TOPIC 3

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF SOIL

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 REVIEW THE LESSON TOPIC 2 :

1. List down FOUR (4) information that can be gathered from a subsurface
exploration of a Site Investigation (SI).

2. State THREE (3) objectives of Site Investigation (SI) according to BS5030

(1981).

3. Describe about the Disturbed Sample and laboratory test used.

4. Describe about the Undisturbed Sample and laboratory test used.

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 PHASE RELATIONSHIP
 Soil is composed of solids, water and air.
 The spaces between the solids (soil particles) are called
voids.
 If all the voids are filled by water, the soil is saturated.
 Otherwise, the soil is unsaturated.
 If all the voids are filled with air, the soil is said to be dry.

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 PHASE DIAGRAM
Soils are generally composed of three distinct phases. These are solids,
water and air. The space occupied by water and air is defined as the void of
the soil. The void may be partially or wholly filled by water or air. A
completely dry or completely saturated soil will have only two phases..

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 Three Phases in Soils

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 Three Phases in Soils

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 Three Phases in Soils

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 Three Phases in Soils (con’t)
Which:
Which:
VT= Volume of soil sample
Vv= Volume of void
MT= Mass of soil
Va= Volume of air
sample
Vw= Volume of water MV= Mass of void
Vs= Volume of solid Ma= Mass of air
Mw= Mass of water
Ms= Mass of solid

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 Formula

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 Formula

Or,
e= n .

1- n
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 Formula

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 Formula

The specific gravity of soils ranges from approximately 2.6 to 2.8. For most
problems, Gs can be assumed, with little error, to be equal to 2.7.

14  w  1 g / cm3  1000 kg / m3  1 Mg / m3
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 Formula

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 Formula

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 Formula

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 Formula

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 Formula

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 Formula

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 Formula

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 Formula

 Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage,

of the volume of water to the volume of voids.

If S = 1 or 100%, the soil is fully saturated. If S = 0, the soil is bone dry.

It is practically impossible to obtain a soil with S = 0.
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 Formula

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 Formula

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 Formula

Or,

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 Formula

 The unit weight is the weight per unit volume.

where g = 9.81 m/s2 is acceleration due to gravity

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 Typical value of unit weight

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 Other Relationships
Specific gravity
Proof:
s  s S  e  w  Gs
Gs  
w  w S e 
Vw Vv Vw
 
Vv Vs Vs
Ms
w  S  e  w  s M w s M w Vs Vw
w  Gs     
S  e  w  Gs M s w M s M w Vs
Vw

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 Example 1
The undisturbed sample of soil has a wet weight of 30 kg and
a volume of 0.017 m3. Calculate the wet unit weight of soil.

SOLUTION:

 = MT = 30 kg = 1764.7 kg/m3
VT 0.017 m3

 = g = 1764.7 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s

= 17311 N/m3 @ 17.3 kN/m3
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 Example 2
A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and
weighed. It mass was 6g. The clay in its container was
placed in an oven for 24 hours at 105oC. Mass reduced to a
constant value of 5g. Mass of the container is 1g. If Gs =
2.7, determine the
(a) water content
(b) void ratio
(c) Bulk density
(d) dry density

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 Solution Example 2
Mass of sample + container = 6g
Mass of dry sample + container = 5g
Mass of container = 1g
Gs = 2.7
a. Water content, w

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 Solution (con’t)

b) Void ratio, e
; Saturated clay, S =1

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 Solution (con’t)
c) Bulk density

Using,

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 Solution (con’t)

d) Dry density

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 Example 3
Satu sampel tanah mempunyai jisim 23g dan dikeringkan dalam ketuhar selama 24
jam pada suhu 1050C. Didapati jisimnya berkurang menjadi 20 g. Nilai
ketumpatan kering dan GS masing-masing adalah 1.67 g/ml dan 2.68. tentukan:
i. Nisbah lompang

ii. Keliangan

iii. Kandungann Udara

SOLUTION:

Diberi : MT = 25 g, Ms = 20 g,  d = 1.67 g/ml , Gs = 2.68

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 3:
Diberi : MT = 25 g, Ms = 20 g, d = 1.67 g/ml , Gs = 2.68

(i) Nisbah lompang, e

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 3:
Diberi : MT = 25 g, Ms = 20 g, d = 1.67 g/ml , Gs = 2.68

