CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

THE INTERCEPT METHOD OF SIGHT REDUCTION (ST. HILAIRE)

SQA: J05, J11, D12,N13, J16, O17, F18, J18

The practical needs of a Navigator to fix the ship’s position and check the error of the
compass by celestial observations can be served totally by the intercept method of sight
reduction. The intercept method can be used on any celestial body at any appropriate
time and the only limitation on its use are the recommended lower and upper limits on the
observed altitude, which apply to all observations regardless.

There is very little need to determine the Intercept Terminal Position in practise as
Intercepts can be plotted directly to give the ships position, but examinations still require
the ITP and it can be found by either plotting or by calculation using Plane Sailing.
The Zenith Distance should be calculated using the formula:

CosZX =CosLHA × SinPZ × SinPX +CosPZ × CosPX

Yes the same as the Great Circle distance formula!

There is an extra small step in calculating PZ (observers co lat) and PX (co dec of body).

The Intercept is the difference between the True and Calculated Altitude or Zenith
Distance and is named:
True Tiny Toward for Zenith Distance
True Tiny Away for Altitude
PLANNING AND TAKING SIGHTS
To make any Celestial observation we must:
i) be able to see the body; (e.g. the body may be obscured by cloud, there
may be too much background light, Ionospheric disturbance can distort the
passage of light)
ii) have a clear horizon above which to measure the Altitude. (e.g. there may
be too much or too little background light to see the horizon, the horizon
may be obscured by fog, haze, rain drizzle, there might not be a horizon due
to a flat calm sea)

ACCURACY OF AZIMUTH VS AMPLITUDES SQA: M07, N08

Azimuth accuracy is affected by the height of the celestial body above the horizon
(altitude), whereas Amplitudes accuracy is affected by the latitude (of the observer).

Accuracy of Azimuths

It is physically difficult to obtain an accurate compass bearing of a body with a high

altitude (when the sun is above/near above your head).
In addition, A high altitude equates to a small ZX circle and therefore the bearing is
changing very quickly.

The alternative Amplitude method of determining compass error also has an inherent flaw
when the observer is in higher latitudes.
Accuracy of Amplitudes
When taking an amplitude, the correct instant for the observation is when the true altitude
of the sun is zero. However due to refraction this is usually when the sun appears to the
observer as one semi-diameter above the visible horizon.
In low latitudes the path of the sun is almost vertical, but in high latitudes the path
of the sun has a horizontal component causing the bearing of the sun to change
quickly. Therefore, an amplitude at a high latitude such as 60°N/S should be used with
caution
Path of the Sun when rising or setting

High Latitudes Low Latitudes

Path of
Path of the Sun
the Sun

Horizon Horizon

So: In Low Latitudes there is a SMALL change in bearing for a LARGE change in Altitude.
But in High Latitudes there is a LARGE change in bearing for a SMALL change in Altitude.

In summary Amplitudes are less accurate in high latitudes, where an Azimuth might be
more suitable.
SELECTING SUITABLE STARS FOR TAKING A SIGHT
When observing stars the minimum number should be not less than 3, but ideally 4 or
more should be taken to obtain a reliably accurate fix. With 3 stars the optimum angle
between each position line (p/l) should be 120°; but with 4 or more stars we need to be
more selective.
If 4 or more stars are observed we can compensate for RANDOM errors, due to
Atmospherics or the quality of the horizon, by selecting stars in opposite quadrants (i.e.
p
/l‘s 180° apart). By choosing 2 pairs in opposite quadrants we should be able to achieve
a square Cocked Hat, where we are in the middle, and also have a high level of reliability.
Any further stars should be in the E/W or N/S plane to cross the Cocked Hat.

Altitudes of <15° should be avoided because of excessive refraction especially at times of

extreme temperature and pressure where abnormal refraction may occur. Areas such as
the Red Sea where proximity of land produces excessive terrestrial refraction and poor
meteorological conditions such as haze or fog can be offset by reducing the height of eye
and observing from the main deck.
Altitudes >70° should be avoided as the curve of the position circle becomes more acute
and also the dip of the bodies image in the sextant glass becomes less pronounced.

The sequence in which you take the sights should generally be from East to West, i.e. in
the morning the Easterly horizon appears and the stars are lost first and in the evening
the Easterly stars appear and the horizon is lost first.
FINDING WHICH STARS WE ARE AVAILABLE TO OBSERVE?

