixed platform, FPSO, or an onshore installation through a
flowline, or multiple wells on a template/clustered around a manifold flowing to a fixed or
floating facility, or directly to an onshore installation through a pipeline (Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2 A subsea field development [1]

Any reservoir, or part thereof, can be developed by connecting subsea drilled wells from one
or multiple locations to its dedicated subsea production system. Deployment of subsea
production system becomes essential in the case of deepwater conditions or ultradeep
water conditions due to technical or economical unfeasibility/ limitations of traditional
offshore surface facilities, such as on a steel-piled jacket on account of increased water
depth.

4.1.1.4 Offshore Pipelines

Pipeline either in offshore or onshore is the basic facility for transporting any liquid from one
place to another safely and economically with minimum adverse ecological impact. Different
 materials starting from ferrous to HDPE can be used for laying of pipeline, depending on
transported liquid and its temperature and pressure. Pipeline laid in offshore is known as
offshore/subsea pipeline. Subsea pipeline is the primary means of evacuation of oil and gas
produced in offshore field from offshore to onshore. Subsea pipelines are categorized as
below for ease of identification of different sections of pipeline network in offshore.

o Infield pipelines: Subsea pipeline meant for transporting the produced liquid containing oil,
gas, and water (multiphase flow) from well to pipeline manifold to process platform. In some
cases, produced liquid is directly transported from well to process platform. These lines are
also called flowlines and feeder lines. Infield lines are also used for transporting treated
water or gas for secondary recovery system by water injection or gas injection system,
respectively.

o Export pipelines: Pipelines used for evacuation of processed oil and gas either together or
separately from offshore to onshore terminal for further activities. These pipelines may have
single phase (only gas or oil) or multiphase flow (mixture of oil and gas). In real scenario,
most pipelines have multiphase flow.

o Transmission/cross country pipelines: Pipeline carrying oil and gas from one installation to
another on commercial basis.

4.1.1.5 Processing Platforms

A typical oil platform process flow includes:

• Incoming or outgoing pipeline isolation system (like subsea isolation valve,SSIV)

• Separation equipment

• Process heating

• Process cooling

• Crude dehydration

• Produced water treating systems

• Gas handling compression

• Gas dehydration

• Safety and fire detection and fighting

 Figure 4.3 A typical process platfrom in the Gulf of Mexico [2]

o The basic function of process equipment and system on any installation is to separate the
produced liquid in oil/condensate, gas, and water and stabilize for onward transportation to
onshore for further processing. Custody transfer/measurement system forms a part of
process equipment and system on any installation. Custody transfer normally occurs at the
point of delivery from installation and at the receipt point of installation.

o There are no major differences between the process equipment (oil and gas separators,
freewater knockouts, gas scrubbers, pumps, compressors. etc.) installed on an offshore
process platform and onshore installation. Preference is given to compact and lightweight
equipment and component with enhanced or better corrosion resistance properties (Figure
4.3).

4.1.1.6 Export Pipelines/Tankers for Evacuation of Oil and Gas

Offshore pipelines are more expensive and difficult to build than onshore pipelines. and if
the oil and gas field is small, it may be uneconomical to use them. In some areas, long
distances or unstable seafloor conditions may make it impractical or impossible to lay
pipelines. Instead, tankers can be used to transport oil to shore. If liquefied using special
processing equipment, natural gas can also be shipped in tankers from one port to another.
Special re-gasification facilities at the receiving port return the liquid to its gas form for
cross-country shipment by pipeline. New sources and rising demand for oil and gas during
the last half of the 20th century meant shipping larger quantities for longer hauls. To make
long-distance transportation more cost-effective, producers also wanted to use the largest
carriers the ports could manage. Ultimately, tanker manufacturers developed super tankers
or "very large crude carriers (VLCC)" that measure up to four football fields in length (Figure
4.4).
 FIGURE 4.4 A very large crude carrier tankers [3].

4.1.2 MAINTENANCE AND SUPPLY

Typical oil and gas processing platform is required to be self-sufficient in terms of energy, water,
accommodation, processing, and product stabilization system. Produced oil and gas is then
transported to onshore either by pipeline or tanker. Nowadays, some platforms are installed with
electrical power fed from shore through subsea electrical transmission as it is overall cost-effective,

Wellhead, production manifold, production separator, glycol process to dry gas, gas
compressors, water injection pumps, oil/gas export metering, and main oil pumps are the main
elements or systems of an oil and gas production process/installation 14). All production facilities are
designed to have minimal environmental impact. Normally, offshore manned platforms are
supported by emergency support vessels (ESVS) to provide immediate support during any exigency
like man overboard or emergency evacuation etc. Platform supply vessels (PSVs) cater to all the
major resourcing and support (Figure 4.5)

The illustrations below show the relationship between oil companies or operators (dark
blue) and the different service and supply segments (light blue). The industry also consists of other
services (orange), however, petroleum-induced activity in these segments are not considered a part
of the service and supply industry.

