Vocabulary

Vocabulary

Lexical Choice Involving Parts of Speech

Lexical Choice Involving Parts of Speech

Nominalisations
Nominalisations

English often displays a strong tendency to prefer verbal rather than nomi¬
English often displays a strong tendency to prefer verbal rather than nomi
nal constructions in order to express its meaning. This may be illustrated
nal constructions in order to express its meaning. This may be illustrated
by means of the following alternatives:
by means of the following alternatives:
la. *We humans do not have any influence on our death. Those who wish
la. *We humans do not have any influence on our death. Those who wish to live a
long time often die in their 30s, while those who do not care
to live a long time often die in their 30s, while those who do not care about
longevity tend to live to a ripe old age.
about longevity tend to live to a ripe old age.
lb. We humans do not have any influence on how and when we die.... lb. We humans
do not have any influence on how and when we die.... Of the two formulations

ourdeath (la) and how and when we die (lb) only

Of the two formulations our death (la) and how and when we die (lb ) only
the latter is in keeping with English idiom.
the latter is in keeping with English idiom.

Let us now consider the following four sentences:

Let us now consider the following four sentences:
2a. All our efforts are aimed at the improvement of quality.
2a. All our efforts are aimed at the improvement of quality.
2b. All our efforts are aimed at the improving of quality.
2b. All our efforts are aimed at the improving of quality.
 2c. All our efforts are aimed at improving quality.
2c. All our efforts are aimed at improving quality.
2d. All our efforts aim to improve quality.
2d. All our efforts aim to improve quality.

In the first sentence improvement is a noun pure and simple, albeit one
In the first sentence improvement is a noun pure and simple, albeit one
that is derived etymologically from the verb improve. To many English
that is derived etymologically from the verb improve. To many English
people the sentence would sound highly formal, even unnatural. In terms
people the sentence would sound highly formal, even unnatural. In terms
of registerit might be found in an annual report, or in a statement delivered
of register it might be found in an annual report, or in a statement
delivered by a president or chairperson on a highly formal occasion.
by a president or chairperson on a highly formal occasion.

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The second sentence (2b) contains the gerund improving preceded by The second al, and from nominal to verbal structures. Sentence 2a represents a style
al, and from nominal to verbal structures. Sentence 2a represents a
sentence (2b) contains the gerund improving preceded by 13.
style 'writing that is frequently felt to be alien to English idiom.
lucky ' writing that is frequently felt to be alien to English idiom.
For those people who do not happen to be the owners of a car, trains are easiest and
quickest uggested Exercises (1):
means of travelling.
uggested Exercises (1):
5 article the and modified by the preposition of. It islessformal than the
5 article the and modified by the preposition of. It is less formal than the
ewrite the sentences below using verbal structures to replace or modify
st sentence. ewrite the sentences below using verbal structures to replace or modify le
st sentence. italicised words. Avoid using gerunds wherever possible.Example:
The third sentence (2c) again contains the gerund improving, which is i e italicised words. Avoid using gerunds wherever possible. Example:
The third sentence (2c) again contains the gerund improving, which is a. The existence of this tendency is beyond all doubt.
Uowed by the direct object quality. It is even lessformal than the second a. The existence o f this tendency is beyond all doubt.
llowed by the direct object quality. It is even less formal than the tendency
b. It is beyond all doubt that this exists.
second ntence. b. It is beyond all doubt that this tendency exists.
ntence.
1. An answer to this question is not simple.
The fourth sentence (2d) uses a very different structure, namely the
1. An answer to this question is not simple.
The fourth sentence (2d) uses a very different structure, namely the
2. Our foundation invites you to participation in a correspondence course.
finitive to improve, governed by the verb aim. Of all the sentences it is 2. Our foundation invites you to participation in a correspondence course. 3. TV is
finitive to improve, governed by the verb aim. Of all the sentences it is e not only an ideal source of information but the easiest way of manipu¬
least formal of all. 3. TV is not only an ideal source of information but the easiest way o f manipu lation
e least formal of all. as well.
The four sentences represent a gradation: from the formal to the infor lation as well.
The four sentences represent a gradation: from the formal to the infor 4. It is enough to get on a bus to be a witness of many discussions about politics.
4. It is enough to get on a bus to be a witness o f many discussions about politics. 5. The
purpose of the course is the preparation of the students for a conscious
of
infrequent example ‘translationese’:
5. The purpose of the course is the preparation ofxhe students fo r a conscious and
critical use of the language.
and critical use o f the language. The importance of paraphrasing will be familiar to any experienced
6. The Royal Family was opposed to the King’s marriage to a divorcee. trans lator. Let us look at the following sentence, which is an extreme but
6 . The Royal Family was opposed to the K ing’s marriage to a divorcee. 7. not infrequent example of ‘translationese’:
Such a man is an unsuitable representative of a country and its people.
7. Such a man is an unsuitable representative o f a country and its people. 8. 3a. *The knowledge of the principles of correct usage of a language is very
Another mistake often made by parents is lack of trust in children.
important.
8. Another mistake often made by parents is lack o f trust in children. 9. 3a. *The knowledge of the principles of correct usage
The attaining of Enlightenment is the wish of every Buddhist. of a language is very important.
9. The attaining o f Enlightenment is the wish o f every Buddhist. 0. A good Characterised by three o/-phrases one after the other, the sentence is all too
teacher must be patient, as the necessity of repeating the same
0. A good teacher must be patient, as the necessity o f repeating the same English and
information several times over is quite common in this job. typical of a text that has been translated into mechanically
information several times over is quite common in this job.
1. Poles may be critics of priests and question some of the Church’s teachings, without any attempt to make the ‘end product’ truly readable. Of course there
1. Poles may be critics of priests and question some of the Church’s teachings, but
they love the Pope. are various ways in which the above sentence may be improved and, by
but they love the Pope.
2. Unfortunately some teenagers stop their development at the stage of adoles¬ exemplifies
2. Unfortunately some teenagers stop their development at the stage o f adoles cence. implication, the mistake which it avoided. Here are just
cence.
two possibilities:
>0 Characterised by three o/-phrases one after the other, the sentence is all
>0 too typical of a text that has been translated into English mechanically
13. For those people who do not happen to be the lucky owners o f a car, trains are the and without any attempt to make the ‘end product’ truly readable. Of
the easiest and quickest means of travelling. course there are various ways in which the above sentence may be
14. The improvement and more intensive utilisation of the railways would have the improved and, by implication, the mistake which it exemplifies avoided.
Here are just two possibilities:
significant know
effect of a decrease in traffic congestion. 3b. In any language it is very important to the principles that determine
14. The improvement and more intensive utilisation o f the railways would have the
effect of a significant decrease in traffic congestion. usage. principles
correctness of 3c. Knowing the determining correct usage is very
15. The failure of the engine persisted, and we thought we would be stuck there.
15. The failure o f the engine persisted, and we thought we would be stuck there. The in
important any language.
of trans¬ 3b. In any language it is very important to know
importance paraphrasing will be familiar to any experienced the principles that determine correctness of usage.
3c. Knowing the principles determining correct usage is very important in any
not language.
lator. Let us look at the following sentence, which is an extreme but

