Thomas Carlyle

Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5

February 1881) was a Scottish essayist,
historian, and philosopher. A leading writer
of the Victorian era, he exerted a profound
influence on 19th-century art, literature,
and philosophy.
 Photograph by Elliott & Fry, c. 1865

Born in Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, Carlyle

attended the University of Edinburgh where
he excelled in mathematics, inventing the
Carlyle circle. After finishing the arts
course, he prepared to become a minister
in the Burgher Church while working as a
schoolmaster. He quit these and several
other endeavours before settling on
literature, writing for the Edinburgh
Encyclopædia and working as a translator.
He found initial success as a disseminator
of German literature, then little-known to
English readers, through his translations,
his Life of Friedrich Schiller (1825), and his
review essays for various journals. His first
major work was a novel entitled Sartor
Resartus (1833–34). After relocating to
London, he became famous with his
French Revolution (1837), which prompted
the collection and reissue of his essays as
Miscellanies. Each of his subsequent
works, from On Heroes (1841) to History of
Frederick the Great (1858–65) and beyond,
were highly regarded throughout Europe
and North America. He founded the
London Library, contributed significantly to
the creation of the National Portrait
Galleries in London and Scotland,[1] was
elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh
University in 1865, and received the Pour le
Mérite in 1874, among other honours.

Carlyle's corpus spans the genres of

"criticism, biography, history, politics,
poetry, and religion."[2] His innovative
writing style, known as Carlylese, greatly
influenced Victorian literature and
anticipated techniques of postmodern
literature.[3] While not adhering to any
formal religion, he asserted the
importance of belief and developed his
own philosophy of religion. He preached
"Natural Supernaturalism",[4] the idea that
all things are "Clothes" which at once
reveal and conceal the divine, that "a
mystic bond of brotherhood makes all
men one",[5] and that duty, work and
silence are essential. He postulated the
Great Man theory, a philosophy of history
which contends that history is shaped by
exceptional individuals. He viewed history
as a "Prophetic Manuscript" that
progresses on a cyclical basis, analogous
to the phoenix and the seasons. Raising
the "Condition-of-England Question"[6] to
address the impact of the Industrial
Revolution, his social and political
philosophy is characterised by
medievalism, advocating a "Chivalry of
Labour"[7] led by "Captains of Industry".[8]
He attacked utilitarianism as mere atheism
and egoism,[9] criticised the political
economy of laissez-faire as the "Dismal
Science",[10] and rebuked "big black
Democracy",[11] while championing
"Heroarchy (Government of Heroes)".

Carlyle occupied a central position in

Victorian culture, being considered not
only, in the words of Ralph Waldo
Emerson, the "undoubted head of English
letters",[12][13] but a secular prophet.
Posthumously, his reputation suffered as
publications by his friend and disciple
James Anthony Froude provoked
controversy about Carlyle's personal life,
particularly his marriage to Jane Welsh
Carlyle. His reputation further declined in
the 20th century, as the onsets of World
War I and World War II brought forth
accusations that he was a progenitor of
both Prussianism and fascism. Since the
1950s, extensive scholarship in the field of
Carlyle Studies has improved his standing,
and he is now recognised as "one of the
enduring monuments of our literature who,
quite simply, cannot be spared."[14]
Biography

Early life

Thomas Carlyle's Birthplace

S ilhouettes of Carlyle's father and mother with captions in Carlyle's hand

Thomas Carlyle was born on 4 December

1795 to James (1758–1832) and Margaret
Aitken Carlyle (1771–1853) in the village of
Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire in southwest
Scotland. His parents were members of
the Burgher secession Presbyterian
church.[15] James Carlyle was a
stonemason, later a farmer, who built the
Arched House wherein his son was born.
His maxim was that "man was created to
work, not to speculate, or feel, or
dream."[16] Nicholas Carlisle traced his
ancestry back to Margaret Bruce, sister of
Robert the Bruce.[17] As a result of his
disordered upbringing, James Carlyle
became deeply religious in his youth,
reading many books of sermons and
doctrinal arguments throughout his life. He
married his first wife in 1791, distant
cousin Janet, who gave birth to John
Carlyle and then died. He married Margaret
Aitken in 1795, a poor farmer's daughter
then working as a servant. They had nine
children, of whom Thomas was the eldest.
Margaret was pious and devout and hoped
that Thomas would become a minister.
She was close to her eldest son, being a
"smoking companion, counsellor and
confidante" in Carlyle's early days. She
suffered a manic episode when Carlyle
was a teenager, in which she became
"elated, disinhibited, over-talkative and
violent."[18] She suffered another
breakdown in 1817, which required her to
be removed from her home and
restrained.[19] Carlyle always spoke highly
of his parents, and his character was
deeply influenced by both of them.[20]

Carlyle's early education came from his

mother, who taught him reading (despite
being barely literate), and his father, who
taught him arithmetic.[21] He first attended
"Tom Donaldson's School" in Ecclefechan
followed by Hoddam School
(c. 1802–1806), which "then stood at the
Kirk", located at the "Cross-roads" midway
between Ecclefechan and Hoddam
Castle.[22] By age 7, Carlyle showed
enough proficiency in English that he was
advised to "go into Latin", which he did with
enthusiasm; however, the schoolmaster at
Hoddam did not know Latin, so he was
handed over to a minister that did, with
whom he made a "rapid & sure way".[23] He
then went to Annan Academy
(c. 1806–1809), where he studied
rudimentary Greek, read Latin and French
fluently, and learned arithmetic "thoroughly
well".[24] Carlyle was severely bullied by his
fellow students at Annan, until he "revolted
against them, and gave stroke for stroke";
he remembered the first two years there as
among the most miserable of his life.[25]
Edinburgh, the ministry and teaching
(1809–1818)

Plaque at 22A Buccleuch Place, Edinburgh[26]

In November 1809 at nearly fourteen years

of age, Carlyle walked one hundred miles
from his home in order to attend the
University of Edinburgh (c. 1809–1814),
where he studied mathematics with John
Leslie, science with John Playfair and
moral philosophy with Thomas Brown.[27]
He gravitated to mathematics and
geometry and displayed great talent in
those subjects, being credited with the
invention of the Carlyle circle. In the
University library, he read many important
works of eighteenth-century and
contemporary history, philosophy, and
belles-lettres.[28] He began expressing
religious scepticism around this time,
asking his mother to her horror, "Did God
Almighty come down and make
wheelbarrows in a shop?"[29] In 1813 he
completed his arts curriculum and enrolled
in a theology course at Divinity Hall the
following academic year. This was to be
the preliminary of a ministerial career.[30]
Carlyle began teaching at Annan Academy
in June 1814.[31] He gave his first trial
sermons in December 1814 and December
1815, both of which are lost.[32] By the
summer of 1815 he had taken an interest
in astronomy[33] and would study the
astronomical theories of Pierre-Simon
Laplace for several years.[34] In November
1816, he began teaching at Kirkcaldy,
having left Annan. There, he made friends
with Edward Irving, whose ex-pupil
Margaret Gordon became Carlyle's "first
love". In May 1817,[35] Carlyle abstained
from enrolment in the theology course,
news which his parents received with
"magnanimity".[36] In the autumn of that
year, he read De l'Allemagne (1813) by
Germaine de Staël, which prompted him to
seek a German teacher, with whom he
learned the pronunciation.[37] In Irving's
library, he read the works of David Hume
and Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of
the Roman Empire (1776–1789); he would
later recall that

I read Gibbon, and then first

clearly saw that Christianity
was not true. Then came the
most trying time of my life. I
 should either have gone mad or
made an end of myself had I not
fallen in with some very
superior minds.[38]

Mineralogy, law and first publications

(1818–1821)

Jane Baillie Welsh by Kenneth Macleay, 1826, shortly before marriage

In the summer of 1818, following a "Tour"
with Irving through "Peebles-Moffat moor
country", Carlyle made his first attempt at
publishing, forwarding an article "of a
descriptive Tourist kind" to "some
Magazine Editor in Edinburgh", which was
not published and is now lost.[39] In
October, Carlyle resigned from his position
at Kirkcaldy, and left for Edinburgh in
November.[40] Shortly before his departure,
he began to suffer from dyspepsia, which
remained with him throughout his life.[41]
He enrolled in a mineralogy class from
November 1818 to April 1819, attending
lectures by Robert Jameson,[42] and in
January 1819 began to study German,
desiring to read the mineralogical works of
Abraham Gottlob Werner.[43] In February
and March, he translated a piece by Jöns
Jacob Berzelius,[44] and by September he
was "reading Goethe".[45] In November he
enrolled in "the class of Scots law",
studying under David Hume (the
advocate).[46] In December 1819 and
January 1820, Carlyle made his second
attempt at publishing, writing a review-
article on Marc-Auguste Pictet's review of
Jean-Alfred Gautier's Essai historique sur
le problème des trois corps (1817) which
went unpublished and is lost.[47] The law
classes ended in March 1820 and he did
not pursue the subject any further.[48]
In the same month, he wrote several
articles for David Brewster's Edinburgh
Encyclopædia (1808–1830), which
appeared in October. These were his first
published writings.[49] In May and June,
Carlyle wrote a review-article on the work
of Christopher Hansteen, translated a book
by Friedrich Mohs, and read Goethe's
Faust.[50] By the autumn, Carlyle had also
learned Italian and was reading Vittorio
Alfieri, Dante Alighieri and Sismondi,[51]
though German literature was still his
foremost interest, having "revealed" to him
a "new Heaven and new Earth".[52] In March
1821, he finished two more articles for
Brewster's encyclopedia, and in April he
completed a review of Joanna Baillie's
Metrical Legends (1821).[53]

In May, Carlyle was introduced to Jane

Baillie Welsh by Irving in Haddington.[54]
The two began a correspondence, and
Carlyle sent books to her, encouraging her
intellectual pursuits; she called him "my
German Master".[55]

"Conversion": Leith Walk and Hoddam

Hill (1821–1826)

During this time, Carlyle struggled with

what he described as "the dismallest
Lernean Hydra of problems, spiritual,
temporal, eternal".[56] Spiritual doubt, lack
of success in his endeavours, and
dyspepsia were all damaging his physical
and mental health, for which he found
relief only in "sea-bathing". In early July
1821,[57] "during those 3 weeks of total
sleeplessness, in which almost" his "one
solace was that of a daily bathe on the
sands between [Leith] and Portobello", an
"incident" occurred in Leith Walk as he
"went down" into the water.[58] This was the
beginning of Carlyle's "Conversion", the
process by which he "authentically took the
Devil by the nose"[59] and flung "him behind
me".[60] It gave him courage in his battle
against the "Hydra"; to his brother John, he
wrote, "What is there to fear, indeed?"[61]