4.1.3 ESSENTIAL PERSONNEL/WORKFORCE

Normally, adequate workforce is maintained on every platform, however, multitasking is also

common. Some quite common trade designations used globally are:

 Offshore installation manager (OIM)-Final authority on platform for essential decisions

regarding operation of platform, including safety of platform.
 FIGURE 4.5 Maintenance and supply chain directly and indirectly linked with the offshore
industry [5].

 Operations team leader (OTL) - Responsiblosfor operations and assists the OIM on all issues
related to operation. OTL is assisted by a technical team of control room and other
production crew.
 Offshore operations engineer (OOEY/Offshore maintenance engineer- Responsible for all
maintenance jobs of platform in consultation with OIM. OOE is supported by
multidisciplinary team.
 Safety head/Engineer - Responsible for all aspects of health, safety, and environment. On
most installations, paramedics assists them in issues related to health apart from other team
members.
 PSTL or Operations coordinator for managing crew changes [4].
 Dynamic positioning operator for navigation, ship, or vessel maneuvering (MODU), station
keeping - Available on deepwater floating installation.
 2nd mate meets manning requirements of flag state operates fast rescue craft, cargo
operations, fire team leader - Available on floating installation mainly.
 3rd mate meets manning requirements of flag state, operates fast rescue craft, cargo
operations, fire team leader - Available on floating installation mainly.
 Crane operators - To assist the installation in material transfer on the deck or to and from
boat. They are responsible for crane maintenance also.
 Catering crew will include people tasked with performing essential functions such as
cooking, laundry, and cleaning the accommodation.

The size and composition of the crew of an offshore installation will vary greatly from platform to
platform. Because of the cost-intensive nature of operating an offshore platform and the nature of
operations itself, it is important to maximize productivity by ensuring work continues 24 hours a day.
This means that there are essentially two complete crews on board at a time, one for day shift and
the other for the night shift. Crews also change at regular intervals as per the national law or the
requirement of state.

4.1.4 RISKS

Risk is the potential of gaining or losing something of value. Values (such as physical health, social
status, emotional wellbeing, or financial wealth) can be gained or lost when taking risk resulting
from a given action or inaction, foreseen or unforeseen (planned or unplanned). Risk can also be
defined as the intentional interaction with uncertainty. Uncertainty is a potential, unpredictable, and
uncontrollable outcome: risk is a consequence of action taken despite uncertainty. To mitigate or
minimize risk or threat to operation, normally risk assessment and hazard analysis is done before the
start of any operation.

Normally, all external security threat is handled by state authorities as per their risk perception
(Table 4.1).

Shutdown Panel

Shutdown panel is a very crucial part of the production operation system which activates and
shutdowns the entire production system at the time of any accident or emergency situation. Overall
protection of installation is designed with pneumatic shutdown panel as nucleus. Three levels of
protection for personnel, production wells, and surface facilities are envisaged.

4.1.4.1 Basic Protection Concepts

Accidental release/leak of hydrocarbon poses a major threat to any production system and
installation. Risk analysis for complete installation and system shall be carried out at the design stage
and before the start of operations to mitigate such risks.

4.1.5 PREVENTION

Normally, every installation/plant/system is built with two layers of protection, primary and
secondary, to mitigate any problems due to accidental release of hydrocarbon.
4.1.6 SHUT IN

In the event of loss of containment due to release or leak of hydrocarbon, it is essential to stop
feeding the hydrocarbon to the area of release to minimize or eliminate any chance of
contamination of environment/fire/explosion. Protective shut-in is always incorporated in design
itself to achieve above.

4.1.6.1 Fire and Gas Leakage Protection System

Protection system is designed for automatic detection of any gas leakage before it forms a
combustible mixture, with subsequent initiation of shutdown action. Such shutdown includes all
ignition sources. This protection is designed in such a manner that it does not allow restarting of
units till hazardous condition is removed. In case of fire incidents, detection is followed by automatic
initiation of suppression action.