Suggested
Exercises (2):
 Suggested Exercises (2): of
4. The factors determining life expectancy can easily be identified by means a
or
Rewrite the following sentences using verbal structures to replace modify comparison of the present century with former epochs.
the 4. The factors determining life expectancy can easily be identified by means o f a
italicised words: comparison o f the present century with former epochs.
Rewrite the following sentences using verbal structures to replace or computer’s
modify the italicised words: 5. The theme of this essay is the invasion of every sphere of our

globalisation of private
1. One shortcoming of is the danger domination of small countries domain.
by 5. The theme of this essay is the computer’s invasion o f every sphere of our private
multinational concerns. domain.
1. One shortcoming of globalisation is the danger of domination o f small
of of the
6. With the decline established values people seem to have lost the feeling
countries by multinational concerns.
necessity of doing good deeds.
2. A teacher must be capable of fair judgement of students asindividuals. 3. Such problems 6. With the decline of established values people seem to have lost the feeling o f the
necessity o f doing good deeds.
of
are a consequence unawareness of the full significance of the situation.
2. A teacher must be capable of fairjudgem ent o f students as individuals. 3. Such
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problems are a consequence of unawareness o f the full significance of the situation.
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. The incredible sharpness of the senses of cats makes them react to paranor¬
. The incredible sharpness o f the senses o f cats makes them react to paranor mal phenomena.
mal phenomena.
.. We run a serious risk of a loss of our traditional, rather conservative values.
. We run a serious risk of a loss o f our traditional, rather conservative values. '. The new developments in archaeology resulted in the consideration of the
The new developments in archaeology resulted in the consideration o f the possibility of coexistence of groups of people as reflected through numerous
possibility o f coexistence o f groups o f people as reflected through numerous ancient cultures.
ancient cultures.

Yet notwithstanding all the above remarks, nominalisation remains an

Yet notwithstanding all the above remarks, nominalisation remains an mportant stylistic option for any serious writer of English. Let us compare
mportant stylistic option for any serious writer of English. Let us compare he following two alternative sentences:
he following two alternative sentences:
4a. TV can lead to family life becoming impoverished.
4a. TV can lead to family life becoming impoverished.
4b. TV can lead to the impoverishment of family life.
4b. TV can lead to the impoverishment of family life.
5a. If there is an emergency, call 999.
5a. If there is an emergency, call 999.
5b. In the event of an emergency call 999.
5b. In the event of an emergency call 999.
iVhich of the two we prefer will be largely determined by our sense of
vVhich of the two we prefer will be largely determined by our sense of egister, the second of each being more formal than the first. This diffe
egister, the second of each being more formal than the first. This diffe ence of register is especially obvious in 5a-b: if, as is likely, the context is
ence of register is especially obvious in 5a-b: if, as is likely, the context is tn official notice in a telephone booth, then only 5b will be appropriate.
m official notice in a telephone booth, then only 5b will be appropriate. And if we compare the following two sentences:
And if we compare the following two sentences:
6a. Pharaoh was chastised because he refused to release the Israelites.
6a. Pharaoh was chastised because he refused to release the Israelites. 6b. Pharaoh was chastised for his refusal to release the Israelites.
6b. Pharaoh was chastised for his refusal to release the Israelites. iVe see that the first sentence uses a verbal construction which is rather
we see that the first sentence uses a verbal construction which is rather simplistic and more appropriate for a children’s tale, while the latter might
simplistic and more appropriate for a children’s tale, while the latter might oe considered typical of any “adult” context.
3e considered typical of any “adult” context.

Adverbs vs. Verbs

Adverbs vs. Verbs
In the previoussection it was pointed out that English often displays a striking
In the previous section it was pointed out that English often displays a striking tendency to favour verbal rather than nominal constructions in order to
ex¬
tendency to favour verbal rather than nominal constructions in order to ex press its meaning. The same predilection, albeit less marked, is also to be
press its meaning. The same predilection, albeit less marked, is also to be found when there is a choice between a verbal construction and an adverbial
found when there is a choice between a verbal construction and an adverbial expression. This may be illustrated by means of the following
alternatives:
expression. This may be illustrated by means of the following alternatives:

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la. Although the artist’s works apparently enter the surrealist
la . Although the artist’s works apparently enter the surrealist
convention, they are closer to the poetry of children’s dreams.
convention, they are closer to the poetry of children’s dreams.
lb. Although the artist’s works appearto enter....
lb . Although the artist’s works appear to enter....
2a. This castle was supposedly built by Ulrich von Falkenberg
2a. This castle was supposedly built by Ulrich von Falkenberg around 1440.
around 1440.
2b. This castle is supposed to have been built by....
2b. This castle is supposed to have been built by....

In each of the above alternatives, the second (lb, 2b) would be widely
In each of the above alternatives, the second (lb , 2b) would be widely considered to be more in keeping with English idiom.
considered to be more in keeping with English idiom.
It is especially at the beginning of the sentence that English often pre¬
It is especially at the beginning of the sentence that English often pre fers a verbal construction where other languages might use an adverbial
fers a verbal construction where other languages might use an adverbial expression. Compare the following alternatives:
expression. Compare the following alternatives:
3a. Possibly he will be there tomorrow, but it is far from certain.
3a. Possibly he will be there tomorrow, but it is far from certain. 3b. It is possible that he will be there tomorrow....
3b. It is possible that he will be there tomorrow....
4a. Undoubtedly there have been huge changes in public awareness
4a. Undoubtedly there have been huge changes in public awareness of the environment. Evidently the environment has become
of the environment. Evidently the environment has become
a key concern.
a key concern.
4b. There can be no doubt that there have been huge changes in
4b. There can be no doubt that there have been huge changes in public awareness of the environment. It is evident / obvious that
public awareness of the environment. It is evident / obvious that the environment has become a key concern.
the environment has become a key concern.
5a. To begin with, the writer discusses new developments in
5a. To begin with, the writer discusses new developments in
e-commerce and the Internet, giving a detailed presentation
e-commerce and the Internet, giving a detailed presentation
of the current situation. Next he examines how advances
of the current situation. Next he examines how advances
in information technology will affect our lives.
in information technology will affect our lives.
5b. The writer begins by discussing new developments...
5b. The writer begins by discussing new developments...
He goes on to examine....
He goes on to examine....