SQA: N06, N11,M13,N14,M15,D16,J17

“Morning twilight ends at sunrise, and evening twilight begins at sunset. The time of the
darker limit can be found from the almanacs. The time of the darker limits of both civil
and nautical twilights (centre of the Sun 6° and 12°, respectively, below the celestial
horizon) is given in the Nautical Almanac. The Air Almanac provides tabulations of civil
twilight from 60°S to 72°N. The brightness of the sky at any given depression of the Sun
below the horizon may vary considerably from day to day, depending upon the amount of
cloudiness, haze, and other atmospheric conditions. In general, the most effective
period for observing stars and planets occurs when the centre of the Sun is
between about 3° and 9° below the celestial horizon. Hence, the darker limit of
civil twilight occurs at about the mid-point of this period. At the darker limit of
nautical twilight, the horizon is generally too dark for good observations.”
(Bowditch, 2002)

In order to find which stars are available to be observed (using Sight Reduction Tables),
we need to determine an appropriate observable period. First work out the time of
Nautical Twilight (NT), Civil Twilight (CT) and Sunrise/Sunset (SR/SS), these can be either
UT or Local Time (LT).

The time from the Almanac is LMT and must be corrected for our Longitude – this will
then be UT; if we know the zone time we can apply it and have LT.
As Bowditch says NT is too dark and SR is too light it is reasonable to take the starting
time as half way between NT and CT and the finishing time half way between CT and SR.

Determine the LHA of Aries

Using the time of CT – look up the GHA of Aries (^) and the increments for the minutes,
apply the Longitude and this is the LHA^.

Example: what is the LHA^ on the 13th September at 0855 UT in position 32°N 058°E?
 GHA^ 0800 13/9 112°12.0’
Increment 55 minutes 13°47.3’
GHA^ 0855 13/9 125°59.3’
Longitude East 058°00.0’
LHA^ 0855 13/9 183°59.3’

USING THE SIGHT REDUCTION TABLES

[Also known as Air Navigation or Pre-computed Altitude Azimuth tables]

Entering with the whole degrees of Latitude and degrees of LHA of Aries, these tables give
7 stars that have been selected for their Azimuth spread and suitable Altitude.
The stars with ¸ are the best for a 3 star fix and their spread of Azimuth should be near
enough 120°, which we will see later that if the p/l’s create a “cocked hat” our position will
be inside the “cocked hat”.

To determine which stars to

use for a 4 star fix we need to
plot the Azimuths on a
compass rose.
Using 32°N and an LHA of
184° - state which 4 stars are
best suited for a 4 star fix?

As there is only 1 star in the SW quadrant (243°) if

344°
we do not use this star we have nothing from 054°
156° - 285° (129°). Opposite 243° is 054° this
285°
becomes our first pair. 084°
There are 2 other pairs of complementary stars –
108°/285° or 156°/344°; either pair could be
chosen, but 156°/344° would be a better angle 108°
243°
of cut.
156°
ERRORS IN POSITION LINES
Error may be classified in several ways i.e. small, large and blunders. However if the
errors are fairly small, we can often make calculated allowances for their effects.

Errors are divided into:

Systematic Errors
Errors which are inherent in a particular system of a fixed nature, always applied in the same way,
and which can often be predicted and allowed for, e.g. a scale incorrectly graduated will cause all
measurements made by that scale to have the same error. Others, such as sextant error applied
incorrectly to all sights, would be a systematic error.

Random Errors
Errors which are unpredictable as to their size or sign, or even their existence, are known as
variable or random errors, and cannot be corrected for within the system. Their effect can only be
estimated – e.g. human error, variable refraction, atmospheric interference and radio navigation
aids used near sunset.

Blunders
Huge errors which invalidate the data.

Most Probable Position (MPP)

The point judged to most likely represent the actual position of the ship at any one time. It is
based on the careful appraisal of all available data, including the proximity of danger to the vessel.

The “Cocked Hat” formed by astronomical position lines

If the error in the p/l’s is systematic, i.e. all three/four/or more p/l’s are affected by the same error
in the same direction (Towards or Away) then the cocked hat may be resolved into a single point.
This point may line inside or outside the cocked hat depending on the azimuths.
All 3 azimuths ARE NOT CONTAINED by 180° SQA: J07,J09,M18
If all the p/l’s are moved by the same amount in the same direction (T or A) then the internal
angles of the cocked hat will be bisected and the MPP is where the bisecting lines meet, the
“centre” of the cocked hat.