4.1.6.2 Technology Development: HIPS

HIPS: High integrity protection system

HIPS is a high availability fail-safe safety instrumented system designed to achieve a predefined risk
reduction, as defined by the Safety Integrity Level (SIL-3). HIPS can replace flare/mechanical pressure
relief or mechanical thickness of piping to remove the source of overpressure.

The risk analysis report addresses the following major safety elements:

 Identifying the hazards mitigation and protection provided by the HIPS and full flare system.
 Determining the potential frequency and consequences of each identified hazard.
 Determining the system availability of each of the two overpressure protection systems.
 Quantifying the associated risks for both overpressure protection solutions in terms of IRPA
and PLL (Figure 4.6).

4.1.6.3 Surface Facility Protection

A safety analysis or hazardous operability (HAZOP) analysis of surface facilities including all systems
and equipment on board is carried out. All possible hazards and interrelation between various
parameters are identified and listed. The functional chart thus evolved is the safe safety analysis and
function evaluation 141.

A hazard and operability study (HAZOP) is a structured and systematic examination of a

complex planned or existing process or operation to identify and evaluate problems that may
represent risks to personnel, system, or equipment. Figure 4.7 explains the procedure of HAZOP for
blast hazard/fire hazard. The intention of performing a HAZOP is to review the design to pick up
design and engineering issues that may otherwise not have been found or may result due to
integration of different systems. The technique is based on breaking the overall complex design of
the process into a number of simpler sections called "nodes", which are then individually reviewed.
 FIGURE 4.6 Three-dimensional model of HIPS system [6].

FIGURE 4.7 HAZOP tree construction for fire/blast hazard [7].

 FIGURE 4.8 A well control process with help of shutdown panel [7].

4.1.6.4 Well Control and Protection

Wells need to be closed quickly to prevent spillage and sea pollution in the event of sudden
emergency at the production platform. Wellhead shutdown panel is designed for well-defined
sequential operation of various valves installed on wellhead including surface and subsurface safety
valve for control of flowing well. Figure 4.8 explains the automated well control shutdown panel.

4.1.7 SCADA-AN ESSENTIAL PART OF DIGITAL OIL AND GAS FIELD

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) has revolutionized the complete process
controlled industry and has become an integral part of offshore operations as well. This is the most
common intelligent system utilized to maintain and optimize the production at offshore and as well
as onshore platforms. Figure 4.9 explains the pyramidal steps of SCADA utilized to optimize the
production, while Figure 4.10 explains the process of data acquisition in SCADA system.

Flow chart for Decision Making based on data acquisition

The detailed process level of SCADA system is explained in the below sections.

4.1.7.1 Process Levels in SCADA

4.1.7.1.1 Manual Process Level

This is the initial reference point which assumes a fully manual process. The data are not being
acquired in real time. Basic surface sensors (pressure (P), temperature (7). and volume (V)) are used,
and readings are recorded and annotated by people when
 FIGURE 4.9 A digital oil field pyramid explaining the entire process [8].

FIGURE 4.10 An entire cycle of data acquisition cycle [7].

they visit the operation site. Production well tests are conducted periodically on demand. The data
are exchanged between different disciplines by email or in a repository of shared folders. The
engineering workflows are performed manually by each discipline (in silos, no integration).
Monitoring is performed monthly, and diagnostic and optimization are performed randomly (2-3
times a year). Communication is by phone, email, and meetings. Asset team collaboration is low.
4.1.7.1.2 Automation Level

The real-time data is gathered only from basic surface sensors (P. 7), and the information is gathered
using wireless technology. Production well tests are taken monthly or on demand. Data are
centralized in a SCADA/historian storage center using industry-standard protocols. Some engineering
workflows are automated. Monitoring is performed daily, while diagnostic and optimization
processes can be performed monthly. Team discussions of production issues are conducted in
meetings and situation rooms, and collaboration starts to improve [9].

4.1.7.1.3 RTOC Level

Most surface locations in a field have real-time sensors, including flow meters. For wells without
flow meters, virtual metering is used for the entire field that can provide production data for
individual wells. Data are sent using wireless or WiMAX technologies (to support high-volume data
traffic). The data are centralized in the SCADA/historian storage center using the industry standard
protocols. Most engineering workflows are automated with advanced algorithms to provide alarms
and alerts. Monitoring is performed in real time, while diagnostic and optimization can be performed
weekly or monthly [9]. The operation includes a dedicated real-time operations center, with a
dedicated staff. Collaboration is significant but not optimal. Communication with field operations
staff is via cell phone and by texting.