In each of the above alternatives, the latter (3b, 4b, 5b) would be widely
In each of the above alternatives, the latter (3b, 4b, 5b) would be widely considered to be more typical of English idiom.
considered to be more typical of English idiom.
Sometimes, however, a verbal construction and an adverbial expression
Sometimes, however, a verbal construction and an adverbial expression are equally possible. Compare the following:
are equally possible. Compare the following:
6a. Each lesson was crammed with theory. As a result
6a. Each lesson was crammed with theory. As a result
students attended classes reluctantly.
students attended classes reluctantly.
6b. ...As a result students were reluctant to attend classes.
6b. ...As a result students were reluctant to attend classes.
7a. The new proprietors have decided to specialise in conferences
7a. The new proprietors have decided to specialise in conferences and training courses. Obviously they have not forgotten
and training courses. Obviously they have not forgotten
about individual clients, who will be as welcome as always.
about individual clients, who will be as welcome as always.
7b. ..Jt goes without saying that they have not forgotten about
7b. .. J t goes without saying that they have not forgotten about individual clients....
individual clients....

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8a. Our physicalsurroundings exert a considerable influence on
8a. Our physical surroundings exert a considerable influence on our attitudes. Apparently city life is much more attractive
our attitudes. Apparently city life is much more attractive
for those who are tired of life in the country.
for those who are tired of life in the country.
8b. ...It would appear that city life is much more attractive for those
8b. ...It would appear that city life is much more attractive for those who are tired of life in the country.
who are tired of life in the country.
;n
in cases where both verbal and adverbial options exist, it is important
;n in cases where both verbal and adverbial options exist, it is important emember that the former may well be more appropriate to the particular
emember that the former may well be more appropriate to the particular itext.
itext.

cording to, In accordance with

cording to, In accordance with
elated problem involves the excessive use or misuse of the expressions
elated problem involves the excessive use or misuse of the expressions wording to and in accordance with. Compare the following alternatives,
wording to and in accordance with. Compare the following alternatives, which the second is preferable by far:
which the second is preferable by far:
la. According to Catholic dogma the Pope is infallible.
la . According to Catholic dogma the Pope is infallible.
lb. Catholic dogma holds that the Pope is infallible.
lb . Catholic dogma holds that the Pope is infallible.
2a. In accordance with my personal experiences I believe that
2a. In accordance with my personal experiences I believe that life in the country can offer many attractions.
life in the country can offer many attractions.
2b. My personal experiences have taught me that....
2b. M y personal experiences have taught me that....
3a. In accordance with an old belief fresh air, forests and fields
3a. In accordance with an old belief fresh air, forests and fields have a positive influence.
have a positive influence.
3b. It is an old belief that fresh air....
3b. It is an old belief that fresh air....
4a. Freud came up with a theory according to which dreams mirror
4a. Freud came up with a theory according to which dreams mirror the passions which are concealed in the subconscious.
the passions which are concealed in the subconscious.
4b. Freud came up with a theory which holds that dreams mirror.... 4b. Freud came up with a theory which holds that dreams mirror....
roper Adjectives
roper Adjectives

frequent error of non-native writers of English is to use proper adjec

frequent error of non-native writers of English is to use proper adjec es where English would prefer nouns {European vs Europe, British vs
es where English would prefer nouns (European vs Europe, British vs itain etc). Contrast the following sentences:
itain etc). Contrast the following sentences:
a. has one of the most magnificent British beaches.
a. ^Blackpool has one of the most magnificent British beaches. b. Blackpool has one of Britain’s most magnificent beaches.
b. Blackpool has one of Britain’s most magnificent beaches. c. Blackpool has one of the most magnificent beaches in Britain.
c. Blackpool has one of the most magnificent beaches in Britain. lly b and c are really in accordance with English idiom.
ily b and c are really in accordance with English idiom.
Suggested
Exercises (3):
Suggested Exercises (3):
Improve or correct the following sentences:
Improve or correct the following sentences:
1. Philadelphia is one of the biggest American cities.
1. Philadelphia is one of the biggest American cities.
2. The various European cultures have been intermingling for thousands of
2. The various European cultures have been intermingling for thousands of years.
years.
3. Such an observation is certainly true of the Polish young generation.
3. Such an observation is certainly true of the Polish young generation. 4. The Spencers are one of the most aristocratic British families.
4. The Spencers are one of the most aristocratic British families. Of course, there is a place in the English language for proper adjectives,

Of course, there is a place in the English language for proper adjectives, as in the following examples:
as in the following examples:
The Chinese economy grew by one percent last month.
The Chinese economy grew by one percent last month.
The British attitude to tradition is unlike any other.
The British attitude to tradition is unlike any other.
The strikers have brought the French transportation system to a standstill.
The strikers have brought the French transportation system to a standstill. But above all, it simply cannot be taken for granted that a proper adjective
But above all, it simply cannot be taken for granted that a proper adjective in the native language is to be rendered by the corresponding
grammatical
in the native language is to be rendered by the corresponding grammatical form in English. Since the rules governing use are elusive, the only
advice
form in English. Since the rules governing use are elusive, the only advice is to proceed carefully.
is to proceed carefully.

Adjectives vs. Prepositional Modifiers Adjectives vs. Prepositional Modifiers

English sometimes uses a prepositional postmodifier where other languages
English sometimes uses a prepositional postmodifier where other languages may prefer an adjectival expression. Compare the following
alternatives,
may prefer an adjectival expression. Compare the following alternatives, of which only the second (lb) is standard English:
of which only the second (lb) is standard English:
la. Mary has a golden heart.
la . Mary has a golden heart,
lb. Mary has a heart of gold.
lb . Mary has a heart of gold.
This observation does not, however, imply that the use of an adjective
This observation does not, however, imply that the use of an adjective instead of a prepositional postmodifier is generally less typical of English;
instead of a prepositional postmodifier is generally less typical of English; the choice is simply dictated by idiom, on a case-by-case basis. The fol¬
the choice is simply dictated by idiom, on a case-by-case basis. The fol lowing instances merit attention:
lowing instances merit attention:
literary figures.
2. The cafe was a meeting place for many
2. The cafe was a meeting place for many literary figures.
3. The Poet Laureate is a renowned man of letters.
3. The Poet Laureate is a renowned man of letters.