Repentance Tower near the farm in Hoddam Hill, which Carlyle called "a fit memorial for reflecting sinners."[62]

Carlyle wrote several articles in July,

August and September, and in November
began a translation of Adrien Marie
Legendre's Elements of Geometry. In
January 1822, Carlyle wrote "Goethe's
Faust" for the New Edinburgh Review, and
shortly afterwards began a tutorship for
the distinguished Buller family, tutoring
Charles Buller and his brother Arthur
William Buller until July; he would work for
the family until July 1824. Carlyle
completed the Legendre translation in July
1822, having prefixed his own essay "On
Proportion", which Augustus De Morgan
later called "as good a substitute for the
fifth Book of Euclid as could have been
given in that space".[63] Carlyle's translation
of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's
Apprenticeship (1824) and Travels (1825)
and his biography of Schiller (1825)
brought him a decent income, which had
before then eluded him, and he garnered a
modest reputation. He began
corresponding with Goethe and made his
first trip to London in 1824, meeting with
prominent writers such as Thomas
Campbell, Charles Lamb, and Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, and gaining friendships
with Anna Montagu, Bryan Waller Proctor,
and Henry Crabb Robinson. He also
travelled to Paris in October–November
with Edward Strachey and Kitty Kirkpatrick,
where he attended Georges Cuvier's
introductory lecture on comparative
anatomy, gathered information on the
study of medicine, introduced himself to
Legendre, was introduced by Legendre to
Charles Dupin, observed Laplace and
several other notables while declining
offers of introduction by Dupin, and heard
François Magendie read a paper on the
"fifth pair of nerves".[64]

In May 1825, Carlyle moved into a cottage

farmhouse in Hoddam Hill near
Ecclefechan, which his father had leased
for him. Carlyle lived with his brother
Alexander, who, "with a cheap little man-
servant", worked the farm, his mother with
her one maid-servant, and his two
youngest sisters, Jean and Jenny.[65] He
had constant contact with the rest of his
family, most of whom lived close by at
Mainhill, a farm owned by his father.[66]
Jane made a successful visit in September
1825. Whilst there, Carlyle wrote German
Romance (1827), a collection of previously
untranslated German novellas by Johann
Karl August Musäus, Friedrich de la Motte
Fouqué, Ludwig Tieck, E. T. A. Hoffmann,
and Jean Paul. In Hoddam Hill, Carlyle
found respite from the "intolerable fret,
noise and confusion" that he had
experienced in Edinburgh, and observed
what he described as "the finest and
vastest prospect all round it I ever saw
from any house", with "all Cumberland as in
amphitheatre unmatchable".[65] Here, he
completed his "Conversion" which began
with the Leith Walk incident. He achieved
"a grand and ever-joyful victory", in the
"final chaining down, and trampling home,
'for good,' home into their caves forever, of
all" his "Spiritual Dragons".[67] By May 1826,
problems with the landlord and the
agreement forced the family's relocation
to Scotsbrig, a farm near Ecclefechan.
Later in life, he remembered the year at
Hoddam Hill as "perhaps the most
triumphantly important of my life."[68]

Marriage, Comely Bank and

Craigenputtock (1826–1834)
21 Comely Bank

In October 1826, Thomas and Jane Welsh

were married at the Welsh family farm in
Templand. Shortly after their marriage, the
Carlyles moved into a modest home on
Comely Bank in Edinburgh, that had been
leased for them by Jane's mother. They
lived there from October 1826 to May
1828. In that time, Carlyle published
German Romance, began Wotton Reinfred,
an autobiographical novel which he left
unfinished, and published his first article
for the Edinburgh Review, "Jean Paul
Friedrich Richter" (1827). "Richter" was the
first of many essays extolling the virtues
of German authors, who were then little-
known to English readers; "State of
German Literature" was published in
October.[69] In Edinburgh, Carlyle made
contact with several distinguished literary
figures, including Edinburgh Review editor
Francis Jeffrey, John Wilson of
Blackwood's Magazine, essayist Thomas
De Quincey, and philosopher William
Hamilton.[54] In 1827 Carlyle attempted to
land the Chair of Moral Philosophy at St.
Andrews without success, despite support
from an array of prominent intellectuals,
including Goethe.[70] He also made an
unsuccessful attempt for a professorship
at the University of London.[54]
Craigenputtock

In May 1828, the Carlyles moved to

Craigenputtock, the main house of Jane's
modest agricultural estate in
Dumfriesshire, which they occupied until
May 1834.[71] He wrote a number of
essays there which earned him money and
augmented his reputation, including "Life
and Writings of Werner", "Goethe's Helena",
"Goethe", "Burns", "The Life of Heyne" (each
1828), "German Playwrights", "Voltaire",
"Novalis" (each 1829), "Jean Paul Friedrich
Richter Again" (1830), "Cruthers and
Jonson; or The Outskirts of Life: A True
Story", "Luther's Psalm", and "Schiller"
(each 1831). He began but did not
complete a history of German literature,
from which he drew material for essays
"The Nibelungen Lied", "Early German
Literature" and parts of "Historic Survey of
German Poetry" (each 1831). He published
early thoughts on the philosophy of history
in "Thoughts on History" (1830) and wrote
his first pieces of social criticism, "Signs of
the Times" (1829) and "Characteristics"
(1831).[72] "Signs" garnered the interest of
Gustave d'Eichthal, a member of the Saint-
Simonians, who sent Carlyle Saint-
Simonian literature, including Henri de
Saint-Simon's Nouveau Christianisme
(1825), which Carlyle translated and wrote
an introduction for.[73]

Portrait of Carlyle by Daniel Maclise for the Fraser's "Gallery of Literary Characters", June 1833

Most notably, he wrote Sartor Resartus.

Finishing the manuscript in late July 1831,
Carlyle began his search for a publisher,
leaving for London in early August.[74] He
and his wife lived there for the winter at 4
(now 33) Ampton Street, Kings Cross, in a
house built by Thomas Cubitt.[75][76][77] The
death of Carlyle's father in January 1832
and his inability to attend the funeral
moved him to write the first of what would
become the Reminiscences, published
posthumously in 1881.[78] Carlyle had not
found a publisher by the time he returned
to Craigenputtock in March but he had
initiated important friendships with Leigh
Hunt and John Stuart Mill. That year,
Carlyle wrote the essays "Goethe's
Portrait", "Death of Goethe", "Goethe's
Works", "Biography", "Boswell's Life of
Johnson", and "Corn-Law Rhymes". Three
months after their return from a January to
May 1833 stay in Edinburgh, the Carlyles
were visited at Craigenputtock by Ralph
Waldo Emerson. Emerson (and other like-
minded Americans) had been deeply
affected by Carlyle's essays and
determined to meet him during the
northern terminus of a literary pilgrimage;
it was to be the start of a lifelong
friendship and a famous correspondence.
1833 saw the publication of the essays
"Diderot" and "Count Cagliostro"; in the
latter, Carlyle introduced the idea of
"Captains of Industry".[79]
Chelsea (1834–1845)

In June 1834, the Carlyles moved into 5

Cheyne Row, Chelsea, which became their
home for the remainder of their respective
lives. Residence in London wrought a large
expansion of Carlyle's social circle. He
became acquainted with scores of leading
writers, novelists, artists, radicals, men of
science, Church of England clergymen, and
political figures. Two of his most
important friendships were with Lord and
Lady Ashburton; though Carlyle's warm
affection for the latter would eventually
strain his marriage, the Ashburtons helped
to broaden his social horizons, giving him
access to circles of intelligence, political
influence, and power.[80]

Carlyle's House

Carlyle eventually decided to publish Sartor

serially in Fraser's Magazine, with the
instalments appearing between November
1833 and August 1834. Despite early
recognition from Emerson, Mill and others,
it was generally received poorly, if noticed
at all. In 1834, Carlyle applied
unsuccessfully for the astronomy
professorship at the Edinburgh
observatory.[81] That autumn, he arranged
for the publication of a history of the
French Revolution and set about
researching and writing it shortly
thereafter. Having completed the first
volume after five months of writing, he lent
the manuscript to Mill, who had been
supplying him with materials for his
research. One evening in March 1835, Mill
arrived at Carlyle's door appearing
"unresponsive, pale, the very picture of
despair". He had come to tell Carlyle that
the manuscript was destroyed. It had been
"left out", and Mill's housemaid took it for
wastepaper, leaving only "some four
tattered leaves". Carlyle was sympathetic:
"I can be angry with no one; for they that
were concerned in it have a far deeper
sorrow than mine: it is purely the hand of
Providence". The next day, Mill offered
Carlyle £200, of which he would only
accept £100. He began the volume anew
shortly afterwards. Despite an initial
struggle, he was not deterred, feeling like
"a runner that tho' tripped down, will not lie
there, but rise and run again."[82][83] By
September, the volume was rewritten. That
year, he wrote a eulogy for his friend,
"Death of Edward Irving".[84]

In April 1836, with the intercession of

Emerson, Sartor Resartus was first
published in book form in Boston, soon
selling out its initial run of five hundred
copies.[85][86] Carlyle's three-volume history
of the French Revolution was completed in
January 1837 and sent to the press.[87]
Contemporaneously, the essay "Memoirs
of Mirabeau" was published,[88] as was
"The Diamond Necklace" in January and
February,[89] and "Parliamentary History of
the French Revolution" in April.[90] In need
of further financial security, Carlyle began
a series of lectures on German literature in
May, delivered extemporaneously in Willis'
Rooms. The Spectator reported that the
first lecture was given "to a very crowded
and yet a select audience of both sexes."
Carlyle recalled being "wasted and fretted
to a thread, my tongue . . . dry as charcoal:
the people were there, I was obliged to
stumble in, and start. Ach Gott!"[91] Despite
his inexperience as a lecturer and
deficiency "in the mere mechanism of
oratory," reviews were positive and the
series proved profitable for him.[92]
Crayon portrait of Thomas Carlyle by S amuel Laurence, 1838