The following observations were made using DR 23° 50’N 25° 46’W. Find by plotting the vessels
position.

BODY AZIMUTH INTERCEPT

X 050° 4.5’ T
Y 167° 3.4’ A
Z 283° 3.7’ A

All 3 azimuths ARE CONTAINED by 180° SQA: J09

The p/l’s are all moved by the same amount in the same direction (T or A) and in this case the
MPP is where the bisecting lines meet, the “outside” of the cocked hat.

The following observations were made using DR 35° 50’N 60° 40’W. Find by plotting the vessels
position.

BODY AZIMUTH INTERCEPT

Arcturus 235° Nil
Regulus 137° 3.9’ A
Spica 198° 3.2’ A

Random Errors
If the errors in the p/l’s are random, i.e. the direction and/or size are different for each p/l then it
is not possible to resolve the cocked hat. In this case the MPP is taken at the centre of the
triangle.

Systematic and Random Errors

If both systematic and random errors exist the MPP is considered with other factors; i.e. poor
horizon, very low/high altitudes, proximity of dangers; and it is most likely the position nearest to
a danger will be assumed to be the MPP.
Running fix SQA: J10, M11,
A running fix may be 3, 4 or more stars observed and plotted out using the same DR or it might
be the Sun and a Planet or a morning sight of the Sun combined with either Meridian Passage or
an afternoon sight of the Sun. Whichever combination is presented we must resolve the p/l’s to a
common datum to establish the vessel’s position (MPP).

Sun-Run-Sun SQA: N09, N13

This method of fixing the vessel’s position involves 2 separate observations of the Sun, one at
Meridian Passage and the other either in the morning or in the afternoon, whichever method is
used one of the sights will have to be run to the time of the other. The morning or afternoon
sight is worked out to find the intercept and the azimuth and Meridian Passage Latitude is found
by combining the Meridian Zenith Distance and the Declination.
In the diagram:

(i) Latitude = Zenith Distance + Declination

(ii) Latitude = Zenith Distance – Declination

(iii) Latitude = Declination – Zenith Distance

There are further examples of these on Moodle.

(Cotter, 1977)

Works Cited
Bowditch, 2002. The American Practical Navigator. s.l.: National Imagery and Mapping Agency.
Cotter, 1977. The elements of Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. Glasgow: Brown, Son & Ferguson.
 CELESTIAL OBSERVATIONS
In each of the following observations find the direction of the position line and a position through which it
passes:

1. Time at ship: 1135 on the 11th April DR 21°16’S 70°34’E

Sext Alt of SUN’S LL 59° 26.0’
IE 2.5’ ON the arc H of E 14.7m
Chronometer 6h 50m 21s Error 1m 10s FAST

2. Time at ship: 2118 on the 8th July DR 68°48’N 00°07’E

Sext Alt of SUN’S LL 6°04.1’
IE 1.5’ ON the arc H of E 11.4m
Chronometer 9h 19m 05s Error 1m 10s SLOW
Atmospheric Pressure 1020mb Air Temperature 3°

3. Time at ship: 0356 on the 25th December DR 38°15’S 161°32’E

Sext Alt of REGULUS 39° 57.8’
IE 0.7’ ON the arc H of E 15.5m
Chronometer 5h 10m 35s Error 2m 10s FAST

4. Time at ship: 1930 on the 16th May DR 32°40’N 135°17’W

Sext Alt of PROCYON 34° 16.9’
IE 1.5’ OFF the arc H of E 21.0m
Chronometer 4h 26m 18s Error 2m 02s SLOW

5. Time at ship: 1715 on the 1st January DR 36°10’N 18°47’E

Sext Alt of MARS 34° 43.0’
IE 2.0’ ON the arc H of E 15.0m
Chronometer 3h 55m 13s Error 1m 20s SLOW

6. Time at ship; 1850 on the 3rd April DR 43°10’N 16°55’W

Sext Alt SATURN 24° 06.4’
IE NIL H of E 12.5m
Chronometer 7h 58m 20s Error 1m 10s FAST

In the following find the UT of meridian passage and the setting to put on the
sextant for Meridian Passage.
7. JUPITER
Date at ship: 3rd January DR 10°20’N 162°40’E
IE 1.5’ ON H of E 13.5m