4.1.7.1.4 DOF Level

The operations is exactly the same as an RTOC; however, most engineering workflows are intelligent
and with predictive capability to generate advice and guidance. Monitoring is performed in real time
with exception-based surveillance, while diagnostic and optimization can be performed daily with an
advisory system to prevent production downtime [10]. There is a dedicated collaboration working
environment (CWE) with dedicated staff and complete workflow mobile communication with field
operations staff. Collaboration reaches very high levels with synergy between disciplines.
Communication with field operations staff is via closed-circuit TV, video, and chatting.

4.1.7.2 Instrumentation, Remote Sensing, and Telemetry of Real-Time Processes

This area focuses on the equipment and technology in the physical oil and gas operations, both on
the surface and downhole, required for telemetry, remote collection. and transmission of data
required to monitor, optimize, and automate operations. The wellhead includes a series of
mechanical or electronic devices (gauges) to measure real-time pressure, temperature, fluids, and
other special data such as chemicals, solids detection, and radiation (Figure 1.14). Downhole
locations are equipped with another family of sensors especially designed to work in high-
temperature and high-pressure conditions. Sensors are connected to electrical cables that send
analog pulses to a control panel located close to the wellhead. The control panel consists of many
hardware components for the analog to digital signal conversion [11]. A key component includes
remote terminal units (RTU) and programmable logic controllers (PLC), which perform similar
functions. They are connected to sensors with cables and send digital data to the transmission
hardware using wireless equipment that includes ethernet, switchboards, WiMAX (microwave
signals), and routers all connected to a CPU, often powered by a solar panel.
Figure 4.11 explains an offshore wellhead with a series of mechanical or electronic devices to
measure real-time pressure, temperature, fluids, and other special data such as chemicals, solids
detection, and radiation. Furthermore, Figure 4.12 explains the working of SCADA system along with
its wireless features.

4.1.7.2.1 Data Management and Data Transmission

Located in the SCADA terminal, real-time signals from the field are gathered by cellular modems and
sent to a family of servers. The servers use multiplex software to organize and store the data in
different structured layers under a series of information technology (IT) industry protocols. The
software that does this data collection and aggregation is referred to as a historian, which
accumulates time data, Boolean events, and alarms in a database, which can be used for many
visualization solutions. The data are previously QA/QCed, cleaned, and conditioned using a series of

FIGURE 4.11 A wellhead with a series of mechanical or electronic devices (gauges) to measure real-
time pressure, temperature, fluids, and other special data such as chemicals, solids detection, and
radiation [12].
 FIGURE 4.12 The working of SCADA system and wireless [12].

algorithms (data reduction, wavelet filtration, and missing data interpolation) that filter the data
from signal abnormalities such as noise, spikes, outliers, and frozen data. The historian commonly
feeds a repository or master database, such as the Structured Query Language (SQL) or Oracle.
Other types of data, such as mechanical equipment, interventions, tubing scans, and gyro scans, are
unstructured and stored in well files are well databases.

4.1.7.2.2 Workflow Automation

Traditionally, geoscientists and various engineering disciplines (production, reservoir, facilities, etc.)
spent considerable time gathering data from disparate sources for input into their mostly manual
workflows.

Engineers generally use models developed 'in commercial software applications to

reproduce the oil production process. However, even these software models required complex
manual workflows that consumed engineer's time, for example, collecting data from different
sources (spreadsheet, text, tables, figures, historian. etc.); filtering data from noise; performing
repetitive, error-prone tasks to update models (e.g., manual data entry); reconciling the data and
calibrating the model; and running different model scenarios.

Workflow automation uses high-level programming language routines to connect these

manual processes, so that models can be automatically populated and updated. Automation is just
part of the DOF requirement for workflow construction.

DOF solutions also require that engineering workflows are intelligent enough to capture in
real time alarms and alerts to generate prompt actions, update engineering applications, and deliver
right-time monitoring, diagnostics, and process optimization that deliver operations guidance at the
field level.

4.1.7.2.3 Well Automation

Generally, in offshore, a number of control systems are employed for automation and effective
management of oilfield operations. Out of these systems, SCADA is a very comprehensive and
sophisticated automation system. SCADA system is utilized for all kinds of production system
installed with different artificial lift systems. In offshore production system, generally installation of
gas lift system is very common due to abundant availability of gas and lack of storage and
transportation facilities for gas. The lack of gas storage and transportation facility is due to its
expensive nature and constraint of space and isolation from the land. Thus, to explain the well
automation for production optimization has been explained for a gas lift systems.