During Carlyle's lecture series, The French

Revolution: A History was officially
published. It marked his career
breakthrough. At the end of the year,
Carlyle reported to Karl August Varnhagen
von Ense that his earlier efforts to
popularise German literature were
beginning to produce results, and
expressed his satisfaction: "Deutschland
will reclaim her great Colony; we shall
become more Deutsch, that is to say more
English, at same time."[93] The French
Revolution fostered the republication of
Sartor Resartus in London in 1838 as well
as a collection of his earlier writings in the
form of the Critical and Miscellaneous
Essays, facilitated in Boston with the aid of
Emerson. Carlyle presented his second
lecture series in April and June 1838 on the
history of literature at the Marylebone
Institution in Portman Square. The
Examiner reported that at the end of the
second lecture, "Mr. Carlyle was heartily
greeted with applause."[94] Carlyle felt that
they "went on better and better, and grew
at last, or threatened to grow, quite a
flaming affair."[95] He published two essays
in 1838, "Sir Walter Scott", being a review
of John Gibson Lockhart's biography, and
"Varnhagen von Ense's Memoirs". In April
1839, Carlyle published "Petition on the
Copyright Bill".[96] A third series of lectures
was given in May on the revolutions of
modern Europe, which the Examiner
reviewed positively, noting after the third
lecture that "Mr. Carlyle's audiences
appear to increase in number every
time."[97] Carlyle wrote to his mother that
the lectures were met "with very kind
acceptance from people more
distinguished than ever; yet still with a
feeling that I was far from the right
lecturing point yet."[98] In July, he published
"On the Sinking of the Vengeur"[99] and in
December he published Chartism, a
pamphlet in which he addressed the
movement of the same name and raised
the Condition-of-England question.[100]

Report in The Examiner of "the speech that gave birth to The London Library",[101] given by Thomas Carlyle 24 June 1840
In May 1840, Carlyle gave his fourth and
final set of lectures, which were published
in 1841 as On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the
Heroic in History. Carlyle wrote to his
brother John afterwards, "The Lecturing
business went of [sic] with sufficient éclat;
the Course was generally judged, and I
rather join therein myself, to be the bad
best I have yet given."[102] In the 1840
edition of the Essays, Carlyle published
"Fractions", a collection of poems written
from 1823 to 1833.[103] Later that year, he
declined a proposal for a professorship of
history at Edinburgh.[104] Carlyle was the
principal founder of the London Library in
1841.[105] He had become frustrated by the
facilities available at the British Museum
Library, where he was often unable to find
a seat (obliging him to perch on ladders),
where he complained that the enforced
close confinement with his fellow readers
gave him a "museum headache", where the
books were unavailable for loan, and
where he found the library's collections of
pamphlets and other material relating to
the French Revolution and English Civil
Wars inadequately catalogued. In
particular, he developed an antipathy to the
Keeper of Printed Books, Anthony Panizzi
(despite the fact that Panizzi had allowed
him many privileges not granted to other
readers), and criticised him in a footnote
to an article published in the Westminster
Review as the "respectable Sub-
Librarian".[106] Carlyle's eventual solution,
with the support of a number of influential
friends, was to call for the establishment
of a private subscription library from which
books could be borrowed.[107]

Carlyle had chosen Oliver Cromwell as the

subject for a book in 1840 and struggled
to find what form it would take. In the
interim, he wrote Past and Present (1843)
and the articles "Baillie the Covenanter"
(1841), "Dr. Francia" (1843), and "An
Election to the Long Parliament" (1844).
Carlyle declined an offer for professorship
from St. Andrews in 1844. The first edition
of Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches:
with Elucidations was published in 1845; it
was a popular success and did much to
revise Cromwell's standing in Britain.[80]
Financially secure, Carlyle wrote little in the
years that immediately followed
Cromwell.[108]
Journeys to Ireland and Germany
(1846–1865)

Thomas Carlyle by Robert S cott Tait, 25 May 1855

Carlyle visited Ireland in 1846 with Charles

Gavan Duffy as a companion and guide,
and wrote a series of brief articles on the
Irish question in 1848. These were "Ireland
and the British Chief Governor", "Irish
Regiments (of the New Æra)", and "The
Repeal of the Union", each of which offered
solutions to Ireland's problems and argued
to preserve England's connection with
Ireland.[109] Carlyle wrote an article titled
"Ireland and Sir Robert Peel" (signed "C.")
published in April 1849 in The Spectator in
response to two speeches given by Peel
wherein he made many of the same
proposals which Carlyle had earlier
suggested; he called the speeches "like a
prophecy of better things, inexpressibly
cheering."[110] In May, he published "Indian
Meal", in which he advanced maize as a
remedy to the Great Famine as well as the
worries of "disconsolate Malthusians".[111]
He visited Ireland again with Duffy later
that year while recording his impressions
in his letters and a series of memoranda,
published as Reminiscences of My Irish
Journey in 1849 after his death; Duffy
would publish his own memoir of their
travels, Conversations with Carlyle.[112]

Carlyle's travels in Ireland deeply affected

his views on society, as did the Revolutions
of 1848. While embracing the latter as
necessary in order to cleanse society of
various forms of anarchy and
misgovernment, he denounced their
democratic undercurrent and insisted on
the need for authoritarian leaders. These
events inspired his next two works,
"Occasional Discourse on the Negro
Question" (1849), in which he coined the
term "Dismal Science" to describe political
economy, and Latter-Day Pamphlets
(1850). The illiberal content of these works
sullied Carlyle's reputation for some
progressives, while endearing him to those
that shared his views. In 1851, Carlyle
wrote The Life of John Sterling as a
corrective to Julius Hare's unsatisfactory
1848 biography. In late September and
early October, he made his second trip to
Paris, where he met Adolphe Thiers and
Prosper Mérimée; his account, "Excursion
(Futile Enough) to Paris; Autumn 1851",
was published posthumously.[113]

In 1852, Carlyle began research on

Frederick the Great, whom he had
expressed interest in writing a biography of
as early as 1830.[114] He travelled to
Germany that year, examining source
documents and prior histories. Carlyle
struggled through research and writing,
telling von Ense it was "the poorest, most
troublesome and arduous piece of work he
has ever undertaken".[115] In 1856, the first
two volumes of History of Friedrich II. of
Prussia, Called Frederick the Great were
sent to the press and published in 1858.
During this time, he wrote "The Opera"
(1852), "Project of a National Exhibition of
Scottish Portraits" (1854) at the request of
David Laing, and "The Prinzenraub" (1855).
In October 1855, he finished The Guises, a
history of the House of Guise and its
relation to Scottish history, which was first
published in 1981.[116] Carlyle made a
second expedition to Germany in 1858 to
survey the topography of battlefields,
which he documented in Journey to
Germany, Autumn 1858, published
posthumously. In May 1863, Carlyle wrote
the short dialogue "Ilias (Americana) in
Nuce" (American Iliad in a Nutshell) on the
topic of the American Civil War. Upon
publication in August, the "Ilias" drew
scornful letters from David Atwood
Wasson and Horace Howard Furness.[117]
In the summer of 1864, Carlyle lived at 117
Marina (built by James Burton)[118] in St
Leonards-on-Sea, in order to be nearer to
his ailing wife who was in possession of
caretakers there.[119]

Carlyle planned to write four volumes but

had written six by the time Frederick was
finished in 1865. Before its end, Carlyle
had developed a tremor in his writing
hand.[120] Upon its completion, it was
received as a masterpiece. He earned a
sobriquet, the "Sage of Chelsea",[121] and in
the eyes of those that had rebuked his
politics, it restored Carlyle to his position
as a great man of letters.[122] Carlyle was
elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh
University in November 1865, succeeding
William Ewart Gladstone and defeating
Benjamin Disraeli by a vote of 657 to
310.[123]
Final years (1866–1881)

Carlyle and his niece Mary Aitken, 1874

Carlyle travelled to Scotland to deliver his

"Inaugural Address at Edinburgh" as Rector
in April 1866. During his trip, he was
accompanied by John Tyndall, Thomas
Henry Huxley and Thomas Erskine. One of
those that welcomed Carlyle on his arrival
was Sir David Brewster, president of the
university and the commissioner of
Carlyle's first professional writings for the
Edinburgh Encyclopædia. Carlyle was
joined onstage by his fellow travellers,
Brewster, Moncure D. Conway, George
Harvey, Lord Neaves and others. Carlyle
spoke extemporaneously on several
subjects, concluding his address with a
quote from Goethe: "Work, and despair
not: Wir heissen euch hoffen, 'We bid you
be of hope!'" Tyndall reported to Jane in a
three-word telegram that it was "A perfect
triumph."[124] The warm reception he
received in his homeland of Scotland
marked the climax of Carlyle's life as a
writer. While still in Scotland, Carlyle
received abrupt news of Jane's sudden
death in London. Upon her death, Carlyle
began to edit his wife's letters and write
reminiscences of her. He experienced
feelings of guilt as he read her complaints
about her illnesses, his friendship with
Lady Harriet Ashburton, and his devotion
to his labour, particularly on Frederick the
Great. Although deep in grief, Carlyle
remained active in public life.[125]
Engraving depicting the Inaugural Address

Amidst controversy over governor John

Eyre's violent repression of the Morant Bay
rebellion, Carlyle assumed leadership of
the Eyre Defence and Aid Fund in 1865 and
1866. The Defence had convened in
response to the anti-Eyre Jamaica
Committee, led by Mill and backed by
Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer and
others. Carlyle and the Defence were
supported by John Ruskin, Alfred, Lord
Tennyson, Charles Dickens and Charles
Kingsley.[126][127] From December 1866 to
March 1867,[128] Carlyle resided at the
home of Louisa Baring, Lady Ashburton in
Menton, where he wrote reminiscences of
Irving, Jeffrey, Robert Southey, and William
Wordsworth. In August, he published
"Shooting Niagara: And After?", an essay in
response and opposition to the Second
Reform Bill.[129] In 1868, he wrote
reminiscences of John Wilson and William
Hamilton, and his niece Mary Aitken Carlyle
moved into 5 Cheyne Row, becoming his
caretaker and assisting in the editing of
Jane's letters. In March 1869, he met with
Queen Victoria, who wrote in her journal of
"Mr. Carlyle, the historian, a strange-
looking eccentric old Scotchman, who
holds forth, in a drawling melancholy voice,
with a broad Scotch accent, upon Scotland
and upon the utter degeneration of
everything."[130] In 1870, he was elected
president of the London Library, and in
November he wrote a letter to The Times
in support of Germany in the Franco-
Prussian War. His conversation was
recorded by a number of friends and
visitors in later years, most notably William
Allingham, who became known as Carlyle's
Boswell.[131]
Commemoration Medal for Thomas Carlyle, front

In the spring of 1874, Carlyle accepted the

Pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und
Künste from Otto von Bismarck and
declined Disraeli's offers of a state
pension and the Knight Grand Cross in the
Order of the Bath in the autumn. On the
occasion of his eightieth birthday in 1875,
he was presented with a commemorative
medal crafted by Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm
and an address of admiration signed by
119 of the leading writers, scientists, and
public figures of the day.[a] "Early Kings of
Norway", a recounting of historical
material from the Icelandic sagas
transcribed by Mary acting as his
amanuensis,[132] and an essay on "The
Portraits of John Knox" (both 1875) were
his last major writings to be published in
his lifetime. In November 1876, he wrote a
letter in the Times "On the Eastern
Question", entreating England not to enter
the Russo-Turkish War on the side of the
Turks. Another letter to the Times in May
1877 "On the Crisis", urging against the
rumoured wish of Disraeli's to send a fleet
to the Baltic Sea and warning not to
provoke Russia and Europe at large into a
war against England, marked his last
public utterance.[133] The American
Academy of Arts and Sciences elected him
a Foreign Honorary Member in 1878.[134]

