Resistance to Vehicle Motion

Resistance to Vehicle Motion

During the movement of a vehicle, resistive forces
arise that must be overcome by engine power.

1. Rolling resistance
2. Air resistance
3. Gradient resistance
4. Acceleration resistance

𝐹𝑇 =𝐹𝑅 +𝐹𝐴 +𝐹𝐺 +𝐹𝐴𝐶

 Rolling Resistance 𝐹𝑅
Most common causes of rolling resistance
applied to a wheel in motion are:

• tire deformation
• friction between tire and road surface
• wheel friction with surrounding air
• friction in the wheel hub and bearings
• road surface deformation
 Rolling Resistance 𝐹𝑅

Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (90%)
2. Tire penetration and surface compression ( 4%)
3. Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel ( 6%)
4. Wide range of factors affect total rolling resistance
 Rolling Resistance 𝐹𝑅
We are going to focus on the rolling resistance caused by the tire
and road in this course.

• As a tire flexes when it rotates, friction between molecules causes

energy to be converted to heat. This is known as hysteresis loss.
Such loss accounts for the majority of all rolling resistance in a tire
(approximately 90%).
 Rolling Resistance 𝐹𝑅
• When force is applied to rubber (viscoelastic body), energy is
converted to heat and then lost as the shape changes.
 Rolling Resistance 𝐹𝑅

In the image above: N [N] – normal reaction force, W [N] – weight force acting on the
wheel and ω [rad/s] – angular speed of the wheel.
 Rolling Resistance 𝐹𝑅

When the tire is stationary, the distribution of the normal force N [N] in the contact patch
is symmetric with respect with the vertical axis of the wheel. However, when the wheel is
in motion (rotating), the normal force distribution is not anymore symmetric but
concentrates in the front of the wheel, towards the direction of motion. This makes the
resultant force N [N] to create a resistive rolling torque, which will try to slow down the
wheel.
 Rolling Resistance 𝐹𝑅

When the tire is stationary, the distribution of the normal force N [N] in the contact patch
is symmetric with respect with the vertical axis of the wheel. However, when the wheel is
in motion (rotating), the normal force distribution is not anymore symmetric but
concentrates in the front of the wheel, towards the direction of motion. This makes the
resultant force N [N] to create a resistive rolling torque, which will try to slow down the
wheel.
 How to calculate rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅

• Let’s assume we have a vehicle which has front-wheel drive (FWD). The rear wheels
are going to be pulled along, through the chassis.

• Therefore, there will be a pulling force Fp acting in the wheel hub, which will force the
wheel to rotate.

• As explained previously, due to asymmetric force distribution in the contact patch,

there is going to be a normal force N [N] acting on the tire, at the distance a [m] from
the vertical axis of the tire.
 How to calculate rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅

• Let’s assume we have a vehicle which has front-wheel drive (FWD). The rear wheels
are going to be pulled along, through the chassis.

• Therefore, there will be a pulling force Fp acting in the wheel hub, which will force the
wheel to rotate.

• As explained previously, due to asymmetric force distribution in the contact patch,

there is going to be a normal force N [N] acting on the tire, at the distance a [m] from
the vertical axis of the tire.
 How to calculate rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅

• The force N is the vertical component of a resultant force going through the tire’s
centre of rotation.

• The horizontal component of that resultant force, acting in the contact patch, which is
trying to slow down the tire is exactly the rolling resistance force FR.
 How to calculate rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅

• Since the wheel is in equilibrium, the sum of forces on the x-axis, the sum of forces
on the y-axis and the sums of torques acting around the centre of the wheels are all
zero.
How to calculate rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅

• x-axis forces equilibrium

ΣFx = 0

Fp – FR = 0

Fp = FR
How to calculate rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅

• y-axis forces equilibrium

ΣFy = 0

N–W=0

N=W
How to calculate rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅

• torques equilibrium

ΣT = 0

FR · rW – N · e = 0

e
FR = .W
rW
How to calculate rolling resistance 𝐹𝑅

e
FR = .W
rW
e
is the rolling resistance coefficient f
rW
 Influencing Factors
• The rolling resistance coefficient of a tire depends on tire
construction, materials, air pressure, vehicle speed, and
road conditions. In general, for low vehicle speeds, the
value of rolling resistance coefficient is constant.
 Air Resistance Fa

• Any body which moves through a fluid (gas or liquid) is opposed by a

resistance force called aerodynamic drag force.
• The same principle applies for road vehicles, when moving, due to
the interaction with the surrounding air, a resistive force develops
which tries to stop the vehicle from moving.
• This force, called aerodynamic drag force, increases in magnitude
with the speed of the vehicle and depends on the shape and size of
the car body.
 Air Resistance Fa