4.1.8 AUTOMATED GAS LIFT OPTIMIZATION IN OFFSHORE

Gas lift automation is a key to get rid of daily struggle of gathering enough data to analyze field
production. Combination of automation equipment and computer software allows operators to
control each well's lift gas injection rate. It enables the field engineer to monitor the well in real-time
from the computer. Continuous gas lift automation along with wellhead surveillance system installed
on offshore platform to ensure technocommercial profitability in oil production.

Gas lift optimization in offshore is usually implemented through continuous gas lift method.
However, major problem encountered with continuous gas lift is maintaining an optimum gas
injection rate assigned to each well [13]. This is attributed to the fact that, as injection gas is limited
in offshore facilities, optimum gas rate cannot be provided to each well. In past, optimum gas rate is
considered the rate at which the well would yield maximum production. Nowadays, optimum gas
injection rate is recognized from gas lift performance curve where the cost of additional injection gas
exceeds the anticipated profit that would be made via increased oil production. Figure 4.13 explains
an overview of well automation and Figure 4.14 displays the gas lift automated system for offshore
production operations.

The primary objective of gas lift optimization system is to inject less gas to less productive system
but continue to inject the optimum rate to most productive wells in case of limited gas supply.

The optimization system has four main tools that work together to provide overall benefit.

1. Constant gas lift injection rate

In the automation system, the system and software assisted tools con- stantly measures gas
lift rates and adjusts injection choke according to set point. Maintaining a constant injection
rate decreases amount of slugging in the wells, and thus reduces production process
instabilities.
2. Real-time wellhead surveillance
This tool enables engineers to monitor temperature and pressure data of individual wells.

FIGURE 4.1 An overview of well automation [13].

 FIGURE 4.14 Flowchart showing typical offshore gas lift optimization network [13].

3. Optimization well testing

It is imperative to run optimization well test on each well to determine optimum gas lift
injection rate on each well. The system and software assisted tools then determine the
optimum injection rate by analyzing the fluid flow versus gas lift rate data.
4. Data to desktop
This tool transmits all the automation data back to office and stores it in a database. The
engineer can access the data and customize the interface to display specific well data.

Thus, production process automation yields the following benefits of automated SCADA system:

1. Gains in oil production.

2. As operator can access the same data and system on desktop, there is improved
collaboration between field planning. well surveillance, and operations.
3. Capture and save the history of lifecycle of each well.
4. Wellhead and well-test data is online and easy to access.
5. Availability of historical data to perform analysis, modeling, and optimization.

Now after understanding the offshore production operations, we will discuss the next step of
processing the produced fluids.

4.2 PROCESSING IN OFFSHORE

In general, three phase fluids are encountered from offshore wells (oil, water, and gas). The
produced well fluids are oil, water, and/or gas (if present), all of which must be separated and
individually treated before further dispatch or disposal. The well fluids are collected at the topside
from the wells using a complex network of subsea pipelines and risers and treated so that they can
be further dispatched to the required destination for commercial usage. For processing these fluids
large process platforms; these platforms generally contain the following process modules (Figure
4.15):

1. Fluid separation and oil dispatch

2. Gas compression and dehydration
3. Produced water treatment plant
4. Seawater conditioning and injection system

4.2.1 OIL TREATMENT

The target of the separation of reservoir fluids from undersea wells is to produce a gas stream free
of C3+ hydrocarbons to the maximum extent and a crude oil stable at storage conditions. Indeed,
the produced crude oil must not vaporize when delivered into the storage tank and in the event of
small variations of storage pressure and/or temperature.

Aims are often accomplished by progressively reducing pressure and temperature of the
fluid through a multistage separation consisting of a sequence of two or three separators, which
forms a configuration termed separation train. The topside contains a series of machines and
equipment called a train. Produced fluids are treated through this train. Each train consists of a
production manifold, well

FIGURE 4.15 An integrated process platform with living accommodation [3].

fluid heater, inlet separator, crude oil manifold, crude oil heater, surge tanks, and oil pumps [14].
The treatment occurs in the following manner:

1. Well fluids arrive at the production manifold through subsea pipelines and risers.
2. A de-emulsifier is dozed into the production manifold, which will improve the oil-water
separation and break any emulsions formed between the fluids.
3. The dozed well fluids are passed through the well fluid heater, which provides heat and
further improves separation. (Hot oil is circulated in the shell side, while well fluids flow
through the tubes.)
4. The hot well fluids are sent to the inlet separator. The inlet separator separates the fluids
with aid of gravity, and improved separation is achieved with chemicals and heat
5. Separated gas is taken out through the top and is sent for compression and dehydration.
6. Separated water is siphoned through the bottom and sent for conditioning. Here we are
performing partial separation, and pump oil, water, and gas mixture to land using special
pumps called main oil line (MOL) pumps.
 7. The oil from the inlet separator is further heated with a crude oil heater and sent to the
surge tank with an oil manifold.
8. Surge tank is maintained at a lower pressure to stabilize crude, that is, to remove maximum
associated gases from crude oil.
9. Oil from surge tanks can be either pumped directly with MOL pumps or can be diverted to
third-stage separators (Surge tank 3).
10. Separated crude oil is pumped with CTP/MOL pumps to export trunk lines.
11. Separated gas is diverted to gas compression module after boosting the pressure LP booster
compressor [13].
12. Excess gas after internal consumption is delivered to export gas pipeline after compression
and dehydration on platform for further processing on land.
13. Separated water is diverted to produced water conditioning unit.
14. The pumps dispatch the oil from the platform using pipelines connected to the land, possibly
a port or a refinery (if one is situated sufficiently close).

4.2.1.1 Important Notes

The surge tank is placed at lower pressures than the separator to stabilize the crude oil, that is,
remove as maximum associated gas from the oil.

There can be more stages of separation as per requirements, otherwise oil is usually sent to
the pumps for dispatch (Figure 4.16).

In the early stages of the platform, when pipelines have not been laid, oil is dispatched by
tankers.

4.2.1.2 Loading of Tankers

Tankers are filled by using a set-up of submarine pipeline, flexible hose, and a floating tank/buoy.
The buoy is held at a fixed location by anchors and moors the tanker to it with a mooring rope.

4.2.2 GAS TREATMENT

Gas previously separated from oil is taken for compression and dehydration prior to usage or
dispatch. The separated gas can be used for either one, two, or all three utilities of export, lift gas,
and internal usage.
 FIGURE 4.16 Oil and gas processing on offshore platform.

Dehydration is the most important treatment for the produced gas as further processes may
cause formation of gas hydrates. Gas hydrates are formed when moisture-laden gases are subjected
to high pressures and low temperatures. If formed, gas hydrates can solidify in areas that can
hamper smooth oil field operations such as fluid transportation in pipelines and compressors. By
dehydrating the gas, these potential problems are eliminated. Removal of water is done for the
following reasons:

 Natural gas can combine with liquid or free water to form solid gas hydrates that can plug
pipelines or valve fittings.
 Water can condense in the pipeline causing corrosion.
 Water vapor increases the volume and decreases the heating value of the gas.
 The maximum water content is 7 lb H,O/MMscf. There are several methods of dehydrating
natural gas. The most common of these are liquid desiccant (glycol) dehydration, solid
desiccant dehydration, and refrigera- tion (i.c., cooling the gas) (Figure 4.17).

The glycol dehydration process is widely used in offshore platforms for gas treat- ment (Figure 4.18).

4.2.2.1 Gas Dehydration Follows the Steps Below

1. Wet feed gas is entered a tray tower: the gas rises from the bottom while lean (water-free)
glycol is sprayed from the top.
2. The glycol mixes with the gas and dehydrates the gas, allowing dry gas to vent through the
top while water-laden rich glycol is collected into the bottom of the tray tower.
 FIGURE 4.17 Glycol dehydration unit [15]

FIGURE 4.18 Produced water treatment unit.

3. The cool, rich glycol is sent to a flash tank to remove any gases in the glycol. Any flash gas
obtained is sent for flaring and any low pressure gas is compressed and mixed in the gas
stream.
4. The cool glycol is sent through a reflux coil for heating, and then passed through a rich
glycol-lean glycol heat exchanger, which further heats the rich glycol.
5. When rich glycol is re-introduced into the second tray tower, it is hot enough to allow the
water to escape as steam, which is vented. The glycol, now stripped of water, falls to the
bottom.
6. This lean glycol is sent for re-boiling and removal of flue gases.
7. Once the flue gases are removed, the lean glycol is sent through the heat exchanger for
cooling and then re-supplied into the first tower.