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"he above sentences exemplify set phrases. Thus we say “literary figure”
"he above sentences exemplify set phrases. Thus we say “literary figure” >ut “man of letters”. By contrast “figure of letters” is not English, while
>ut “man of letters”. By contrast “figure of letters” is not English, while literary man” is highly informal at best.
literary man” is highly informal at best.
The point can be further illustrated by means of the following altema
The point can be further illustrated by means of the following altema ive sentences:
ive sentences:
4a. Many Cubans dream of escaping communist reality.
4a. Many Cubans dream of escaping communist reality.
4b. Many Cubans dream of escaping the reality of communism.
4b. Many Cubans dream of escaping the reality of communism. n the above alternatives there is no obvious difference of meaning: they
n the above alternatives there is no obvious difference of meaning: they vould appear to reflect differing stylistic preferences and are equally
vould appear to reflect differing stylistic preferences and are equally :orrect.The important thing to remember is that what in other languages
:orrect. The important thing to remember is that what in other languages s expressed adjectivally may need to be rendered quite differently in
s expressed adjectivally may need to be rendered quite differently in inglish.1
inglish.1

Suggested Exercise (4):

Suggested Exercise (4):
'n the following sentences choose the most appropriate alternative:
'n the following sentences choose the most appropriate alternative: I . Such a child will never listen to any critical words / words of criticism.
I. Such a child will never listen to any critical words / words of criticism. >. That was the moment Eastern Europe embarked upon its democratic path /
>. That was the moment Eastern Europe embarked upon its democratic path / path to democracy.
path to democracy.

1
One aspect of the above phenomenon relates to the use of proper nouns and adjectives
1 One aspect of the above phenomenon relates to the use of proper nouns and adjectives (“European” versus “of Europe” etc), discussed above, p. 24f.
(“European” versus “of Europe” etc), discussed above, p. 24f.

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Frequent Problems with Specific Lexical
Items Frequent Problems with Specific
Lexical Items
Belong
Belong

The verb to belong is frequently a cause of problems. It is used to express

The verb to belong is frequently a cause of problems. It is used to express membership of a clearly defined family, class or community, as in the fol¬
membership of a clearly defined family, class or community, as in the fol lowing examples:
lowing examples:
Tigers belong to the cat family.
Tigers belong to the cat family.
English belongs to the Germanic group of languages.
English belongs to the Germanic group of languages.
The composer belonged to a secret organisation.
The composer belonged to a secret organisation.

Note how in each of these examples the subject (tigers, English, the com¬
Note how in each of these examples the subject (tigers, English, the com poser) “belongs” to something that is grammatically singular {the cat fam¬
poser) “belongs” to something that is grammatically singular (the cat fam ­ily, the Germanic group of languages, a secret organisation). The verb to
ily, the Germanic group o f languages, a secret organisation). The verb to belong cannot be used as a synonym of “to be one of’. Consider the fol¬
belong cannot be used as a synonym of “to be one o f ’. Consider the fol lowing alternatives:
lowing alternatives:
belong
i. *The Habsburgs to Europe’s most ancient dynasties.
i. *The Habsburgs belong to Europe’s most ancient dynasties. ii. The Habsburgs are one of Europe’s most ancient dynasties.
ii. The Habsburgs are one of Europe’s most ancient dynasties. iii. The Habsburgs are among Europe’s most ancient dynasties.
ranked)
iii. The Habsburgs are among Europe’s most ancient dynasties. iv. The Habsburgs rank fare to be among etc.
iv. The Habsburgs rank (are to be ranked) among etc.
among
v. The Habsburgs are to he numbered (counted) etc.
v. The Habsburgs are to he numbered (counted) among etc.
Sentence i is simply un-English.
Sentence i is simply un-English.

Suggested Exercises (5):

Suggested Exercises (5):

Correct the following sentences,rephrasing them in any suitable manner:

Correct the following sentences, rephrasing them in any suitable manner: 1. Dunes belong to the characteristic features of the Baltic littoral.
1. Dunes belong to the characteristic features of the Baltic littoral. 2. These monuments belong to those most often visited by lovers of art.
2. These monuments belong to those most often visited by lovers of art. 3. Frankly, the Joneses do not belong to those people who have fastidious tastes.
3. Frankly, the Joneses do not belong to those people who have fastidious tastes. 4. According to the latest computer-based analyses the BMJ belongs to the top
4. According to the latest computer-based analyses the BM J belongs to the top three most prestigious journals in the world.
three most prestigious journals in the world.
5. Visiting the poor and chairing various charity organisations belonged to her
5. Visiting the poor and chairing various charity organisations belonged to her many duties.
many duties.

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Sensitivity, intelligence and tolerance also belong to the qualities of a good
Sensitivity, intelligence and tolerance also belong to the qualities of a good teacher.
teacher.
Health and happiness belong to the most precious things in life.
Health and happiness belong to the most precious things in life. The murder mysteries of Agatha Christie belong to the most popular books
The murder mysteries of Agatha Christie belong to the most popular books ever written.
ever written.
Diet belongs to the most crucial factors in human longevity.
Diet belongs to the most crucial factors in human longevity.

let
*et
et is the most overused verb in the English language, often being used
et is the most overused verb in the English language, often being used here other verbs are more suitable. In all except informal contexts its
here other verbs are more suitable. In all except informal contexts its /erase generally creates an impression of slovenliness, and its misuse leaves
/erase generally creates an impression of slovenliness, and its misuse leaves t impression of illiteracy. Look at the following sentence pairs, in each
1 impression of illiteracy. Look at the following sentence pairs, in each f which the word get is replaced by an alternative:
f which the word get is replaced by an alternative:

. acquire
. acquire
got
a. Many politicians have a reputation for corruption.
a. Many politicians have got a reputation for corruption.
b. Many politicians have acquired a reputation for corruption.
b. Many politicians have acquired a reputation for corruption. . become
. become
a. Getting acquainted with other cultures broadens the mind.
Becoming
a. Getting acquainted with other cultures broadens the mind. b. acquainted with other cultures broadens the mind.
b. Becoming acquainted with other cultures broadens the mind. . derive
. derive
a. It is from there that he gets most of his income.
a. It is from there that he gets most of his income.
b. It is from there that he derives most of his income.
b. It is from there that he derives most of his income.