On 2 February 1881, Carlyle fell into a

coma. For a moment he awakened, and
Mary heard him speak his final words: "So
this is Death—well . . ."[135] He thereafter
lost his speech and died on the morning of
5 February.[136] An offer of interment at
Westminster Abbey, which he had
anticipated, was declined by his executors
in accordance with his will.[137] He was laid
to rest with his mother and father in
Hoddam Kirkyard in Ecclefechan,
according to old Scottish custom.[138] His
private funeral, held on 10 February, was
attended by family and a few friends,
including Froude, Conway, Tyndall, and
William Lecky, as local residents looked
on.[125]
Philosophy

Bust of Carlyle in the Hall of Heroes at the Wallace Monument, 1891

Carlyle's religious, historical and political

thought has long been the subject of
debate. In the 19th century, he was "an
enigma" according to Ian Campbell in the
Dictionary of Literary Biography, being
"variously regarded as sage and impious, a
moral leader, a moral desperado,[b] a
radical, a conservative, a Christian."[140]
Carlyle continues to perplex scholars in the
21st century, as Kenneth J. Fielding
quipped in 2005: "A problem in writing
about Carlyle and his beliefs is that people
think that they know what they are."[141]

Carlyle identified two philosophical

precepts.[142] The first, "annihilation of self
(Selbsttödtung)", is derived from
Novalis.[143] The second, "Renunciation
(Entsagen)", is derived from Goethe.[144]
Through Selbsttödtung (annihilation of
self), liberation from self-imposed material
constraints, which arise from the
misguided pursuit of unfulfilling happiness
and result in atheism and egoism, is
achieved. With this liberation and Entsagen
(renunciation, or humility)[145] as the
guiding principle of conduct, it is seen that
"there is in man a HIGHER than Love of
Happiness: he can do without Happiness,
and instead thereof find Blessedness!"[144]
"Blessedness" refers to the serving of duty
and the sense that the universe and
everything in it, including humanity, is
meaningful and united as one whole.
Awareness of the fraternal bond of
mankind brings the discovery of the "Divine
Depth of Sorrow", the feeling of "an infinite
Love, an infinite Pity" for one's
"fellowman".[146][147]

Natural Supernaturalism

Carlyle rejected doctrines which profess to

fully know the true nature of God, believing
that to possess such knowledge is
impossible. In an 1835 letter, he asked,
"Wer darf ihn NENNEN [Who dares name
him]? I dare not, and do not", while
rejecting charges of pantheism and
expressing the empirical basis of his
belief:
Finally assure yourself I am
neither Pagan nor Turk, nor
circumcised Jew, but an
unfortunate Christian individual
resident at Chelsea in this year
of Grace; neither Pantheist nor
Pottheist, nor any Theist or ist
whatsoever; having the most
decided contem[pt] for all
manner of System-builders and
Sectfounders—as far as
contempt may be com[patible]
with so mild a nature; feeling
well beforehand (taught by long
 experience) that all such are
and even must be wrong. By
God's blessing, one has got two
eyes to look with; also a mind
capable of knowing, of believing:
that is all the creed I will at this
time insist on.[148]

With this empirical basis, Carlyle conceived

of a "new Mythus",[149] Natural
Supernaturalism. Following Kant's
distinction between Reason (Vernunft) and
Understanding (Verstand) in Critique of
Pure Reason (1781), Carlyle held the
former to be the superior faculty, allowing
for insight into the transcendent.[150]
Hence, Carlyle saw all things symbols, or
clothes, representing the eternal and
infinite.[151] In Sartor, he defines the
"Symbol proper" as that in which there is
"some embodiment and revelation of the
Infinite; the Infinite is made to blend itself
with the Finite, to stand visible, and as it
were, attainable there."[152] Carlyle writes:
"All visible things are emblems . . . all
Emblematic things are properly Clothes".
Therefore, "Language is the Flesh-
Garment, the Body, of Thought",[153] and
"the Universe is but one vast Symbol of
God", as is "man himself".[152] In On
Heroes, Carlyle spoke of
 the sacred mystery of the
Universe; what Goethe calls 'the
open secret.'[c] . . . open to all,
seen by almost none! That divine
mystery, which lies everywhere
in all Beings, 'the Divine Idea of
the World,' that which lies at
'the bottom of Appearance,' as
Fichte styles it;[d] of which all
Appearance . . . is but the
vesture, the embodiment that
renders it visible.[156]

The "Divine Idea of the World", the belief in

an eternal, omnipresent and metaphysical
order which lies in the "unknown Deep"[157]
of nature, is at the core of Natural
Supernaturalism.[158]

Bible of Universal History

"Organic Filaments", 1898 illustration by E. J. S ullivan for S artor Resartus

Carlyle revered what he called the "Bible of

Universal History",[159] a "real Prophetic
Manuscript"[160] which incorporates the
poetic and the factual to show the divine
reality of existence.[161] For Carlyle, "the
right interpretation of Reality and
History"[162] is the highest form of poetry,
and "true History" is "the only possible
Epic".[163] He imaged the "burning of a
World-Phoenix" to represent the cyclical
nature of civilisations as they undergo
death and "Palingenesia, or Newbirth".[164]
Periods of creation and destruction do
overlap, however, and before a World-
Phoenix is completely reduced to ashes,
there are "organic filaments, mysteriously
spinning themselves",[165] elements of
regeneration amidst degeneration,[166]
such as hero-worship, literature, and the
unbreakable connection between all
human beings.[90] Akin to the seasons,
societies have autumns of dying faiths,
winters of decadent atheism, springs of
burgeoning belief and brief summers of
true religion and government.[167] Carlyle
saw history since the Reformation as a
process of decay culminating in the French
Revolution, out of which renewal must
come, "for lower than that savage
Sansculottism men cannot go."[168]
Heroism is central to Carlyle's view of
history. He saw individual actors as the
prime movers of historical events: "The
History of the world is but the Biography of
great men."[169]

In the area of historiography, Carlyle

focused on the complexity involved in
faithfully representing both the facts of
history and their meaning. He perceived "a
fatal discrepancy between our manner of
observing [passing things], and their
manner of occurring",[170] since "History is
the essence of innumerable Biographies"
and every individual's experience varies, as
does the "general inward condition of Life"
throughout the ages.[171] Furthermore,
even the best of historians, by necessity,
presents history as a "series" of
"successive" instances (a narrative) rather
than as a "group" of "simultaneous" things
done (an action), which is how they
occurred in reality. Every single event is
related to all others before and after it in
"an ever-living, ever-working Chaos of
Being". Events are multi-dimensional,
possessing the physical properties of
"breadth", "depth" and "length", and are
ultimately based on "Passion and
Mystery", characteristics that narrative,
which is by its nature one-dimensional,
fails to render. Emphasising the
disconnect between the typical discipline
of history and history as lived experience,
Carlyle writes: "Narrative is linear, Action is
solid."[172] He distinguishes between the
"Artist in History" and the "Artisan in
History". The "Artisan" works with historical
facts in an atomised, mechanical way,
while the "Artist" brings to his craft "an Idea
of the Whole", through which the essential
truth of history is successfully
communicated to the reader.[160][173]

Heroarchy (Government of Heroes)

As with history, Carlyle believed that

"Society is founded on Hero-worship. All
dignities of rank, on which human
association rests, are what we may call a
Heroarchy (Government of Heroes)".[174]
This fundamental assertion about the
nature of society itself informed his
political doctrine. Noting that the
etymological root meaning of the word
"King" is "Can" or "Able", Carlyle put forth
his ideal government in "The Hero as King":

Find in any country the Ablest

Man that exists there; raise him
to the supreme place, and
loyally reverence him: you have
a perfect government for that
country; no ballot-box,
parliamentary eloquence,
voting, constitution-building, or
 other machinery whatsoever
can improve it a whit. It is in the
perfect state; an ideal country.

Carlyle did not believe in hereditary

monarchy but in a kingship based on merit.
He continues:

The Ablest Man; he means also

the truest-hearted, justest, the
Noblest Man: what he tells us to
do must be precisely the wisest,
fittest, that we could anywhere
or anyhow learn;—the thing
which it will in all ways behoove
 us, with right loyal
thankfulness, and nothing
doubting, to do! Our doing and
life were then, so far as
government could regulate it,
well regulated; that were the
ideal of constitutions.[175]

It was for this reason that he regarded the

Reformation, the English Civil War and the
French Revolution as triumphs of truth over
falsehood, despite their undermining of
necessary societal institutions.[176]
Chivalry of Labour

Carlyle advocated a new kind of hero for

the age of industrialisation: the Captain of
Industry, who would re-imbue workhouses
with dignity and honour. These Captains
would make up a new "Aristocracy of
Talent", or "Government of the Wisest".
Instead of competition and "Cash
Payment", which had become "the
universal sole nexus of man to man",[177]
the Captain of Industry would oversee the
Chivalry of Labour, in which loyal labourers
and enlightened employers are joined
together "in veritable brotherhood,
sonhood, by quite other and deeper ties
than those of temporary day's wages!"[178]

Glossary

The 1907 edition of The Nuttall

Encyclopædia contains entries on the
following Carlylean terms:[179]