Triethylene glycol (TEG) is the most commonly used glycol for such an operation. The benefits of TEG
include:

 Superior dew point depression

  Easy to regenerate up to 99% of utilized chemicals
 Higher decomposition temperature
 High operation reliability and low operating costs
 Low vaporization losses

4.2.3 PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT

The water recovered through the separation train and gas processing contains traces of oil and other
impurities. Produced water stream can be reused through re-injection in the reservoir to enhance
production, or it is discharged in the sea after treatment. In the latter event, impurities and oil must
be removed by several processing steps. In particular, oil concentration must be lowered below 40
mg/L.

Water discharge standard in offshore and onshore are different. This is because in offshore
very less land is available compared to onshore. To achieve the standard of onshore in offshore it
required huge amount of capital investment that will adverse impact on ecumenical aspect of the
project.

The most undesired component of well fluids is reservoir water. However, disposal of this
fluid is not easy. Produced water is significantly different from water present on the surface. Further,
contact with oil makes treatment even more necessary before it can be disposed into sea.

International regulations of quality must be followed, and the water must be treated to
acceptable levels before being discharged into the sea.

The water conditioning/treatment unit consists of four units, namely:

1. Flash vessel
This vessel receives water from the inlet separators and surge tanks, and is maintained at 0.8
kg pressure. In the flash vessel, most dissolved gases are flashed out, which are then routed
to the LP flare header. Associated oil from the produced water is sent to a closed drain and
the oil is collected in the sump caisson.
2. CPI separators
The CPI separators (corrugated plate interceptor) collect oil from the water sent from the
flash vessel. These are plates installed in parallel, and the oil collected from these CPI
separators is collected in a tank. This collected oil is later pumped to the oil manifold; gas is
flared off.
3. IGF unit
Water from the CPI separators flow into the IGF unit. The IGF unit is a tank that uses motor-
driven agitators to acrate gas bubbles in the water. These bubbles float the oil droplets to
the surface, which is then collected and pumped to the CPI separators [13].
4. Sump caisson
This vessel collects water sent from the IGF unit. The vessel has an open bottom from which
water continuously drains into the sea. Oil floating in the surface of the sump caisson is
collected in the blow caisson. The oil is then lifted and flown into a skimmer by gas injection.

4.3 SEA WATER INJECTION

 Sea water is often used in offshore platforms when the necessity of water injection arises. Water
injection is done to maintain reservoir pressures as well as during water flooding. To prevent
damage to the reservoir, strict quality standards are imposed on water quality. Additional
chemicals are also added to protect pipelines that carry the water to the wells and well platform.

The main components of water injection systems are:

a. Sea water lift pumps

b. Coarse filters
c. Fine filters
d. De-oxygenation towers
e. Booster pumps
f. Main injection pumps
g. Chemical dosing system

The standard chemicals used during sea water injections are:

a. Flocculants
b. Scale inhibitors.
c. Corrosion inhibitors
d. Chlorination
e. Bactericide
f. Oxygen scavengers

The water injection system operates according to the following procedure:

1. Sea water is lifted with sea water lift pumps and fed the filters for filtering.
2. Coarse filters are able to filter particles up to m, while the fine filters filter particles up to 2
μm. Flocculants and coagulants are added promote coagulation and filtration of suspended
particles.
3. Filtered water flows to de-oxygenating towers for oxygen removal. Deoxygenating prevents
formation of aerobic bacteria colonies the injection flowlines. Vacuum pumps and oxygen
scavenging chemicals are used to de-oxygenate water.
4. Booster pumps take de-oxygenated water and feed to the main injection pumps.
5. Other chemicals like scale and corrosion inhibitors are dozed into the water during booster
pump discharge.
6. The main injection pumps send the treated water to subsea pipelines and into water
injection wells [16].

The next step after processing is the storage of process fluids for dispatch. In the following section,
offshore storage system is explained in detail.

4.4 OFFSHORE STORAGE

Offshore storage is normally required because there is inevitably a question of downtime (time
during which a system is not operational) associated with offshore loading concepts. The normal
method of crude evacuation is by shuttle tankers which may be loaded directly from a loading
system or via a storage vessel. If no storage is provided and adverse weather prevents shuttle tanker
loading, the platform supervisory personnel have no option but to shutdown field production [9].
The field reservoir characteristics are not always consistent with this stop-start type of production,
so some element of buffer storage must be considered. Several aspects of crude oil evacuation must
be examined before a suitable buffer storage system is selected. Among the factors to be considered
are:

 Storm occurrence interval and persistency

 Oil throughput
• Distance of the field from port of discharge
 Speed of the shuttle tanker
• Number and capacity of the shuttle tanker(s)
• Efficiency of discharge port equipment
 Loading system maintenance downtime (hoses, hawser, etc.)