• Aerodynamic drag is an important aspect of the vehicle design

because it has direct impact on the vehicle’s energy consumption and
performance (especially at high speed).
 Air Resistance 𝐹𝑎
Composed of:
1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)
2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators
and air vents (3%)

from National Research Council Canada

 How to calculate air resistance Fa
• When the vehicle is moving through the air, it creates a dynamic
pressure in front of the vehicle, which further develops into a drag
force. The aerodynamic drag force acting on a vehicle while moving is
approximated by the following formula.

1
𝐹𝑎 = 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑣 2
2

𝐹𝑎 [N] – aerodynamic drag force

𝐶𝐷 [-] – aerodynamic drag coefficient
A [m2] – maximum cross-section area of the vehicle
ρ [kg/m3] – air density (equal to 1.202 kg/ m3 for dry air at 20 °C and
101.325 kPa)
v [m/s] – vehicle speed
Air Resistance Ra
 Drag coefficient
• The aerodynamic drag coefficient has a major influence on the
aerodynamic drag force. In general, the drag coefficient can be
defined as the aerodynamic quality of the shape of a body in a
flow. Depending on the shape of the body, the drag coefficient can
vary a lot.
 Drag coefficient
• The lower the drag coefficient, the lower the
aerodynamic drag force of the vehicle, the higher the
energy efficiency.

• The optimal aerodynamic shape, which has the lower

drag coefficient is the shape of a water drop (Cd = 0.04).
Due to the air friction, the water drop is forced to take
the shape which has lowest resistance in contact with
the air, hence it has the lowest drag coefficient.
 Drag coefficient
• The drag coefficient depends on the body type of the vehicle and
on the parts of the vehicle mounted on the exterior surfaces, like:
roof rack, mud flaps, rear spoiler, side mirrors, radio antenna and
windshield wipers.
 Gradient Resistance Fg
• Resistance experienced by vehicle when moving
upward on a gradient or hilly road
• Vehicle moving upward on gradient
• Vehicle weight ‘W’ acting vertically downwards
 Gradient Resistance Fg
• Weight ‘W’ can be resolved into horizontal (H)
and vertical (V) components
• To prevent the vehicle to move backwards a
force equal and opposite to ‘H’ must be
applied
• ‘H’ is the resistance to the gradient
• It depends on the steepness of the gradient
(angle Ѳ) and the weight of the vehicle
 Gradient Resistance Fg
Composed of
– Gravitational force acting on the vehicle
𝐹𝐺 =W.sin 𝜃𝑔
θg
For small angles, sin  g  tan  g
𝐹𝐺 =W.tan 𝜃𝑔
Fg
tan 𝜃𝑔 =𝜌
𝐹𝐺 =W.𝜌
θg W
 Acceleration Resistance 𝐹𝑎𝑐
• The acceleration resistance Fb is a resistance that must be overcome
during acceleration of a vehicle.
• It consists of the forces necessary for the acceleration of rotating and
translational masses.
𝜃𝑖 .𝛼𝑅
𝐹𝑎𝑐 =m.𝑎 + σ
𝑟𝑤
𝑚– vehicle mass
𝑎– linear acceleration
σ 𝜃𝑖 – mass moment of inertia of the rotating masses in the drive
system reduced to the wheel axis
𝛼𝑅 – angular acceleration of wheel
𝑟𝑤 – dynamic radius of wheel
 Acceleration Resistance 𝐹𝑎𝑐
𝜃𝑖 .𝛼𝑅
𝐹𝑎𝑐 =m.𝑎 + σ
𝑟𝑤
• As stated in the formula, when examining the acceleration resistance
of a vehicle, linear moving and rotating parts should be considered
separately.
• While linear moving parts move with vehicle speed, rotating parts
rotate at different angular velocities.
• For ease of calculations, parts rotating with engine and propeller
shaft speed are reduced to wheel speed.
 Acceleration Resistance 𝐹𝑎𝑐
𝜃𝑖 .𝛼𝑅
𝐹𝑎𝑐 =m.𝑎 + σ
𝑟𝑤
• As stated in the formula, when examining the acceleration resistance
of a vehicle, linear moving and rotating parts should be considered
separately.
• While linear moving parts move with vehicle speed, rotating parts
rotate at different angular velocities.
• For ease of calculations, parts rotating with engine and propeller
shaft speed are reduced to wheel speed.
 Acceleration Resistance 𝐹𝑎𝑐
𝜃𝑖 .𝛼𝑅
𝐹𝑎𝑐 =m.𝑎 + σ
𝑟𝑤
• The angular acceleration 𝛼𝑅 of the wheel can be converted
to linear acceleration as follows.