Cash Nexus
The reduction (under capitalism) of all
human relationships, but especially
relations of production, to monetary
exchange.[e]
Dismal Science
Carlyle's name for the political economy
that with self-complacency leaves
everything to settle itself by the law of
supply and demand, as if that were all
the law and the prophets. The name is
applied to every science that affects to
dispense with the spiritual as a ruling
factor in human affairs.
Eternities, The Conflux of
Carlyle's expressive phrase for Time, as
in every moment of it a centre in which
all the forces to and from Eternity meet
and unite, so that by no past and no
future can we be brought nearer to
Eternity than where we at any moment
of Time are; the Present Time, the
youngest born of Eternity, being the child
and heir of all the Past times with their
good and evil, and the parent of all the
Future, the import of which (see Matt.
xvi. 27) it is accordingly the first and
most sacred duty of every successive
age, and especially the leaders of it, to
know and lay to heart as the only link by
which Eternity lays hold of it and it of
Eternity.
Everlasting No, The
Carlyle's name for the spirit of unbelief in
God, especially as it manifested itself in
his own, or rather Teufelsdröckh's,
warfare against it; the spirit, which, as
embodied in the Mephistopheles (q. v.)
of Goethe, is for ever denying,—der stets
verneint—the reality of the divine in the
thoughts, the character, and the life of
humanity, and has a malicious pleasure
in scoffing at everything high and noble
as hollow and void.
Everlasting Yea, The
Carlyle's name for the spirit of faith in
God in an express attitude of clear,
resolute, steady, and uncompromising
antagonism to the Everlasting No, on the
principle that there is no such thing as
faith in God except in such antagonism,
no faith except in such antagonism
against the spirit opposed to God.
Gigman
Carlyle's name for a man who prides
himself on, and pays all respect to,
respectability; derived from a definition
once given in a court of justice by a
witness who, having described a person
as respectable, was asked by the judge
in the case what he meant by the word;
"one that keeps a gig", was the answer.[f]
Immensities, Centre of
an expression of Carlyle's to signify that
wherever any one is, he is in touch with
the whole universe of being, and is, if he
knew it, as near the heart of it there as
anywhere else he can be.
Logic Spectacles
Carlyle's name for eyes that can only
discern the external relations of things,
but not the inner nature of them.
Natural Supernaturalism
Carlyle's name in "Sartor" for the
supernatural found latent in the natural,
and manifesting itself in it, or of the
miraculous in the common and everyday
course of things; name of a chapter
which, says Dr. Stirling, "contains the
very first word of a higher philosophy as
yet spoken in Great Britain, the very first
English word towards the restoration
and rehabilitation of the dethroned
Upper Powers";[g] recognition at bottom,
as the Hegelian philosophy teaches, and
the life of Christ certifies, of the finiting
of the infinite in the transitory forms of
space and time.
Silence, Worship of
Carlyle's name for the sacred respect for
restraint in speech till "thought has
silently matured itself, . . . to hold one's
tongue till some meaning lie behind to
set it wagging",[h] a doctrine which many
misunderstand, almost wilfully, it would
seem; silence being to him the very
womb out of which all great things are
born.
Style
Carlyle believed that his time required a
new approach to writing:

But finally do you reckon this

really a time for Purism of Style;
or that Style (mere dictionary
style) has much to do with the
worth or unworth of a Book? I
do not: with whole ragged
battallions of Scott's-Novel
Scotch, with Irish, German,
French and even Newspaper
Cockney (when "Literature" is
 little other than a Newspaper)
storming in on us, and the whole
structure of our Johnsonian
English breaking up from its
foundations,—revolution there
as visible as anywhere else![182]

Carlyle's style lends itself to several nouns,

the earliest being Carlylism from 1841. The
Oxford English Dictionary records
Carlylese, the most commonly used of
these terms, as having first appeared in
1858.[183] Carlylese makes characteristic
use of certain literary, rhetorical and
grammatical devices, including
apostrophe, apposition, archaism,
exclamation, imperative mood, inversion,
parallelism, portmanteau, present tense,
neologisms, metaphor, personification, and
repetition.[184][185]

Carlylese

At the beginning of his literary career,

Carlyle worked to develop his own style,
cultivating one of intense energy and
visualisation, characterised not by
"balance, gravity, and composure" but
"imbalance, excess, and excitement."[186]
Even in his early anonymous periodical
essays his writing distinguished him from
his contemporaries. Carlyle's writing in
Sartor Resartus is described as "a
distinctive mixture of exuberant poetic
rhapsody, Germanic speculation, and
biblical exhortation, which Carlyle used to
celebrate the mystery of everyday
existence and to depict a universe
suffused with creative energy."[187]

Portrait etching of Carlyle by Alphonse Legros

Carlyle's approach to historical writing was
inspired by a quality that he found in the
works of Goethe, Bunyan and
Shakespeare: "Everything has form,
everything has visual existence; the poet's
imagination bodies forth the forms of
things unseen, his pen turns them to
shape."[188] He rebuked typical, Dryasdust
historiography: "Dull Pedantry, conceited
idle Dilettantism,—prurient Stupidity in what
shape soever,—is darkness and not
light!"[189] Rather than reporting events in a
detached, distanced manner, he presents
immediate, tangible occurrences, often in
the present tense.[190] In his French
Revolution, "the great prose epic of the
nineteenth century", Carlyle managed to
craft an overwhelmingly original voice,
producing deliberate tension by combining
the common language of the time with
self-conscious allusions to traditional
epics, Homer, Shakespeare, Milton, or
some contemporary French history source
in nearly every sentence of its three
volumes.[187]

Carlyle's social criticism directs his

penchant for metaphor toward the
Condition-of-England question, depicting a
thoroughly diseased society. Declaiming
the aimlessness and infirmity of English
leadership, Carlyle made use of satirical
characters like Sir Jabesh Windbag and
Bobus of Houndsditch in Past and Present.
Memorable catchphrases such as
Morrison's Pill, the Gospel of Mammonism,
and "Doing as One Likes" were employed
to counteract empty platitudes of the day.
Carlyle transformed his depicted reality in
various ways, whether by conversion of
actual human beings into grotesque
caricatures, envisioning isolated facts as
emblems of morality, or by manifestation
of the supernatural; in the Pamphlets,
pampered felons appear in nightmarish
visions and wrongheaded philanthropists
wallow in their own filth.[191]
Carlyle could at once use imaginative
powers of rhetoric and vision to "render the
familiar unfamiliar". He could also be a
sharp-eyed, keen observer of the actual,
reproducing scenes with imagistic clarity,
as he does in the Reminiscences, the Life
of John Sterling and the letters; he has
often been called the Victorian
Rembrandt.[192][193][194] As Mark Cumming
explains, "Carlyle's intense appreciation of
visual existence and of the innate energy
of object, coupled with his insistent
awareness of language and his daunting
verbal resources, formed the immediate
and lasting appeal of his style."[191]
Coinages
Carlyle Quotations in the O.E.D.

Type Number Author rank

Tot al quot at ions[i] 6778 26t h

First quot at ions[j] 547 45t h

First quot at ions in a special sense [k] 1789 33rd

The present table represents data

gathered from Oxford English Dictionary
Online, 2012. An explanatory footnote is
provided for each "Type".

Over fifty percent of these entries come

from Sartor Resartus, French Revolution,
and History of Frederick the Great. Of the
547 First Quotations cited by the O.E.D., 87
or 16% are listed as being "in common use
today."[195]
Humour

Carlyle's sense of humour and use of

humorous characters was shaped by early
readings of Cervantes, Samuel Butler,
Jonathan Swift, and Laurence Sterne. He
initially attempted a fashionable irony in
his writing, which he soon abandoned in
favour of a "deeper spirit" of humour. In his
essays on Jean Paul, Carlyle rejects the
dismissive, ironic humour of Voltaire and
Molière, embracing the warm and
sympathetic approach of Jean Paul and
Cervantes. Carlyle establishes humour in
many of his works through his use of
characters, such as the Editor (in Sartor
Resartus), Diogenes Teufelsdröckh
(lit. 'God-born Devil's-dung'), Gottfried
Sauerteig, Dryasdust, and Smelfungus.
Linguistically, Carlyle explores the
humorous possibilities of his subject
through exaggerated and dazzling
wordplay, "in sentences abounding with
rhetorical devices: emphasis by
capitalization, punctuation marks, and
italics; allegory, symbol, and other poetic
devices; hyphenated words, Germanic
translations and etymologies; quotations,
self-quotations, and bizarre allusions; and
repetitious and antiquated speech."[196]
Allusion

Carlyle's writing is highly allusive. Ruth

apRoberts writes that "Thomas Carlyle
may well be, of all writers in English, the
most thoroughly imbued with the Bible. His
language, his imagery, his syntax, his
stance, his worldview—are all affected by
it."[197] Job, Ecclesiastes, Psalms and
Proverbs are Carlyle's most frequently
referenced books of the Old Testament,
and Matthew that of the New
Testament.[198] The structure of Sartor
uses a basic typological Biblical
pattern.[199] The French Revolution is filled
with dozens of Homeric allusions,
quotations, and a liberal use of epithets
drawn from Homer as well as Homeric
epithets of Carlyle's own devising.[200] The
influence of Homer, particularly his
attention to detail, his strongly visual
imagination, and his appreciation of
language, is also seen in Past and Present
and Frederick the Great.[201] The language
and imagery of John Milton is present
throughout Carlyle's writings. His letters
are full of allusions to a wide range of
Milton's texts, including Lycidas, L'Allegro, Il
Penseroso, Comus, Samson Agonistes and,
most frequently, Paradise Lost.[202]
Carlyle's works abound with direct and
indirect references to William
Shakespeare. The French Revolution
contains two dozen allusions to Hamlet
alone, and dozens more to Macbeth,
Othello, Julius Caesar, King Lear, Romeo
and Juliet, the histories, and the
comedies.[203]

Reception

The earliest literary criticism on Carlyle is

an 1835 letter from Sterling, who
complained of the "positively barbarous"
use of words in Sartor, such as
"environment," "stertorous," and "visualised,"
words "without any authority" that are now
widely used.[204] William Makepeace
Thackeray recorded his mixed response in
his 1837 review of French Revolution,
decrying its "Germanisms and Latinisms"
while acknowledging that "with
perseverance, understanding follows, and
things perceived first as faults are seen to
be part of his originality, and powerful
innovations in English prose."[205]

Henry David Thoreau expressed

appreciation in "Thomas Carlyle and His
Works":

Indeed, for fluency and skill in

the use of the English tongue, he
is a master unrivalled. His
felicity and power of expression
surpass even his special merits
as historian and critic. . . . we
had not understood the wealth
of the language before. . . . He
does not go to the dictionary,
the wordbook, but to the word-
manufactory itself, and has
made endless work for the
lexicographers . . . it would be
well for any who have a lost
horse to advertise, or a town-
meeting warrant, or a sermon,
or a letter to write, to study this
 universal letter-writer, for he
knows more than the grammar
or the dictionary.[206]

Oscar Wilde wrote that among the very

few masters of English prose, "We have
Carlyle, who should not be imitated."[207]
Matthew Arnold advised: "Flee Carlylese
as you would the devil."[208]

Frederic Harrison deemed Carlyle the

"literary dictator of Victorian prose."[209] T.
S. Eliot complained that "Carlyle partly
originates and partly marks the
disturbances in the equilibrium of English
prose style", a problem that only
disappeared with Ulysses.[210] Indeed,
Georg B. Tennyson remarked that "not until
Joyce is there a comparable inventiveness
in English prose."[211]

Character

Medallion of Carlyle by Thomas Woolner, 1851. James Caw said that it recalled Lady Eastlake's description of him: "The
head of a thinker, the eye of a lover, and the mouth of a peasant."[212]

Froude recalled his first impression of

Carlyle:
He was then fifty-four years old;
tall (about five feet eleven), thin,
but at that time upright, with no
signs of the later stoop. His body
was angular, his face beardless,
such as it is represented in
Woolner's medallion,[l] which is
by far the best likeness of him in
the days of his strength. His
head was extremely long, with
the chin thrust forward; his
neck was thin; the mouth firmly
closed, the under lip slightly
projecting; the hair grizzled and
 thick and bushy. His eyes, which
grew lighter with age, were then
of a deep violet, with fire
burning at the bottom of them,
which flashed out at the least
excitement. The face was
altogether most striking, most
impressive in every way.[213]

He was often recognised by his

wideawake hat.[214]

Carlyle was a renowned conversationalist.