(ii) Keliangan, n

(iii) Kandungan Udara, A

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 Example 4
Berikut adalah data-data yang diperolehi dari ujian kandungan lembapan yang
dijalankan ke atas tanah tepu.
Jisim bekas kosong = 27.35 g
Jisim bekas dan tanah basah = 58.25 g
Jisim bekas dan tanah kering = 50.55 g

Tentukan :
i. Kandungan air
ii. Nisbah lompang
iii. Ketumpatan pukal
iv. Ketumpatan kering
Diberi graviti tentu tanah adalah 2.7,

SOLUTION :
Diberi :
Jisim bekas kosong = 27.35 g
Jisim bekas dan tanah basah = 58.25 g
Jisim bekas dan tanah kering = 50.55 g
Gs = 2.7
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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 4:

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 Example 5
The dry density of a sand with a porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3. Find the void ratio
Of the soil and the specific gravity of the soil solids.

SOLUTION :

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 RIVEW PAST FINAL EXAM SESI 1 2022/2023

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 SOIL PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS
 Methods for soil classification:
- Sieve analysis – particles sizes larger than
0.075mm in diameter.

i. Wet sieve
ii. Dry sieve

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 Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis is widely used in classification of soils. Data
obtained from particle-size distribution curves is used in the
design of filters for earth dams and to determine suitability
of soil for road, highway, construction, embankment fill
of dam, airport runway etc.

Sieve analysis of soil test is in accordance to ASTM D-422

(American Society for Testing and Materials) or BS 1377:
Part 2 1990 (British Standards) as both are the most widely
used technical standards in construction. The dry sieving of
soil is the simplest and cheapest method among others.

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 Apparatus;

i. Stack of Sieve aperture sizes (including cover and pan)

ii. Electronic balance.
iii. Rubber pestle, mortar (for crushing the soil if lumped)
and brush.
iv. Mechanical sieve vibrator (shaker).
v. Oven dry (thermostatically controlled temperature).

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 Sieve analysis (dry)

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 Sieve analysis (wet)

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 Hydrometer test

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 Particle Size Distribution Chart

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 Effective Size, Coefficient of Uniformity and
Coefficient of Curvature
 The uniformity coefficient is given by the relation:

 The coefficient of curvature may be expressed as

where:
D10 = diameter corresponding to 10% finer
D30 = diameter corresponding to 30% finer
D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer
Well Graded
Cu > 4 (gravel) 1 < Cc < 3 (gravel and sand)
Cc > 6 (sand)
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 Example 5

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 5:

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63 AZMAN/JKA
 Example 6

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 6:

Saiz Ayak Jisim Tertahan Jisim Telus (g) % Telus

(mm) (g)
5.0 11

2.36 18

1.18 24

0.6 21

0.3 41

0.212 32

0.15 16

0.063 22

Panci 20
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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 6:

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 6:

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 Atterberg Limit

Consistency Relationship
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Plasticity Chart
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 Atterberg Limit
 Plastic Limit (PL)
 The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from
semisolid to plastic state
 Liquid Limit (LL)
 The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from
plastic to liquid state
 Shrinkage Limit (SL)
 The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from solid
to semi-solid state

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 Atterberg Limit

 Liquid Limit:
 Casagrande Method
 Cone Penetration Test

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 Atterberg Limit
 Plastic Limit

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 Atterberg Limit

 Plasticity Index (PI) – difference between the liquid limit and

plastic limit of a soil

 Liquidity Index (LI) – the relative consistency of a cohesive soil

in the natural state

 Activity (A) – Slope in the line correlating PI and percent finer

than 2µ

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 Contoh 7

Ujian had cecair dan had plastik bagi satu sampel tanah kelodak tak
organik telah dilakukan dan keputusannya didapati had cecair dan had
plastik masing-masing adalah 45% dan 35 %. Tentukan indeks keplastikan
tanah tersebut.

Penyelesaian:

Indeks Keplastikan, PI = Had Cecair (LL) – Had Plastik (PL)

= 45 % - 35 %
= 10 %

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 Contoh 8

Satu sampel tanah dari tapak bina didapati mempunyai

kandungan lembapan 33%. Apabila diuji untuk
mendapatkan had cecair dan had plastik didapati had
cecair 45% dan had plastik 31%. Tentukan indeks
kecairan (LI).