8. SUN LL
Date at ship: 2nd April DR 41°53’N 62°40’W
IE 1.8’ OFF H of E 18.3m

9. JUPITER (SQA Almanac)

Date at ship: 19th March DR 55°04’N 104°57.3’E
IE 2.2’ OFF

From the following observation of POLARIS during evening twilight find the
direction of the position line and the latitude in which it cuts the DR longitude.
10. Date at ship: 20th June DR Long 74°28’W
Sext Alt 42° 36.4’
IE 2.6’ OFF the arc H of E 11.5m
Chronometer 01h 34m 00s Error Nil

11. Date at ship: 3rd April DR Long 134°38’W

Sext Alt 32°16.4’
IE 0.6’ OFF the arc H of E 11.5m
Chronometer 03h 09m 06s Error 3m 21s FAST

In each of the following observations find the Deviation for the ships head.
 12. Date at ship: 9th January DR 60°15’S 114°32’E
Sun set bearing 231°C Variation 6°W
Chronometer 1h 44m 20s Error NIL

13. Time at ship: 0200 1st October DR 30°17’N 112°30’E

Compass bearing of JUPITER 107° Variation 4°W
Chronometer 6h 29m 05s Error 0m 25s FAST

14. Calculate by the AMPLITUDE and AZIMUTH method the true bearing of the Sun near Sunset.
Date at ship: 30th September DR 50°20’N 175°10’E
Chronometer 6hr 22m 18s Error 2m 15s FAST

The following observations were made using DR 51°05’N 12°35’W, on a vessel

steering 251° at 18 knots. Find by plotting the vessels position at 0600.
TIME BODY AZIMUTH INTERCEPT
05 55 Dubhe 002° 0.3’ Towards
06 02 Capella 080° 3.4’ Away
06 07 Deneb 297° 3.6’ Towards

SQA: M02

A cruise ship is bound from the West Indies to Cape Town, and is steering 127º at 20 knots. At 0600 ship’s
time, the vessel’s DR position is 24º35'S 003º24'W, and despite cloudy conditions, the ship’s OOW manages
to obtain stellar sights spread over a period.

The DR position was used to calculate all four position lines.

Time Star Azimuth Intercept

0554 A 285º 2.0’ Towards
0603 B 262º 1.5’ Towards
0615 C 044º 4.0’ Away
0624 D 167º 10’ Towards

Find the vessel’s Most Probable Position at 0615.

SQA: M04

A vessel is in the North Atlantic, at evening twilight, and is steaming on a course 224°T at 15 knots and is in
DR position 46°30'N 017°40'W.

During this period the O.O.W. obtained stellar observations with the following results:

Time Star Azimuth Intercept

1822 A 270° 5.2' Towards
1826 B 143° 7.0' Away
1832 C 175° 4.4' Away
1840 D 330° 6.0' Towards

The DR was used in resolving each position line. Find the vessel's Most Probable Position at 1830.
In each of the following questions find the Latitude of the ship at Meridian Passage.
15. True Mer Alt of Alpheratz (Dec 28°43’N) is 62°07’S. A56°36’N

16. True Mer Alt of Betelguese (Dec 07°24’N) is 42°10’N. A40°26’S

17. 16th June, in DR Long 160° 45’W, the meridian altitude of the Sun’s lower limb was 63° 15.0’S,
Index Error Nil, Height of Eye 11.9m.

18. 23rd September, in DR Long 78° 25’W, the meridian altitude of the Sun’s lower limb was 45° 12.0’S,
Index Error 1.0’ (On the arc), Height of Eye 8.9m.

19. 17th June, in DR Long 72° 28’E, Altair bearing due South had a sextant altitude of 48° 20.0’S, Index
Error 1.0’ (Off the arc), Height of Eye 8.1m.

Sun Run Sun

20. The Master on a vessel at anchor requests that the OOW practices celestial navigation and
instructs him to verify the vessels position by plotting Meridian Passage against a position line
obtained from a morning sight of the sun.

Date 15 June 0840hrs UT

Anchor position 51°41.0’N 009°27.0’W

Sextant Altitude SUN’s lower limb 36°39.1’

Index Error (Off the arc) 0.5’
Height of Eye 13.0m

a) Calculate EACH of the following:

i) The direction of the position line.
ii) The intercept.

b) At meridian passage the OOW observes the sextant altitude of the SUN’s lower limb on the meridian
as 61°27.8’
i) Calculate the latitude at Meridian Passage.
ii) Determine the vessel’s observed position at Meridian Passage.