The environmental factors will of course have a bearing on the type of storage structure selected,
but the factors listed above govern the quantity of storage required.

Four basic structures suitable for offshore storage include:

• Tankers
• Barges
• Articulated column
• Spar

4.5 TRANSPORTATION OF OIL AND GAS

Pipeline transportation of oil and gas remains the first choice even in offshore. However, in case of
marginal offshore field (where pipeline may not be cost-effective) or during extended testing phase
when pipeline is not available, oil can be stored in a floating tank and transferred to shuttle tanker
through buoy for processing on land (Figure 4.19).

4.5.1 OIL TANKERS

Crude oil tankers are large ships used to transport crude oil from the Middle East. Africa, and Latin
America to refineries worldwide. Tankers that carry refined products are known as product tankers
and carry refined petroleum products from refineries to distribution locations.

FIGURE 4.19 Testing/marginal field [17].

 FIGURE 4.20 A commercial oil tanker. It is important to note that oil tankers are very large, with
small ones being around 200m in length and large ones up to over four 400m in length [17].

Oil tankers can vary in size, although smaller vessels are generally used to transport sefined
petroleum products, whereas much larger tankers are used to transport crude oil. These larger ships
tend to be used more for crude oil as they reduce the cost per barrel of oil transport. Tanker sizes
are expressed in terms of cargo tones, or how much cargo they can carry. Larger crude oil tankers
carry significantly more and are generally utilized in international crude oil trade [18] (Figure 4.20).

4.5.2 PIPELINES

Pipelines are systems of large transportation pipes generally below ground on the sea bed that
serves the purpose of transporting oil and natural gas within extensive distribution networks. These
lines vary in diameter depending on their use and are generally located underground. In Canada
there is an estimated 825,000 km of lines that serve to transport natural gas, liquefied natural gas
products, crude oil, and other refined petroleum products [18].

4.5.3 FLOATING PRODUCTION, STORAGE, AND OFFLOADING (FPSO)

Small, marginal, and isolated fields, which do not justify the high cost of platform and pipeline, are
produced through an integrated system called FPSO.

This type of production sopport consists of a tanker converted for production operation with
a permanent yoke arrangement. The tanker is allowed to weathervane around the SPM by means of
a fluid swivel arrangement at the yoke/SPM interface. A converted tanker is used because it provides
the cheapest form of floating production and already has existing oil storage capacity. Because these
structures have appreciable motions, the wells are typically subsea completed and connected to the
floating unit with flexible risers that are of either composite material or rigid steel with flexible
configuration. While the production unit can be provided with a drilling unit, typically the wells are
predrilled and the production unit brought in to
 FIGURE 4.21 Floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) with external turret [19].

carry only a workover drilling system. Previously, FPSOS in shallow waters and in mild environment
had spread mooring systems. As more FPSOS were designed and constructed or converted (from a
tanker) for deepwater and harsh environments, new and more effective mooring systems were
developed including internal and external turrets. Some turrets were also designed to be dis-
connectable so that the FPSO could be moved to a protective environment in the event of a
hurricane or typhoon (Figure 4.21).

Advantages of FPSO include:

• FPSOS have integral oil storage capability inside their hull. This avoids a long and expensive
pipeline to shore.
• Large area for process equipment.
• Can explore in remote and deepwater as well as in marginal wells, where building fixed
platform and piping is technically and economically not feasible.
• Easy loading of shuttle tanker from FPSO.
• Easily converted to production support.

4.5.3.1 Single Buoy Mooring

Single buoy mooring (SBM) (also known as single point mooring or SPM) is a loading buoy anchored
offshore that serves as a mooring point and interconnect for tanker loading or offloading liquid
products. They are capable of handling any size ship, even very large crude carriers (VLCC), where no
alternative facility is available. In shallow water, SPMs are used to load and unload crude oil and
refined products from onshore and offshore oilfields or refineries usually through some form of
storage system. These buoys are usually suitable for use by all types of oil tanker. In deepwater oil
fields, SPMs are usually used to load crude oil direct from the production platforms, where there are
economic reasons not to run a pipeline to the shore [19].