Emerson described him as "an immense
talker, as extraordinary in his conversation
as in his writing,—I think even more so."
Darwin considered him "the most worth
listening to, of any man I know."[215] Lecky
noted his "singularly musical voice" which
"quite took away anything grotesque in the
very strong Scotch accent" and "gave it a
softening or charm".[216] Henry Fielding
Dickens recollected that he was "gifted
with a high sense of humour, and when he
laughed he did so heartily, throwing his
head back and letting himself go."[217]
Thomas Wentworth Higginson
remembered his "broad, honest, human
laugh," one that "cleared the air like
thunder, and left the atmosphere
sweet."[218] Lady Eastlake called it "the
best laugh I ever heard".[219]
Charles Eliot Norton wrote that Carlyle's
"essential nature was solitary in its
strength, its sincerity, its tenderness, its
nobility. He was nearer Dante than any
other man."[220] Harrison similarly
observed that "Carlyle walked about
London like Dante in the streets of Verona,
gnawing his own heart and dreaming
dreams of Inferno. To both the passers-by
might have said, See! there goes the man
who has seen hell".[221] Higginson rather
felt that Jean Paul's humorous character
Siebenkäs "came nearer to the actual
Carlyle than most of the grave portraitures
yet executed", for, like Siebenkäs, Carlyle
was "a satirical improvisatore".[222]
Emerson saw Carlyle as "not mainly a
scholar," but "a practical Scotchman, such
as you would find in any saddler's or iron-
dealer's shop, and then only accidentally
and by a surprising addition, the admirable
scholar and writer he is."[223]

Paul Elmer More found Carlyle "a figure

unique, isolated, domineering—after Dr.
Johnson the greatest personality in English
letters, possibly even more imposing than
that acknowledged dictator."[224]
Legacy

Influence

S tatue of Thomas Carlyle in Chelsea

George Eliot summarised Carlyle's impact

in 1855:
It is an idle question to ask
whether his books will be read a
century hence: if they were all
burnt as the grandest of Suttees
on his funeral pile, it would be
only like cutting down an oak
after its acorns have sown a
forest. For there is hardly a
superior or active mind of this
generation that has not been
modified by Carlyle's writings;
there has hardly been an
English book written for the last
ten or twelve years that would
 not have been different if Carlyle
had not lived.[225]

Carlyle's two most important followers

were Emerson and Ruskin. In the 19th
century, Emerson was often thought of as
"the American Carlyle".[226] He sent Carlyle
one of his books in 1870 with the
inscription, "To the General in Chief from
his Lieutenant".[227] In 1854, Ruskin made
his first public acknowledgement that
Carlyle was the author to whom he "owed
more than to any other living writer".[228]
After reading Ruskin's Unto This Last
(1860), Carlyle felt that they were "in a
minority of two", a feeling which Ruskin
shared.[229][230] From the 1860s onward,
Ruskin frequently referred to him as his
"master" and "papa," writing after Carlyle's
death that he was "throwing myself now
into the mere fulfilment of Carlyle's
work."[231]

By 1960, Carlyle had become "the single

most frequent topic of doctoral
dissertations in the field of Victorian
literature".[232] While preparing for a study
of his own, German scholar Gerhart von
Schulze-Gävernitz found himself
overwhelmed by the amount of material
already written about Carlyle—in 1894.[14]
Literature

"The most explosive impact in English

literature during the nineteenth century is
unquestionably Thomas Carlyle's", writes
Lionel Stevenson. "From about 1840
onward, no author of prose or poetry was
immune from his influence."[233]

'Carlyle and Tennyson talked and smoked together.' by J. R. S kelton, 1920. Carlyle on Tennyson: "I do not meet, in these
late decades, such company over a pipe!"[234]
Authors on whom Carlyle's influence was
particularly strong include Matthew
Arnold,[235] Elizabeth Barrett Browning,[236]
Robert Browning,[237] Arthur Hugh
Clough,[238] Dickens, Disraeli, George
Eliot,[239] Elizabeth Gaskell,[240] Frank
Harris,[241] Kingsley, George Henry
Lewes,[242] David Masson, George
Meredith,[243] Mill, Margaret Oliphant, Luigi
Pirandello,[244] Marcel Proust,[245][246]
Ruskin, George Bernard Shaw[247] and Walt
Whitman.[248] Germaine Brée has shown
the considerable impact that Carlyle had
on the thought of André Gide.[249]
Carlylean influence is also seen in the
writings of Ryūnosuke Akutagawa,
Leopoldo Alas,[250] Marcu Beza, Jorge Luis
Borges, the Brontës,[251] Arthur Conan
Doyle, Antonio Fogazzaro,[244] E. M.
Forster, Ángel Ganivet, Lafcadio Hearn,
William Ernest Henley, Marietta Holley,
Rudyard Kipling,[252] Selma Lagerlöf,
Herman Melville,[253] Alfredo Panzini,[244]
Edgar Quinet, Samuel Smiles, Tokutomi
Sohō,[254] Lord Tennyson, William
Makepeace Thackeray, Anthony Trollope,
Miguel de Unamuno, Alexandru Vlahuță
and Vasile Voiculescu.[255][256]

Carlyle's German essays and translations

as well as his own writings were pivotal to
the development of the English
Bildungsroman.[257] His concept of
symbols influenced French literary
Symbolism.[258] Victorian specialist Alice
Chandler writes that the influence of his
medievalism is "found throughout the
literature of the Victorian age".[259]

Carlyle's influence was also felt in the

negative sense. Algernon Charles
Swinburne, whose comments on Carlyle
throughout his writings range from high
praise to scathing critique, once wrote to
John Morley that Carlyle was "the
illustrious enemy whom we all lament",
reflecting a view of Carlyle as a totalizing
figure to be rebelled against.[260]
Despite the broad Modernist reaction
against the Victorians, the influence of
Carlyle has been traced in the writings of T.
S. Eliot,[261] James Joyce, Wyndham
Lewis[262] and D. H. Lawrence.[263]

Philosophy

J. H. Muirhead wrote that Carlyle

"exercised an influence in England and
America that no other did upon the course
of philosophical thought of his time". Ralph
Jessop has shown that Carlyle powerfully
forwarded the Scottish School of Common
Sense and reinforced it by way of further
engagement with German idealism.[264]
Examining his influence on late 19th- and
early 20th-century philosophers, Alexander
Jordan concluded that "Carlyle emerges
as far-and-away the most prominent figure
in a tradition of Scottish philosophy that
stretched across three centuries and
which culminated in British Idealism". His
formative influence on British idealism
touched its nearly every aspect, including
its theology, its moral and ethical
philosophy and its social and political
thought. Leading British idealist F. H.
Bradley cited from the "Everlasting Yea"
chapter of Sartor Resartus in his argument
against utilitarianism: "Love not Pleasure;
love God."[265]
Carlyle had a foundational influence on
American Transcendentalism. Virtually
every member followed him with
enthusiasm, including Amos Bronson
Alcott, Louisa May Alcott, Orestes
Brownson, William Henry Channing,
Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Frederic Henry
Hedge, Henry James Sr., Thoreau, and
George Ripley.[266] James Freeman Clarke
wrote that "He did not seem to be giving us
a new creed, so much as inspiring us with
a new life."[267]

Chandler writes that "Carlyle's contribution

to English medievalism was first to make
the contrast between modern and
medieval England sharper and more
horrifying than it had ever been." Secondly,
he "gave new direction to the practical
application of medievalism, transferring its
field of action from agriculture, which was
no longer the center of English life, to
manufacturing, in which its lessons could
be extremely valuable."[259]

G. K. Chesterton posited that "Out of

[Carlyle] flows most of the philosophy of
Nietzsche,"[268] a view held by many; the
connection has been studied since the
late-nineteenth century.[269] But Nietzsche
rejected this.[270]
Carlyle influenced the Young Poland
movement, particularly its main thought
leaders Stanisław Brzozowski and Antoni
Lange.[271] In Romania, Titu Maiorescu of
Junimea spread Carlyle's works,
influencing Constantin Antoniade and
others, including Panait Mușoiu,
Constantin Rădulescu-Motru and Ion Th.
Simionescu.[255]

Percival Chubb delivered an address on

Carlyle to The Ethical Society of St. Louis
in 1910. It was the first in a series entitled
"Forerunners of Our Faith".[272]
Historiography

David R. Sorensen affirms that Carlyle

"redeemed the study of history at a
moment when it was being threatened by a
host of convergent forces, including
religious dogmatism, relativism,
utilitarianism, Saint-Simonianism and
Comtism" by defending the "miraculous
dimension of the past" from attempts to
make "history a science of progress,
philosophy a justification of self-interest,
and faith a matter of social
convenience."[273] James Anthony Froude
attributed his decision to become an
historian to Carlyle's influence.[274] John
Mitchel's Life of Aodh O'Neill, Prince of
Ulster (1845) has been called "an early
incursion of Carlylean thought into the
romantic construction of the Irish
nation".[275] Standish James O'Grady's
presentation of a heroic past in his History
of Ireland (1878–80) was strongly
influenced by Carlyle.[276] Wilhelm Dilthey
deemed Carlyle "the greatest English writer
of the century".[277] Carlyle's histories were
also praised by Heinrich von
Treitschke,[278] Wilhelm Windelband,[279]
George Peabody Gooch, Pieter Geyl,
Charles Firth,[280] Nicolae Iorga, Vasile
Pârvan and Andrei Oțetea.[255] Others were
hostile to Carlyle's method, such as
Thomas Babington Macaulay, Leopold von
Ranke, Lord Acton, Hippolyte Taine and
Jules Michelet.[281]

Sorensen says that "modern historians and

historiographers owe a debt to [Carlyle]
that few are prepared to
acknowledge".[273] Among those few is C.
V. Wedgwood, who called him "one of the
great masters."[282] Another is John
Philipps Kenyon, who noted that "he has
commanded the respect of historians as
diverse as James Anthony Froude, G. M.
Trevelyan and Hugh Trevor-Roper."[283]
Social and political movements

Never had political progressivism a foe it

could more heartily respect.