21. At 08:20:00 UT on 24 March while in position 55°25.0’N 002°16.0’E steering 220°T x 12.0kts the
OOW makes an observation of the SUN’s lower limb.

Sextant Altitude 20°22.3’

Index Error (On the arc) 0.3’
Height of Eye 12.4m

a) Calculate EACH of the following:

i) The direction of the position line.
ii) The intercept.

b) At 12:00:00 UT the OOW observes the sextant altitude of the SUN’s lower limb on the meridian as
36°22.5’
i) Calculate the latitude at Meridian Passage.
ii) Determine the vessel’s observed position at Meridian Passage.

2) At 08:20:00 Ships time on 29 September while in position 35°15.0’S 085°47.0’W steering 045°T x
20.0kts the OOW makes an observation of the SUN’s lower limb.
 Sextant Altitude 30°14.7’
Index Error 0.0’
Height of Eye 15.0’
Chronometer 01h 55m 10s Chronometer error (slow) 2m 15s

a) Calculate EACH of the following;

i) The direction of the position line
ii) The intercept

b) At Meridian Passage the OOW observes the sextant altitude of the SUN’s lower limb on the meridian
as 57°57.7’
i) Calculate the latitude at Meridian Passage
ii) Determine the vessel’s observed position at Meridian Passage

c) By graphical means, derive;

i) The vessel’s position at 12:00 (Noon) ships time

Here are some additional SQA questions featuring the Sun, Moon and Venus:

Jul 2005 Q.4;

Nov 2009 Q.4;
Jul 2011 Q.2
Nov 2013 Q.3
July 2016 Q.2
PRO FORMA INTERCEPT METHOD

Date: DR Lat DR Long

Local time D Hr M GHA ° ‘

LiT Hr M Inc ° ‘
Approx UT D Hr M GHA ° ‘
Long ° ‘
Chron D Hr M S LHA ° ‘
Error (+/-) M S
UT D Hr M S Dec ° ‘
D cor’n ‘
Sext Alt ° ‘ Dec ° ‘ N/S
I.E. ° ‘
P
Obs Alt ° ‘
HoE (Dip) ‘
App Alt ° ‘
T.cor’n ° ‘
True Alt ° ‘
P
90° 00.0 ‘ B
TZX ° ‘ A LHA
CZX ° ‘
Intercept ‘ T/A

TTT True Tiny Towards Z

X

MCA Formula sheet has following:

Cos AB = (Cos P x Sin PA x Sin PB) + (Cos PA x Cos PB)

Therefore Cos ZX = (Cos LHA x Sin PZ x Sin PX) + (Cos PZ x Cos PX) see note1 below

A= Tan Lat = N/S B= Tan Dec = N/S

Tan LHA see note 2 below Sin LHA see note 3 below

C = (A +/- B) and named the same as the greater value

Tan Azimuth = 1 Azimuth = N/S °E/W

(C x Cos Lat) P/L = °/ °

Notes:
1) When Lat and Dec in different hemispheres then 90° minus for the greater value and 90° plus for the
smaller value; exactly the same as great circle crossing the equator

2) A named opposite to Latitude except when hour angle is between 90° and 270°
3) B always named the same as the Declination

4) Azimuth named N/S as per C correction and E/W as per Hour angle
Hour angle 0° to 180° named West and Hour angle 180° to 360° named East
Sextant corrections

Star/Sun/Planet Star/Sun/Planet S
Intercept method Meridian Passage P

Sext Alt ° ‘ Sext Alt ° ‘ S

I.E. ° ‘ I.E. ° ‘ I
Obs Alt ° ‘ Obs Alt ° ‘ O
HoE (Dip) ‘ HoE (Dip) ‘ H
App Alt ° ‘ App Alt ° ‘ A
T.cor’n ° ‘ T.cor’n ° ‘ T
True Alt ° ‘ True Alt ° ‘ T

All the same to this point All the same to this point A

~ 90° 00.0 ‘ ~ 90° 00.0 ‘

TZX ° ‘ TZX ° ‘ a
CZX ° ‘ Declination ° ‘ a
Intercept ‘ T/A Latitude ° ‘ a
L
Azimuth Azimuth 360° / 180°
Position line Position line 270° / 090° A
P

TTT True Tiny Towards for ZX

Therefore;
TTA True Tiny Away for True Altitudes