. grow
. grow
gets
a. When one considers all these contradictions, one simply confused.
grows
a. When one considers all these contradictions, one simply gets confused. b. When one considers all these contradictions, one simply
b. W hen one considers all these contradictions, one simply grows confused.
6. obtain
6. obtain
a. There is no better way than TV of getting information on recent events.
a. There is no better way than TV of getting information on recent events. b. There is no better way than TV of obtaining information on recent
b. There is no better way than TV of obtaining information on recent events.
events.

7. possess
7. possess
got
a. Few of the village doctors have adequate medical equipment.
possess
a. Few of the village doctors have got adequate medical equipment. b. Few of the village doctors adequate medical equipment.
b. Few of the village doctors possess adequate medical equipment. In the above examples each of the first sentences (a) is informal or con¬

In the above examples each of the first sentences (a) is informal or con versational, while each of the second (b) is characteristic of more serious
versational, while each of the second (b) is characteristic of more serious writing.
writing.

Suggested Exercises (6):

Suggested Exercises (6):
Replace get in the following sentences ( in some of them a verb other than
Replace get in the following sentences (in some o f them a verb other than those listed above may be possible):
those listed above may be possible):
1. Politicians often try to get access to television-studios.
1. Politicians often try to get access to television-studios.
2. A good psychologist has got intuition.
2. A good psychologist has got intuition.
3. All too easily people get lazy and prefer sitting in their armchairs.
3. All too easily people get lazy and prefer sitting in their armchairs. 4. One gets the impression that the world is moving ever faster.
4. One gets the impression that the world is moving ever faster. 5. Many people desire to get truly educated.
5. Many people desire to get truly educated.
6. A mature person never tries to get out of facing the consequences of his
6 . A mature person never tries to get out of facing the consequences of his actions.
actions.
7. The paparazzi will chase anybody to get some interesting and sensational
7. The paparazzi will chase anybody to get some interesting and sensational material.
material.
8. People may get anxious because of these economic problems.
8. People may get anxious because of these economic problems. 9. One can easily get something interesting for oneself out of the programme
9. One can easily get something interesting for oneself out of the programme offered.
offered.
10. Ethical standards have got a historical aspect to them.

. have . have
confused.
10. Ethical standards have got a historical aspect to them. 1 1. The older one gets the wiser one becomes.
11. The older one gets the wiser one becomes.
got
a. My grandmother has a special way of dealing with unwelcome
a. My grandmother has got a special way of dealing with unwelcome guests.
guests.
b. My grandmother has a special way of dealing with unwelcome guests. b. My grandmother has a special way of dealing with unwelcome guests.

;8
12. It is possible to get a great deal of satisfaction from reading books.
12. It is possible to get a great deal of satisfaction from reading books. 13. When trains are delayed for so long people often get furious.
13. When trains are delayed for so long people often get furious.

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-merge, Happen, Occur, Prove, Turn Out zmerge, Happen, Occur, Prove, Turn Out
Tiese verbs are very often confused,since their meanings largely overlap. Tiese verbs are very often confused, since their meanings largely overlap.
(to be)
d. Sadly the dog proved vicious and had to be put down.
d. Sadly the dog proved (to be) vicious and had to be put down. e. That argument proved to be the last straw:John left home.
e. That argument proved to be the last straw: John left home. (= Later on it became clearthat that argument had been the last straw.)
(= Later on it became clear that that argument had been the last straw.) N.B.

N.B.

. happen
. happen
his verb emphasises the element of chance and fortune. The following
his verb emphasises the element of chance and fortune. The following entences exemplify various constructions with this verb:
entences exemplify various constructions with this verb: la. He happens to have the same birthday as myself.
la. He happens to have the same birthday as myself.
(= It is an interesting coincidence that he has...)
(= It is an interesting coincidence that he has..)
lb. Tt so happens that he has the same birthday as myself.
lb. It so happens that he has the same birthday as myself.
2. This equipment will be of use to you wherever you happen to be.
2. This equipment will be of use to you wherever you happen to be. (= wherever you may be)
(= wherever you may be)
happens, a member of our club.
3. He is, as it
3. He is, as it happens, a member of our club.
(= It is a remarkable coincidence that...)
(= It is a remarkable coincidence that...)
4. It quite often happens that the school’s heating system breaks down. 4. Tt quite often happens that the school’s heating system breaks down.

occur
!. occur
"his verb has two principal meanings that are very different from each
"his verb has two principal meanings that are very different from each tther.
>ther.
1. When did this event occur? (= take place)
1. When did this event occur? (= take place)
2. It just did not occur to him that his best friend had
2. It just did not occur to him that his best friend had
let him down. (= He did not realise...)
let him down. (= He did not realise...)

<.B. In neither of these two meanings is occur interchangeable with the

sf.B. In neither of these two meanings is occur interchangeable with the 'erbs prove and turn out, being quite distinct from them. The phrase *“It
'erbs prove and turn out, being quite distinct from them. The phrase *“It tccurs that...” does not exist.
)ccurs that...” does not exist.

1. prove, turn out

f. prove, turn out
rhese two verbs differ especially in terms of register. Prove is more for
rhese two verbs differ especially in terms of register. Prove is more for nal. In the following sentences prove and turn out are interchangeable,
nal. In the following sentences prove and turn out are interchangeable, lepending on the degree of formality:
lepending on the degree of formality:
(to be)
a. The new secretary proved incompetent.
a. The new secretary proved (to be) incompetent.
(to be)
b. That battle proved decisive. (= Later on it became clearthat
b. That battle proved (to be) decisive. (= Later on it became clear that that battle...)
that battle...)
 (to be)
c. The supplies that they had prepared proved inadequate. c. The supplies that they had prepared proved (to be) inadequate.

50
10
After prove the verb to be can often be left out (especially when followed
After prove the verb to be can often be left out (especially when followed by an adjective, as in examples a-d.). This omission is not generally possi¬
by an adjective, as in examples a-d.). This omission is not generally possi ble with turn out:
ble with turn out:
a. The new secretary turned out to be incompetent.
a. The new secretary turned out to be incompetent.
(Not: *“tumed out incompetent”)
(Not: *“tumed out incompetent”)
b. The film turned out to be awful and we left halfway through.
b. The film turned out to be awful and we left halfway through. (“ proved awful” is more formal and much less likely.)
(“proved awful” is more formal and much less likely.)
c. He turned out to be a gifted artist.
c. He turned out to he a gifted artist.
(“ proved to be” is much more formal.)
(“proved to be” is much more formal.)