Penyelesaian:

Had Cecair, LI =

= 0.142
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 Contoh 9

Ujian had cecair dan had plastik bagi satu sampel tanah tak organik
telah dilakukan dan keputusannya didapati had cecair dan had plastik
masing-masing adalah 45% dan 35 %. Sampel tanah ini juga dilakukan
ujian hidrometer dan didapati 20% saiz zarahnya kurang dari 2 .
Tentukan aktiviti tanah tersebut.

Penyelesaian
Aktiviti, A =

= 0.5
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 Contoh 10

Ujian had cecair dan had plastik bagi satu sampel tanah kelodak tak
organik telah dilakukan dan keputusannya didapati had cecair dan had
plastik masing-masing adalah 45% dan 35 %. Tentukan keplastikan
tanah tersebut.

Penyelesaian

Indeks Keplastikan, PI = Had Cecair (LL) – Had Plastik (PL)

= 45 % - 35 %
= 10 %

Daripada carta keplastikan, didapati tanah ini adalah dari kumpulan ML.
Oleh itu tanah ini adalah tanah kelodak yang mempunyai keplastikan
rendah.

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 Cone Penetration Test
Exercise

Berikut adalah keputusan ujian kun penusukan pada suatu tanah jelekit.

Purata ketelusan (mm) 15.2 17.3 18.9 21.1 22.8

Purata kandungan lembapan % 33.4 42.6 49.2 59.4 66.8

(a) Tentukan had cecair tanah tersebut.

(b) Jika had keplastikan tanah itu adalah 33%, tentukan indeks
keplastikannya dan kelaskan tanah tersebut.

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 Penyelesaian

Lukiskan graf ketelusan melawan kandungan lembapan.

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 (a) Daripada graf, had cecair tanah adalah 54%.
( Kandungan lembapan adalah pada 20 mm kedalaman tusukan )

(b) Had cecair = 54%

Had plastik = 33%
Oleh itu, PI = LL - PL
= 54% - 33%
= 21%

Merujuk kepada carta keplastikan, tanah tersebut

dikelaskan sebagai MH

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Plasticity Chart for BSCS

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 Casagrande Method
Exercise

Data-data berikut adalah hasil dari ujian had cecair

dengan menggunakan kaedah casagrande bagi tanah
tanpa organik. Had plastik bagi tanah ini ialah 32%.

No. Ujian 1 2 3 4
Jisim tanah + tin (g) 48.61 55.53 51.71 50.51
Jisim tanah kering + tin (g) 41.19 46.05 42.98 41.54
Jisim tin (g) 17.33 17.41 17.45 17.36
Bilangan hentaman 34 27 22 17

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 Sekiranya kandungan lembapan tanah ditapak adalah 35%
dan setelah melalui analisis ayakan, didapati peratus tanah
liat adalah 40% .
Tentukan :-

i. had cecair
ii. indeks keplastikan
iii. indeks kecairan
iv. aktiviti tanah
v. jenis keplastikan tanah (dengan bantuan carta keplastikan)

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 Penyelesaian
Daripada data-data dalam jadual;
Kandungan lembapan boleh diperolehi dengan
menggunakan formula

m =
x 100%

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 No. Ujian 1 2 3 4

Jisim Tanah + Tin (g) W1 48.61 55.53 51.71 50.51

Jisim Tanah Kering + Tin (g) W2 41.19 46.05 42.98 41.54

Jisim Tin W3 17.33 17.41 17.45 17.36

Jisim Air ( W1 – W2 ) 7.42 9.48 8.73 8.97

Jisim Pepejal ( W2 – W3 ) 23.84 28.64 25.53 24.18

Kandungan Lembapan, m = X 31.1 33.1 34.2 37.1

100%

Bilangan Hentaman 34 27 22 17

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 (i) Daripada jadual had cecair = 34 %
( Kandungan lembapan adalah pada 25 bilangan hentaman )

(ii) Indeks keplastikan, PI = LL – PL

= 34% - 32%
= 2%

(iii) Indeks kecairan

Andaikan kandungan lembapan asal adalah %,
Indeks kecairan, LI =

= 1.5

(iv) Aktiviti = =

= 0.05

(iv) Daripada carta keplastikan, jenis tanah tersebut adalah dari kumpulan ML
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 Di mana,

CL = Tanah liat yang mempunyai keplastikan rendah

CH = Tanah liat yang mempunyai keplastikan tinggi

ML = Tanah kelodak yang mempunyai keplastikan rendah

MH = Tanah kelodak yang mempunyai keplastikan tinggi

OL = Tanah organik yang mempunyai keplastikan rendah

OH = Tanah organik yang mempunyai keplastikan tinggi

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 United Soil Classification System
(USCS)

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 Plasticity Chart for USCS

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 Definition of symbols of USCS

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 British Soil Classification System
(BSCS)

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 Definition of symbols of BSCS

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 Compaction
INTRODUCTION
 Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil
by removal of air from voids using mechanical
energy or equipment.
 The degree of compaction of soil is measured in
terms of its dry unit weight.
 In construction of highway embankments, earth
dams and many other engineering structures.