Walt Whitman, "Carlyle from American

Points of View"[284]

Chandler, writing in 1970, said that the

influence of Carlyle's medievalism can be
found "in much of the social legislation of
the past hundred and more years".[259] It is
perhaps most pronounced in Forster's
Education Act,[285] the Industrial
Conciliation and Arbitration Act,[286] the
Factory Acts, and the rise of such
practices as business ethics and profit
sharing throughout the 19th- and early
20th-centuries.[287] His attacks on laissez-
faire became an important inspiration for
U.S. progressives,[288] influencing the
creations of the American Association for
Labor Legislation, the National Child Labor
Committee and the National Consumers
League.[287] His economic statism
influenced the progressive American
Economic Association's early concept of
"intelligent social engineering" (which has
been described as elitist and
eugenicist).[289] Leopold Caro credited
Carlyle with influencing the social altruism
of Henry Ford.[249]
Carlyle's influence on modern socialism
has been described as "constitutive".[290]
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels cited him in
The Condition of the Working Class in
England (1844–1845), The Holy Family
(1845), and The Communist Manifesto
(1848).[291] Alexander Herzen and Vasily
Botkin valued his writings, the former
calling him "a Scotch Proudhon."[292][293]
He was one of the main "intellectual
sources" for Christian socialism.[294] His
importance to the British fin de siècle
labour movement was acknowledged by
major figures such as William Morris, Keir
Hardie and Robert Blatchford.[295]
Individual reformers took inspiration from
him, including Octavia Hill,[296] Emmeline
Pankhurst[297] and Jane Addams.[298]

Woodcut of Thomas Carlyle by Robert Bryden, 1901

Carlyle's aversion to the label

notwithstanding, 19th-centuy
conservatives were influenced by him.
Morris Edmund Speare cites Carlyle as
"one of the greatest influences" on
Disraeli's life.[299] Robert Blake links the
two as "romantic, conservative, organic
thinkers who revolted against Benthamism
and the legacy of eighteenth-century
rationalism."[300] Leslie Stephen noted
Carlyle's influence on his brother James
Fitzjames Stephen in the early 1870s.[301]

Nationalist movements also looked to

Carlyle. He was admired by the Young
Irelanders, despite his opposition to their
cause. Duffy wrote that in Carlyle, they
found a "very welcome" teacher, who
"confirmed their determination to think for
themselves", and that his writings were
"often a cordial to their hearts in doubt and
difficulty".[302] Carlyle's philosophy was
popular in the Antebellum South and
eventual Confederacy.[303][304][305] In 1848,
The Southern Quarterly Review declared:
"The spirit of Thomas Carlyle is abroad in
the land."[306] American historian William E.
Dodd wrote that Carlyle's "doctrine of
social subordination and class distinction .
. . was all that Dew and Harper and
Calhoun and Hammond desired. The
greatest realist in England had weighed
their system and found it just and
humane."[307] Southern sociologist George
Fitzhugh's notions of palingenesis, multi-
racial slavery, and authoritarianism were
profoundly influenced by Carlyle (as was
his prose style).[308][309] Richard Wagner
used Carlyle, whom he called a "great
thinker", to justify his later German
nationalism.[310] References to Carlyle
appear in the writings of Indian nationalist
Mahatma Gandhi throughout his life.[311]

More recently, figures associated with the

Nouvelle Droite, the Neoreactionary
movement, and the alt-right have claimed
Carlyle as an influence on their approach
to metapolitics.[312] At a meeting of the
New Right in London in July 2008, English
artist Jonathan Bowden delivered a lecture
in which he said, "All of our great thinkers
are shooting arrows into the future. And
Carlyle is one of them."[313] In 2010,
American blogger Curtis Yarvin labeled
himself a Carlylean "the way a Marxist is a
Marxist."[314] New Zealand-born writer
Kerry Bolton wrote in 2020 that Carlyle's
works "could be the ideological basis of a
true British Right" and that they "remain as
timeless foundations on which the
Anglophone Right can return to its actual
premises."[315]
Art

Blue China by Max Beerbohm (1922), depicting Whistler and Carlyle

Carlyle's medievalist critique of industrial

practice and political economy was an
early utterance of what would become the
spirit of both the Pre-Raphaelite
Brotherhood and the Arts and Crafts
movement, and several leading members
recognised his importance.[316] John
William Mackail, friend and official
biographer of William Morris, wrote, that in
the years of Morris and Edward Burne-
Jones attendance at Oxford, Past and
Present stood as "inspired and absolute
truth."[317] Morris read a letter from Carlyle
at the first public meeting of the Society
for the Protection of Ancient Buildings.[318]
Fiona MacCarthy, a recent biographer,
affirmed that Morris was "deeply and
lastingly" indebted to Carlyle.[319] William
Holman Hunt considered Carlyle to be a
mentor of his. He used Carlyle as one of
the models for the head of Christ in The
Light of the World and showed great
concern for Carlyle's portrayal in Ford
Madox Brown's painting Work (1865).[320]
Carlyle helped Thomas Woolner to find
work early in his career and throughout,
and the sculptor would become "a kind of
surrogate son" to the Carlyles, referring to
Carlyle as "the dear old philosopher".[321]
Phoebe Anna Traquair depicted Carlyle,
one of her favourite writers, in murals
painted for the Royal Hospital for Sick
Children and St Mary's Cathedral in
Edinburgh.[322] According to Marylu Hill, the
Roycrofters were "very influenced by
Carlyle's words about work and the
necessity of work", with his name
appearing frequently in their writings, which
are held at Villanova University.[323]
Thackeray wrote that Carlyle had done
more than any other to give "art for art's
sake . . . its independence."[324] apRoberts
explains that Carlyle "did much to set the
stage for the Aesthetic Movement" through
both his German and original writings,
noting that he even popularised (if not
introduced) the term "Æesthetics" into the
English language, leading her to declare
him as "the apostle of aesthetics in
England, 1825–27."[325] Carlyle's rhetorical
style and his views on art also provided a
foundation for aestheticism, particularly
that of Walter Pater, Wilde, and W. B.
Yeats.[326]
Controversies

Froude controversy

'Froude besmirching Carlyle', illustration from Punch's Almanac, 31 December 1881

Carlyle had entrusted his papers to

Froude's care after his death but was
unclear about the permissions granted to
him. Froude edited and published the
Reminiscences in 1881, which sparked
controversy due to Froude's failure to
excise comments that might offend living
persons, as was common practice at the
time. The book damaged Carlyle's
reputation, as did the following Letters and
Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle and the
four-volume biography of life as written by
Froude. The image that Froude presented
of Carlyle and his marriage was highly
negative, prompting new editions of the
Reminiscences and the letters by Norton
and Alexander Carlyle, who argued that,
among other things, Froude had
mishandled the materials entrusted to him
in a deliberate and dishonest manner. This
argument overshadowed Carlyle's work for
decades. Owen Dudley Edwards remarked
that by the turn of the century, "Carlyle was
known more than read".[327] As Campbell
describes:

The effect of Froude’s work in

the years following Carlyle’s
death was extraordinary.
Almost overnight, it seemed,
Carlyle plunged from his
position as Sage of Chelsea and
Grand Old Victorian to the
object of puzzled dislike, or even
of revulsion.[328]
Racism and antisemitism

Fielding writes that Carlyle "was often

ready to play up to being a caricature of
prejudice".[329] Targets for his ire included
the French, the Irish, Slavs,[330] Turks,
Americans, Catholics, and, most explicitly,
blacks and Jews. Duffy recorded Carlyle's
response to Duffy's telling him that "he had
taught Mitchel to oppose the liberation of
the negroes and the emancipation of the
Jews."

Mitchel, he said, would be found

to be right in the end; the black
man could not be emancipated
 from the laws of nature, which
had pronounced a very decided
decree on the question, and
neither could the Jew.[331]

Carlyle "resembled most of his

contemporaries" in his beliefs about Jews,
identifying them with capitalist materialism
and outmoded religious orthodoxy.[332][333]
He wished that the English would throw off
their "Hebrew Old-Clothes" and abandon
the Hebraic element in Christianity, or
Christianity altogether.[334] Carlyle had
once considered writing a book called
Exodus from Houndsditch,[m] "a pealing off
of fetid Jewhood in every sense from
myself and my poor bewildered
brethren".[335] Froude described Carlyle's
aversion to the Jews as "Teutonic". He felt
they had contributed nothing to the
"wealth" of mankind, comparing "the Jews
with their morbid imaginations and foolish
sheepskin Targums" to "The Norse with
their steel swords guided by fresh valiant
hearts and clear veracious
understanding".[336][337] Carlyle refused an
invitation by Baron Rothschild in 1848 to
support a Bill in Parliament to allow voting
rights for Jews in the United Kingdom,
asking Richard Monckton Milnes in a
correspondence how a Jew could "try to
be Senator, or even Citizen, of any Country,
except his own wretched Palestine," and
expressed his hope that they would "arrive"
in Palestine "as soon as possible".[338]

Henry Crabb Robinson heard Carlyle at

dinner in 1837 speak approvingly of
slavery. "It is a natural aristocracy, that of
colour, and quite right that the stronger and
better race should have dominion!"[339] The
1853 pamphlet "Occasional Discourse on
the Nigger Question" expressed concern
for the excesses of the practice,
considering "How to abolish the abuses of
slavery, and save the precious thing in
it."[340]
Prussianist / Nazi appropriation

From Goethe's recognition of Carlyle as "a

moral force of great importance" in 1827
to the celebration of his centennial as
though he were a national hero in 1895,
Carlyle had long enjoyed a high reputation
in Germany.[341] Passages from Frederick
were even part of the curriculum in German
schools. Carlyle's support of Bismarck and
the Silesian Wars led to suspicion during
the Great War that he would have
supported the German Empire and its
leaders (such as Theobald von Bethmann
Hollweg and Gottlieb von Jagow). Allied
nations largely regarded Carlyle as a
Prussianist, the "spiritual brother of
Clausewitz and Treitschke." Prussian
statesmen had identified Carlyle's "gospel
of force" with their doctrine of Weltmacht
oder Untergang (World Power or Downfall)
in order to "make their own side
respectable." Herbert L. Stewart defended
Carlyle's memory by arguing that besides a
shared opposition to democracy, his belief
that "Right makes Might"[n] is "far removed"
from "the ethic of militarism", and his
"Puritan Theodicy" has nothing to do with
the "Immoralism of German Kriegsherren"
(Warlords).[343]
With the rise of Adolf Hitler, many agreed
with the assessment of K. O. Schmidt in
1933, who came to see Carlyle as den
ersten englischen Nationalsozialisten (the
first English National Socialist). William
Joyce (founder of the National Socialist
League and the Carlyle Club, a cultural arm
of the NSL named for Carlyle)[344] wrote of
how "Germany has repaid him for his
scholarship on her behalf by honouring his
philosophy when it is scorned in
Britain."[345] German academics viewed
him as having been immersed in and an
outgrowth of German culture, just as
National Socialism was. They proposed
that Heroes and Hero-Worship justified the
Führerprinzip (Leadership principle).
Theodor Jost wrote in 1935: "Carlyle
established, in fact, the mission of the
Führer historically and philosophically. He
fights, himself a Führer, vigorously against
the masses, he . . . becomes a pathfinder
for new thoughts and forms." Parallels
were also drawn between Carlyle's critique
of Victorian England in Latter-Day
Pamphlets and Nazi opposition to the
Weimar Republic.[341]