4. It turns out that..., It emerges that..., It transpires that...

4. It turns out that..., It emerges that..., It transpires that... These phrases generally mean “It becomes apparent that....” The first of
These phrases generally mean “It becomes apparent that....” The first of the three is much more common than the other two:
the three is much more common than the other two:
a. It often turns out that our dreams have little to do with reality.
a- It often turns out that our dreams have little to do with reality. Transpire and emerge are used especially when a secret, above all a scan¬
Transpire and emerge are used especially when a secret, above all a scan dalous secret, comes to light.Transpire is of a higher register than emerge.
emerges
dalous secret, comes to light. Transpire is of a higher register than emerge. b. From my talks with the new chairperson it that the firm is
b. From my talks with the new chairperson it emerges that the firm is on the verge of bankruptcy.
on the verge of bankruptcy.
c. It now transpires that the director has been embezzling money
c- It now transpires that the director has been embezzling money for many years.
for many years.

Suggested Exercises (7):

Suggested Exercises (7):

1. Such mistakes can sometimes - fatal.

Fill the gaps in the following sentences:
2. Yesterday
I
- to meet Mr Jones at the post office. He had some

Fill the gaps in the following sentences:

1. Such mistakes can som etim es--------- fatal.

3. His attitude - to be incompatible with his daughter’s.

2. Yesterday I ----------to meet M r Jones at the post office. He had some amazing news about our common friend.

4. From evidence that has newly come to light

amazing news about our common friend.
- the Rosenbergs were

3. His attitude----------to be incompatible with his daughter’s.

5. Generally such children - to be completely maladjusted.

4. From evidence that has newly come to lig h t----------the Rosenbergs were indeed Soviet spies.
indeed Soviet spies.
5. Generally such children----------to be completely maladjusted.

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Malaria
7. especially in wanner climates.

6. the number of accidents at that nuclear plant is out of all proportion

6 . --------- the number of accidents at that nuclear plant is out of all proportion to its size.
to its size.

Nowadays,
- we are more interested in the lives of our favourite TV

7. M alaria----------especially in warmer climates.

evenings when
9. We all know those we have nothing to do but sit in
 family members had more time for each other.
8. Before TV was discovered

8 . Before TV was discovered family members had more time for each other. Nowadays,----------we are more interested in the lives of our favourite TV 10. The

complicated than I thought.

-
subject
more

characters.
characters.

-
9. We all know those evenings w hen----------we have nothing to do but sit in 11. When she finally did contact her parents it that her father had died

an armchair and read a book.

an armchair and read a book.
10. The subject----------more complicated than I thought.
11. When she finally did contact her parents i t ----------that her father had died a few months earlier.
a few months earlier.

Namely and Related Expressions Namely and Related Expressions

The adverb namely is generally used to introduce short phrases, as in the
The adverb namely is generally used to introduce short phrases, as in the following examples:
following examples:
1. Let me focus on a key issue facing Europe nowadays,
1. Let me focus on a key issue facing Europe nowadays,
namely expansion of the EU.
namely expansion of the EU.
2. Let us turn to a problem thatso fascinated Freud,
2. Let us turn to a problem that so fascinated Freud,
namely the way dreams reflect our subconscious.
namely the way dreams reflect our subconscious.
In addition namely may be used to introduce a clause involving a non
In addition namely may be used to introduce a clause involving a non finite verb:
finite verb:
3. Both parents and teachers have the same task to perform
3. Both parents and teachers have the same task to perform
namely to educate a rising generation.
—
— namely to educate a rising generation.
In this last example, but not in 1-2, which is is also possible instead of
In this last example, but not in 1-2, which is is also possible instead of namely.
namely.
3a. Both parents and teachers have the same task to perform,
3a. Both parents and teachers have the same task to perform,
which is to educate a rising generation.
which is to educate a rising generation.
A recurrent error is to write sentences of the following types:
A recurrent error is to write sentences of the following types: 4. *This paper will be examining one of the greatest
4. *This paper will be examining one of the greatest
modem health hazards, which is air pollution.
modem health hazards, which is air pollution.

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32
5. *Kurt claimed that in life there is something that goes beyond
5. *Kurt claimed that in life there is something that goes beyond money and — it isfreedom and independence.
fame
money and fame — it is freedom and independence.
In both of the above sentences the word namely should be substituted:
In both of the above sentences the word namely should be substituted: 4a. ...namely air pollution.
4a. ...namely air pollution.
5a. ...namely freedom and independence.
5a. ...namely freedom and independence.
Namely is seldom used to introduce a sentence, the following passage
Namely is seldom used to introduce a sentence, the following passage exemplifying a recurrent error:
exemplifying a recurrent error:
6. *Our language has recently been deluged with English borrowings.
Namely
6. *Our language has recently been deluged with English borrowings. a man selling drugs is a ‘dealer’, someone who constructs
Namely a man selling drugs is a ‘dealer’, someone who constructs new buildings is a ‘developer’, while McDonalds and Kentucky
new buildings is a ‘developer’, while McDonalds and Kentucky Chicken are examples of ‘fast foods’.
Chicken are examples of ‘fast foods’.
In the above example Namely is impossible and needs to be replaced by
In the above example Namely is impossible and needs to be replaced by Thus.
Thus.
Other related phrases, include in other words, to be more specific, and
(often
Other related phrases, include in other words, to be more specific, and that is to say shortened to i.e.). It is important to remember that
that is to say (often shortened to i.e.). It is important to remember that namely is not used very frequently in contemporary English, other options
namely is not used very frequently in contemporary English, other options being preferred.
being preferred.
Namely and i.e.
Namely and i.e.
These two expressions differ in one other important respect. While both
These two expressions differ in one other important respect. While both aim to clarify, only namely makes the meaning more specific. Compare
aim to clarify, only namely makes the meaning more specific. Compare the following:
the following:
a. This summer we visited Stonehenge and Avebury, i.e. two prehistoric
a. This summer we visited Stonehenge and Avebury, i.e. two prehistoric sites.
sites.
b. This summer we visited two prehistoric sites, namely Stonehenge and
b. This summer we visited two prehistoric sites, namely Stonehenge and Avebury.
Avebury.

Suggested Exercises (8):

Suggested Exercises (8):

1 -
. In any family business the board of directors has only one primary goal,

How can the following sentences be best completed?

How can the following sentences be best completed?