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Objectives of Compaction
 Increasing the bearing capacity of foundations;
 Decreasing the undesirable settlement of structures;
 Reduction in hydraulic conductivity;
 Increasing the stability of slopes.

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Factors Affecting Compaction
1. Water Content of soil
 As water is added to a soil (at low moisture content) it
becomes easier for the particles to move past one
another during the application of the compacting
forces.

 As the soil compacts the voids are reduced and this

causes the dry unit weight (or dry density) to increase.
This is because the water takes up the spaces that
would have been occupied by the solid particles.

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 Factors Affecting Compaction
2. Soil type
 The soil type – that is, grain-size distribution,
shape of soil grains, specific gravity of soil
solids, and amount and type of clay mineral
present has a great influence on the maximum
dry unit weight and optimum moisture content.

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 Factors Affecting Compaction
3. Compaction effort
 Increased compactive effort enables greater
dry unit weights to be achieved which because
of the shape of the no air voids line must occur
at lower optimum moisture contents.

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103
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 TYPES OF COMPACTION
1. Standard Proctor Compaction Test
(BS1377)
 Volume of mould: 1000cm3
 3 layers
 27 blows of each layer
 Hammer weigh: 2.5kg
 Drop 300mm

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 TYPES OF COMPACTION
2. Modified Proctor Compaction Test
(BS1377)
 Volume of mould: 1000cm3
 5 layers
 27 blows of each layer
 Hammer weigh: 4.5kg
 Drop 450mm

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TYPES OF COMPACTION
3. Relative Density Test
 determine the relative density of
cohesionless, free-draining soils using a
vibrating table. The relative density of a
soil is the ratio of the difference between
its maximum and minimum index void
ratios.

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TYPES OF COMPACTION
4. Sand displacement
 The Sand Density Apparatus is used to
determine the in-place density of any
soil that can be excavated to a stable
condition with hand tools.

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 Hubungan Antara Ketumpatan Kering dan
Kandungan Air .
Keadaan pemadatan tanah dalam sebutan ketumpatan
kering dan hubungannya dengan ketumpatan pukal dan
kandungaan air adalah seperti berikut :-

Ketumpatan kering, ρd =

Di mana, r = ketumpatan pukal.

w = kandungan lembapan.

Oleh itu, untuk menentukan pemadatan tanah, ketumpatan

pukal dan kandungan air sesuatu tanah perlulah di ketahui
terlebih dahulu.
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 Garis Ketepuan

Garis ketepuan juga dikenali sebagai garis lompang udara sifar. Ia

mewakili ketumpatan kering yang diperolehi jika semua udara didalam
tanah dapat dibuang, agar selepas pemadatan contoh tanah menjadi
tepu sepenuhnya.

Walaubagaimanapun keadaan ini tidak mungkin dicapai melalui

pemadatan samada di dalam makmal atau ditapak. Pada kebiasaanya
tanah mempunyai 5% atau 10% lompang udara selepas pemadatan.

Lengkuk garisan ketepuan boleh dilakarkan dalam graf pemadatan

dengan menggunakan formula berikut :

ρᵈ =

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 di mana :
Gs = Graviti tentu tanah
w = Kandungan air
rd = Ketumpatan kering
rw = Ketumpatan air
Ar = Lompang udara

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 Contoh 11

Satu ujian pemadatan Proctor piawai dijalankan terhadap satu

sampel tanah liat berpasir, keputusannya adalah seperti berikut :

Ketumpatan pukal ( kg/m3 ) 2060 2127 2154 2160 2142

Kandungan air ( % ) 12 14 16 18 20

(a) Lukiskan lengkung ketumpatan kering melawan kandungan air dan

dapatkan ketumpatan kering maksima dan kandungan air optimum.