𝑎
𝛼𝑅 =
𝑟𝑤

• If this expression is written in the above equation,

σ 𝜃𝑖
𝐹𝑎𝑐 =(m + 2 ).𝑎
𝑟𝑤
 Acceleration Resistance 𝐹𝑎𝑐
• Since the engine angular velocity 𝑤𝐸 and the propeller
shaft angular velocity 𝑤𝑃 , the speeds of the rotating parts
deviate from the wheel angular velocity as much as the
gearbox and differential cycle ratios, the angular velocity
must be reduced to the wheel rotation axis.

𝑤𝑃 =𝑖𝐷 .𝑤𝑅

𝑤𝐸 =𝑖𝐷 .𝑖𝐺 . 𝑤𝑅
 Acceleration Resistance 𝐹𝑎𝑐
• The sum of the mass moments of inertia reduced to the
wheel axis is as follows.
σ 𝜃𝑖 =𝜃𝑅 +𝜃𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 +𝜃𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

• 𝜃𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 and 𝜃𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 , which are mass moments of inertia

reduced to the wheel axis, can be obtained by utilizing the
principle of conservation of kinetic energy.
1 1 1
. 𝜃𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 .𝑤𝑅2 = .𝜃𝑃 . 𝑤𝑃2 = .𝜃𝑃 . 𝑖𝐷2 . 𝑤𝑃2
2 2 2

𝜃𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑖𝐷2 . 𝜃𝑃
 Acceleration Resistance 𝐹𝑎𝑐
• 𝜃𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 is also found as follows.

𝜃𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑖𝐷2 . 𝑖𝐺2 .𝜃𝐸

• The sum of the mass moments of inertia reduced to the

wheel axis is obtained as

σ 𝜃𝑖 =𝜃𝑅 + 𝑖𝐷2 . 𝑖𝐺2 .𝜃𝐸 + 𝑖𝐷2 . 𝜃𝑃

 Acceleration Resistance 𝐹𝑎𝑐
• The following expression can be used to calculate the
acceleration resistance simply.
𝐹𝑎𝑐 =𝛽.m.𝑎
• 𝛽 is expressed as the impact factor of the rotating masses.
σ 𝜃𝑖
𝛽=1+ 2
𝑚.𝑟𝑤
• For the same vehicle, the 𝛽 value increases with the
increase of the gear ratio.
 Total Resistance
• The total resistance force 𝐹𝑇 is the sum of each resistive
force acting on the vehicle.

𝑀𝑇 1
𝐹𝑇 = =𝑓.W+ 𝜌𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑣 2 + W.sin 𝜃𝑔 + 𝛽.m.𝑎
𝑟𝑤 2
 Total Resistance
• The total power at the wheels 𝑃𝑇 is expressed as follows for
vehicles driven from both axles.
𝑃𝑊 =𝑀𝑊𝐹 𝑤𝑊𝐹 + 𝑀𝑊𝑅 𝑤𝑊𝑅

𝑣 = 𝑅. 𝑤

𝑀𝑊𝐹 𝑀𝑅
𝑃𝑊 = + .𝑣
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝑅
 Total Resistance
• The total power at the wheels Pt is expressed as follows for
single axle driven vehicles.

𝑃𝑊 =𝑀𝑊 .𝑤

𝑣 = 𝑅. 𝑤

𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝑊 = .𝑣
𝑅
 Total Resistance
• There is as much difference between engine power and
power at the wheels as the power lost in the driveline.

𝑃𝑇 =η 𝑇 . 𝑃𝐸

• The traction force transmitted to the wheels by the engine

is calculated as follows.
𝑀𝐸
𝐹𝑇 = . η 𝑇 . 𝑖𝐷 . 𝑖𝐺
𝑟𝑊

η 𝑇 −total transmission efficiency

 Total Resistance
• There is as much difference between engine power and
power at the wheels as the power lost in the driveline.

𝑃𝑇 =η 𝑇 . 𝑃𝐸

• The traction force transmitted to the wheels by the engine

is calculated as follows.
𝑀𝐸
𝐹𝑇 = . η 𝑇 . 𝑖𝐷 . 𝑖𝐺
𝑟𝑊

η 𝑇 −total transmission efficiency