2. There is one city in Central -

Europe,
Berlin, where Europe’s postwar

1. In any family business the board of directors has only one primary goal, the wellbeing of the whole clan.
the wellbeing of the whole clan.
2. There is one city in Central Europe,----------Berlin, where Europe’s postwar divisions have been most clearly highlighted.
divisions have been most clearly highlighted.

33
33
r

them -
seriously.
he does not help Amy to develop her interests, but

Although Mr Jones knows what his daughter’s interests are, he does not treat
 -
Although Mr Jones knows what his daughter’s interests are, he does not treat The healthiest way to eat fruit is the opposite of the conventional way,
them seriously.----------he does not help Amy to develop her interests, but rather tries to project his own ambitions onto her.
rather tries to project his own ambitions onto her.

Man has another feature that animals

lack,
- the possibility of rising

The healthiest way to eat fruit is the opposite of the conventional w ay,------ one should have it before the main meal, rather than after.
one should have it before the main meal, rather than after.

Natural aptitude is indispensable for being a good teacher. - it is not

Man has another feature that animals lack,----------the possibility of rising above the instincts.
above the instincts.

Let us focus on the most important benefit of living in the

country,
— -thf

Natural aptitude is indispensable for being a good teacher.----------it is not enough to possess a knowledge of a particular subject.
enough to possess a knowledge of a particular subject.

The Princess also mentions some of the gossip. - she notes that a book
Let us focus on the most important benefit of living in the country, —------- th< abundance of fresh air.
abundance of fresh air.

The Princess also mentions some of the gossip.----------she notes that a book - to promote good neighbourly relations.

by an erstwhile friend of hers is to a great extent fantasy.

by an erstwhile friend of hers is to a great extent fantasy.
The Government has always pursued the same judicious foreign policy,
The Government has always pursued the same judicious foreign policy, --------- to promote good neighbourly relations.

asy, Difficult, Possible, Impossible

asy, Difficult, Possible, Impossible

tese words may govern infinitival constructions, but these must be in the
iese words may govern infinitival constructions, but these must be in the Jive, not the passive voice:
tive, not the passive voice:

orrect:
orrect:
With the Internet the world has become easier to comprehend.
With the Internet the world has become easier to comprehend,

tcorrect:
icorrect:
With the Internet the world has become easier to be comprehended. With the Internet the world has become easier to be comprehended. asy and difficult, possible and

impossible share one particular construe

asy and difficult, possible and impossible share one particular construc on involving the infinitive. Compare the following sentences.
easy / difficult / possible / impossible to decipher our secret code.
on involving the infinitive. Compare the following sentences. 1. It is

1. It is easy / difficult / possible / impossible to decipher our secret code. 2a. Our secret code is easy to decipher.
2a. Our secret code is easy to decipher.
2b. Our secret code is difficult to decipher.
2b. Our secret code is difficult to decipher.

4
4
2c. *Our secret code is possible to decipher.
2c. *Our secret code is possible to decipher.
2d. Our secret code isimpossible to decipher.
2d. Our secret code is impossible to decipher.

Most English people would reject 2c as being ungrammatical, whatever

Most English people would reject 2c as being ungrammatical, whatever the context; in addition, some would also avoid using 2d in written con¬
the context; in addition, some would also avoid using 2d in written con texts.
texts.
The following variant of this construction is also used, involving
The following variant of this construction is also used, involving a subject of the infinitival clause being introduced by for (sentences 3a
a subject of the infinitival clause being introduced by fo r (sentences 3a and 3b):
and 3b):
(difficult possible impossible)
3a. It is easy / / foi the Enemy
3a. It is easy (difficult / possible / impossible) for the Enemy
to decipher our secret code.
to decipher our secret code.
3b. It is not possible for anyone to achieve this goal.
3b. It is not possible for anyone to achieve this goal.

A typical mistake, if we turn to 3b, is to write a sentence such as the fol¬

A typical mistake, if we turn to 3b, is to write a sentence such as the fol lowing:
lowing:
3c. *This goal is not possible to achieve by anybody.
3c. *This goal is not possible to achieve by anybody.

Suggested Exercises (9):

Suggested Exercises (9):

Construct sentences from the following elements, modifying them where

Construct sentences from the following elements, modifying them where necessary, e.g.:
necessary, e.g.:
information
a. Such + BE + impossible + to obtain from any book.
a. Such information + BE + impossible + to obtain from any book. b. It is impossible to obtain such information from any book.
b. It is impossible to obtain such information from any book.
1. Such prosperity + BE + impossible + to achieve within a few years.
1. Such prosperity + BE + impossible + to achieve within a few years. 2. If hope + BE + possible + to market, it would have a value higher than
2. If hope + BE + possible + to market, it would have a value higher than diamonds.
diamonds.
3. The area is wet and therefore + difficult + to plough.
3. The area is wet and therefore + difficult + to plough.
4. These things are priceless but + possible + to obtain for free.
4. These things are priceless but + possible + to obtain for free. 5. These things + BE + not possible + to experience until recently.
5. These things + BE + not possible + to experience until recently. 6. Skiing + BE + almost impossible + anyone + to learn at such an age.
6 . Skiing + BE + almost impossible + anyone + to learn at such an age. 7. Such books BE + not easy + to read.
7. Such books BE + not easy + to read.
8. Such bad memories + BE + impossible + to erase within a short time.
8. Such bad memories + BE + impossible + to erase within a short time. 9. Ethnic conflicts are inherently intractable and + impossible + to solve only by
9. Ethnic conflicts are inherently intractable and + impossible + to solve only by bombing.
bombing.

35
35

ralue
ralue
 misused, asin the following examples (la and 2a):
his word is also often
value,
his word is also often misused, as in the following examples (la and 2a): la. *Human life is the greatest and doctors should stop at nothing

la . *Human life is the greatest value, and doctors should stop at nothing to preserve it.
to preserve it.
Nothing is more valuable than human life, and doctors should
lb.
lb . Nothing is more valuable than human life, and doctors should stop at nothing to preserve it.
stop at nothing to preserve it.