(b) Kira kandungan air yang diperlukan untuk penepuan lengkap ketika
ρd maksima, sekiranya Gs = 2.7.

(c) Lukis juga garis lompang udara sifar dan garis lompang udara 5%.

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 11:
Contoh pengiraan :

Kandungan air, w = 12 %
Ketumpatan pukal, ρb = 2060 kg/m3


ρᵈ = 1  w

2060
ρᵈ = 1  0.12 = 1839 kg/m3

Kandungan air, w = 14 %
Ketumpatan pukal, ρb = 2127 kg/m3

ρᵈ = ____________

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 11:

Kandungan air, w ( % ) 12 14 16 18 20

Ketumpatan pukal, b 2060 2127 2154 2136 2053

Ketumpatan kering, d 1839

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 11:

Daripada graf :

ρᵈ maksima = 1865 kg/m3

Kandungan air optimum = 14.5 %
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 (b) Apabila ρᵈ = 1865 kg/m3 dan isipadu sample 1 m3, isipadu pepejal Vs diberi
oleh persamaan yang berikut :
Ms
Vs =
Gs w
1865 = 0.691 m3
Jadi isipadu pepejal =
2.7 x 1000

Isipadu air ketika sample tepu = 1 - 0.691 m3

= 0.309 m3

Jisim air ( tepu ) = Isipadu air x Ketumpatan air

= 0.309 x 1000 = 309 kg.

Kandungan air ketika sample tepu =

= 16.5 %

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 11:

(c) Merujuk kepada persamaan, ρd =

Untuk lompang udara sifar, Ar = 0%

Kandungan air , w % 12 14 16 18 20

ρd = 2039 1959 1885 1817 1753

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 11:

Untuk lompang udara, Ar = 5%

Kandungan air , w % 12 14 16 18 20

ρd = 1937 1861 1791 1726 1666

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 11:

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 Contoh 12

Keputusan ujian pemadatan ke atas suatu tanah diberikan dibawah :

Kandungan lembapan (%) 9.0 10.2 12.5 13.4 14.8 16.0

Ketumpatan pukal ( kg/m3 ) 1923 2051 2220 2220 2179 2096

Plotkan lengkung ketumpatan kering lawan kandungan lembapan dan tentukan

ketumpatan kering maksima dan kandungan lembapan optimum. Jika Gs
tanah adalah 2.68, tentukan peratus lompang udara pada ketumpatan kering
maksimum.

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SOLUTION EXAMPLE 12:

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 Final Exam 2012
a) Standard Proctor Test was done on sandy clay sample. The results are
as shown below:

Bulk Density(kg/m3)
1866 2019 2112 2136 2105 2065
Water Content(%)
9.4 11.5 13.5 15.1 17.1 19.9

i. Plot the curve of dry density against water content and obtain the maximum
dry density and optimum water content for the compacted soil.
(8 Marks)

ii. On the same axes, plot the dry density against water content curves for 0%
and 5% of air ratio. Given Gs = 2.7.
(8 Marks)

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Final Exam 2019

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 Determination of field unit weight
Sand cone method (ASTM D-1556 or AASHTO T-191)

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 Determination of field unit weight
Rubber balloon method (ASTM D-2167 or AASHTO T-205)

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 Determination of field unit weight
Nuclear method (ASTM D-2922)

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 Field Compaction
The common equipment used in field
compaction are:

1. Smooth wheel rollers;

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers;
3. Sheep foot rollers;
4. Vibratory rollers.

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 Field Compaction
Smooth Wheel Rollers or Smooth Drum Rollers
• Are suitable for thin layers and for finishing operations;
• Suitable for sandy and clayey soils;
• Provide 100% coverage;
• Ground contact pressure range (310-380) kN/m2 .

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 Field Compaction
Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers
• Have a series of rubber tires side-by-side instead of a smooth drum.
Compaction is achieved by a combination of weight and kneading action;
• Suitable for sandy and clayey soils;
• Provide (70-80) % coverage;
• Ground contact pressure range (600-700) kN/m2 .

130 AZMAN/JKA
 Field Compaction
Sheep foot Rollers
• Are drums with a large number of "sheep foot" projections. They are most
effective in compacting clayey soils;
• Most effective in clayey soils;
• Ground contact pressure range (1400-7000) kN/m2

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 Field Compaction
Vibratory Rollers
• Vibratory rollers work well in compacting granular soils. Vibratory action can be
attached to the all types of rollers.

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