2a. *We underestimate many values in our lives. The most important
2a. *We underestimate many values in our lives. The most important ones, like health and peace of mind, cannot be purchased at any
ones, like health and peace of mind, cannot be purchased at any price.
price.
many things
2b. We underestimate the importance of in our lives.
2b. We underestimate the importance of many things in our lives. Those like health and peace of mind cannot be purchased at any price.
Those like health and peace of mind cannot be purchased at any price. i lb and 2b the word value has been replaced by a paraphrase, while in
i lb and 2b the word value has been replaced by a paraphrase, while in b the paraphrasing has even necessitated rewriting the following sen-
b the paraphrasing has even necessitated rewriting the following sen ;nce.
jnce.
Often, thus, the use of value is either unnecessary or inappropriate.
)ther
Often, thus, the use of value is either unnecessary or inappropriate. expressions (e.g. thing, element, aspect, quality, blessing, benefit
)ther expressions (e.g. thing, element, aspect, quality, blessing, benefit tc.) or even paraphrases should also be considered.
tc.) or even paraphrases should also be considered.

iuggested Exercises (10):

iuggested Exercises (10):
7ind better alternatives to the word value in the following sentences, para¬
7ind better alternatives to the word value in the following sentences, para phrasing wherever appropriate:
phrasing wherever appropriate:
. Are we really able to find any positive values among all those shown on TV?
. Are we really able to find any positive values among all those shown on TV? Literature still has a number of values that cannot be replaced.
Literature still has a number of values that cannot be replaced. i. Our ancestors were able to preserve the most important values of culture,
i. Our ancestors were able to preserve the most important values of culture, despite all the wars and calamities.
despite all the wars and calamities.
L People often have fight for such priceless values asfreedom and peace.
music, legends, literature and art are eternal values which
L People often have fight for such priceless values as freedom and peace. >. Europe’s traditional
i. Europe’s traditional music, legends, literature and art are eternal values which are respected by all cultured people.
are respected by all cultured people.
3. For many a clear conscience is the most important value in life. 3. For many a clear conscience is the most important value in life.
36
36
Citizen
Citizen

This word generally has a very restricted technical meaning, occurring pri¬
This word generally has a very restricted technical meaning, occurring pri marily in legal contexts:
marily in legal contexts:
1. All British citizens aged 18 or over have the right to vote.
1. All British citizens aged 18 or over have the right to vote.
Citizen also has the meaning of “city dweller”, as in the following sen¬
Citizen also has the meaning of “city dweller”, as in the following sen tence:
tence:
2. Citizens of Philadelphia have a wide variety of cultural events
2. Citizens of Philadelphia have a wide variety of cultural events to choose from.
to choose from.

This second example would, however, strike many, if not most English
This second example would, however, strike many, if not most English people as very stiff and formal, and needs rewriting:
people as very stiff and formal, and needs rewriting:
People in Philadelphia have a wide variety of cultural events
People in Philadelphia have a wide variety of cultural events
to choose from.
to choose from.

Thus, citizens can very often be circumvented by such expressions as “lo¬

Thus, citizens can very often be circumvented by such expressions as “lo cal people”, “people who live in that place”, “inhabitants”, “townsfolk”,
cal people”, “people who live in that place”, “inhabitants”, “townsfolk”, “the general public”, “ordinary people” etc.
“the general public”, “ordinary people” etc.

Suggested Exercises (11):

Suggested Exercises (11):
Paraphrasing where necessary, find better alternatives to citizen in the fol¬
Paraphrasing where necessary, find better alternatives to citizen in the fo l lowing sentences, in which the word is typically misused:
lowing sentences, in which the word is typically misused: 1. Country life is often despised by citizens who feel superior to villagers.
1. Country life is often despised by citizens who feel superior to villagers. 2. This question is of interest both to specialists and to average citizens.
2. This question is of interest both to specialists and to average citizens. 3. For long JFK’s memory was revered and American citizens did not subject
3. For long JFK’s memory was revered and American citizens did not subject his lifestyle to close scrutiny.
his lifestyle to close scrutiny.
4. The Internet could change the lives of citizens as much as the telephone,
4. The Internet could change the lives o f citizens as much as the telephone, the radio and the TV have done.
the radio and the TV have done.
5. An hour’s walk in the open will guarantee a satisfactory level of fitness for
5. An hour’s walk in the open will guarantee a satisfactory level of fitness for the average adult citizen.
the average adult citizen.

37
37
5. An Englishman in Amsterdam will have little difficulty in communicating
5. An Englishman in Amsterdam will have little difficulty in communicating with the local citizens.
with the local citizens.
7. These old traditions strike us as being increasingly exotic, just as they do
7. These old traditions strike us as being increasingly exotic, just as they do western citizens.
western citizens.
8. Politicians should be role models for ordinary citizens.
8. Politicians should be role models for ordinary citizens.
9. Many of the citizens of Rome live elsewhere during the summer months.
9. Many o f the citizens o f Rome live elsewhere during the summer months. 0. Hundreds of years ago the Latin language was widely known and spoken
0. Hundreds of years ago the Latin language was widely known and spoken among educated citizens of our country.
among educated citizens of our country.

Selected Structural Peculiarities

Selected Structural Peculiarities

Appositions (I)
Appositions (I)

An apposition (literally “placing at”) occurs, for example, in the following

An apposition (literally “placing at”) occurs, for example, in the following sentence:
sentence:
Maijorie, my nephew’s wife, runs a boutique.
Maijorie, my nephew’s wife, runs a boutique.

The noun phrase “my nephew’s wife” is in apposition to “Marjorie”. In

The noun phrase “my nephew’s wife” is in apposition to “Marjorie”. In other words, an apposition is when a descriptive word or phrase is con¬
other words, an apposition is when a descriptive word or phrase is con nected to the word or phrase that it describes without the use of conjunc¬
nected to the word or phrase that it describes without the use of conjunc tions or prepositions. Appositions do, unfortunately, tend to be a thorn in
tions or prepositions. Appositions do, unfortunately, tend to be a thorn in the flesh for many non-native writers of English,since meaning, punctua¬
the flesh for many non-native writers of English, since meaning, punctua tion, and the use of the article all come into play. Let us consider the fol¬
tion, and the use of the article all come into play. Let us consider the fol lowing sentence:
lowing sentence:
la. When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals.
la . When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals.
Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.
Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.
In sentence la the phrase Celtic and Rangers is obviously in apposition
In sentence la the phrase Celtic and Rangers is obviously in apposition to the phrase two arch-rivals.The sentence’sstructure could be made much
to the phrase two arch-rivals. The sentence’s structure could be made much clearer by inserting the word namely.
clearer by inserting the word namely.
When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals,
When the cup final was held between two arch-rivals,
namely Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.
namely Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.
The following (lb) is an alternative formulation:
The following (lb ) is an alternative formulation:
lb. When the cup final was held between the two arch-rivals
lb. When the cup final was held between the two arch-rivals
Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.
Celtic and Rangers, many people expected trouble.

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39