Some believed that Carlyle was German by

blood. Echoing Paul Hensel's earlier claim
in 1901 that Carlyle's Volkscharakter (Folk
character) had preserved "the peculiarity
of the Low German tribe", Egon Friedell, an
anti-Nazi and Jewish Austrian, explained in
1935 that Carlyle's affinity with Germany
stemmed from his being "a Scotsman of
the lowlands, where the Celtic imprint is far
more marginal than it is with the High
Scottish and the Low German element is
even stronger than it is in England."[346]
Others regarded him, if not ethnically
German, as a Geist von unserem Geist
(Spirit from our Spirit), as Karl Richter
wrote in 1937: "Carlyle's ethos is the ethos
of the Nordic soul par excellence."[347]

In 1945, Joseph Goebbels frequently

sought consolation from Carlyle's History
of Frederick the Great. Goebbels read
passages from the book to Hitler during
his last days in the Führerbunker.[348]

While some Germans were eager to claim

Carlyle for the Reich, others were more
aware of incompatibilities. In 1936,
Theodor Deimel argued that because of
the "profound difference" between Carlyle's
philosophical foundation of "a personally
shaped religious idea" and the Völkisch
foundation of National Socialism, the
designation of Carlyle as the "first National
Socialist" is "mistaken".[349] Ernst Cassirer
rejected the notion of Carlyle as proto-
fascist in The Myth of the State (1946),
emphasizing the moral underpinning of his
thought. Tennyson has also commented
that Carlyle's anti-modernist and anti-
egoist stances disqualify him from
association with 20th-century
totalitarianism.[350]

In literature
This section lists parodies of and
references to Carlyle in literature.
Caricature of Carlyle by Carlo Pellegrini in Vanity Fair

William Maginn parodied Carlyle in the

"Gallery of Literary Characters" Number
37, appearing in Fraser's Magazine for
June 1833.[351]
In January 1838 Disraeli published a
series of political letters in the Times
under the heading of Old England and
signed Couer de Lion, which imitated
Carlyle's style.[352]
Carlyle is cast as Collins in "The Onyx
Ring," a tale by John Sterling which first
appeared in Blackwood's Magazine in
1843.[353]
James Russell Lowell's The Biglow
Papers of 1848 features a "notice" from
the fictitious World-Harmonic-Æolian-
Attachment in parody of Carlyle.[354]

Kingsley introduced Carlylean

characters in Yeast, A Novel (1848) and
Alton Locke: Tailor and Poet, An
Autobiography (1850).[351]
Fraser's again parodied Carlyle in
November 1849, this time by Charles
Henry Waring.[354]
Carlyle received two parodic treatments
in Punch shortly after the publication of
the Pamphlets in 1850.[354]
Edward FitzGerald referred to Carlyle in
Euphranor (1851) and Polonius (1852),
his first published works.[355]
Trollope parodied Carlyle in chapter 15
of The Warden (1855) in the figure of Dr.
Pessimist Anticant.[351]
Barrett Browning mentions Carlyle by
name in book five of Aurora Leigh
(1856).[236]
Scottish author and businessman
Patrick Proctor Alexander published "An
Occasional Discourse on Sauerteig"
(1859), attributed to Smelfungus.[354]
David Atwood Wasson parodied Carlyle
in 1863 in a "strongly critical rejoinder" to
"Ilias (Americana) in Nuce".[354]
Harrison wrote "A New Lecture on Hero-
Worship" in 1867, attacking Carlyle's
support of Governor Eyre.[354]
Mark Twain wrote a satirical response to
"Shooting Niagara" entitled "A Day at
Niagara" (1869).[356]
Meredith wrote a sonnet "To Carlyle" for
his eightieth birthday in 1875.[243]
Carlyle figures in Meredith's
Beauchamp's Career (1876) as Dr.
Shrapnel.[351]
Swinburne coupled Carlyle with John
Henry Newman in "Two Leaders"
(1878).[357]
James D. Merritt suggests that Carlyle
be considered as the original of St.
Barbe in Disraeli's Endymion (1880).[358]
Swinburne wrote the sonnets "On the
Deaths of Thomas Carlyle and George
Eliot" and "After Looking into Carlyle's
Reminiscences" (1882).[359]
Montgomery Schuyler composed a
sonnet, "Carlyle and Emerson"
(1883).[360]
Sarah Orne Jewett wrote "Carlyle in
America", an unpublished short story, in
1885.[361][362]
In Henry James' The Bostonians (1886),
Basil Ransom is described as "an
immense admirer of the late Thomas
Carlyle."[363]
Arthur Conan Doyle references Carlyle in
his 1887 novel A Study in Scarlet, using a
character's unfamiliarity with the name
to illustrate his utter ignorance.[364]
William Bell Scott, in his
Autobiographical Sketches (1892), refers
to a piece published in "an obscure
magazine" titled "More Letters of Oliver
Cromwell" wherein "the style of Carlyle
[is] imitated."[352]
In Samuel Butler's The Way of All Flesh
(1903), Ernest Pontifex is assured that
he will "make a kind of Carlyle sort of a
man one day."[365]
Carlyle is mentioned and quoted in The
Column of Dust (1909) by Evelyn
Underhill.[366]
Bliss Carman, in "The Last Day at
Stormfield" (1912), a poetic tribute to
Twain, described Carlyle as a "dour
philosopher . . . Yet sound at the
core."[367]
James Joyce parodied Carlyle in
Episode 14 of Ulysses (1922), Oxen of
the Sun.[368]

In To the Lighthouse (1927) by Virginia

Woolf, Mr. Bankes bemoaned that "the
young don't read Carlyle."[369]
Two Passengers for Chelsea (1928), a
one-act play by American playwright
Oscar W. Firkins, first appeared in
Cornhill Magazine.[370]

Hugh Kingsmill published "Some Modern

Light-Bringers, As They Might have been
Extinguished by Thomas Carlyle" in The
Bookman in 1932.[352]
In Vladimir Nabokov's Glory (1932),
Martin Edelweiss considers the
contrasting approaches of Carlyle and
Horace in their non-utilitarian
stances.[371]
In the Dorothy L. Sayers novel Gaudy
Night (1935), Miss Lydgate criticises her
former pupil Harriet's popular biography
of Carlyle for having "reproduced all the
old gossip without troubling to verify
anything."[372]
The Fire-Lighters: A Dialogue on a
Burning Topic (1938), a play by Laurence
Housman, younger brother of Shropshire
poet A. E. Housman.[370]
Elsie Prentys Thornton-Cook, a New
Zealand-born writer, wrote Speaking
Dust (1938), a novel that is "a
reconstruction of the lives of Thomas
Carlyle and his wife shown against the
dramatic background of the time."[351]
Mrs. Carlyle: A Historical Play (1950), a
three-act play by Glenn Hughes first
performed at the University of
Washington's Showboat Theatre on 7
October 1948 with Lillian Gish in the role
of Jane.[370]
"The Inimitable Mr. Carlyle," one of the
Grandfather Stories (1955) by Samuel
Hopkins Adams, relates the impact of
Carlyle on the culture of Rochester, New
York in the 1880s.[351]
Carlyle and Jane by Henry Donald, first
presented at the Edinburgh International
Festival in 1974; the text mostly
conforms to "what the two principal
correspondents, their relations and
friends, actually wrote."[370]
Neighboring Lives (1980), by Thomas M.
Disch and Charles Naylor, is a fictional
study of the Carlyles and their Chelsea
neighbours from their arrival at No. 5,
Cheyne Row in 1834 until the death of
Jane in 1866.[351]
Bibliography

By Carlyle

Major works

The standard edition of Carlyle's works is

the Works in Thirty Volumes, also known as
the Centenary Edition. The date given is
when the work was "originally published."

Traill, Henry Duff, ed. (1896–1899). The

Works of Thomas Carlyle in Thirty
Volumes. London: Chapman and Hall.
Vol. I. Sartor Resartus: The Life and
Opinions of Herr Teufelsdröckh in
Three Books (1831)
Vols. I–III. The French Revolution: A
History (1837)

Vol. IV. On Heroes, Hero-Worship,

and the Heroic in History (1841)

Vols. V–IX. Oliver Cromwell's Letters

and Speeches: with Elucidations
(1845)
Vol. X. Past and Present (1843)
Vol. XI. The Life of John Sterling
(1851)
Vols. XII–XIX. History of Friedrich II.
of Prussia, Called Frederick the Great
(1858–1865)
Vol. XX. Latter-Day Pamphlets
(1850)
Vols. XI–XII. German Romance:
Translations from the German, with
Biographical and Critical Notices
(1827)
Vols. XXIII–XXIV. Wilhelm Meister's
Apprenticeship and Travels,
Translated from the German of
Goethe (1824)

Vol. XXV. The Life of Friedrich

Schiller, Comprehending an
Examination of His Works (1825)

Vols. XXVI–XXX. Critical and

Miscellaneous Essays
Marginalia

This is a list of selected books, pamphlets

and broadsides uncollected in the
Miscellanies through 1880 as well as
posthumous first editions and unpublished
manuscripts.[373]

Ireland and Sir Robert Peel (https://archiv

e.org/details/sim_spectator-uk_1849-04-
14_22_1085/page/343/mode/1up?view=
theater) (1849)

Legislation for Ireland (1849)

Ireland and the British Chief Governor (htt

ps://archive.org/details/sim_spectator-uk
_1848-05-13_21_1037/page/463/mode/
1up?view=theater) (1849)

Froude, James Anthony, ed. (1881).

Reminiscences. London: Longmans,
Green, and Co.
Reminiscences of My Irish Journey in
1849 (1882). London: Sampson Low,
Marston, Searle & Rivington.
Last Words of Thomas Carlyle: On
Trades-Unions, Promoterism and the
Signs of the Times (1882). 67 Princes
Street, Edinburgh: William Paterson.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1883). The
Correspondence of Thomas Carlyle and
Ralph Waldo Emerson. Boston: James R.
Osgood and Company.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1886). Early
Letters of Thomas Carlyle. London and
New York: Macmillan and Co.
Thomas Carlyle's Counsels to a Literary
Aspirant: A Hitherto Unpublished Letter
of 1842 and What Came of Them (1886).
Edinburgh: James Thin, South Bridge.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1887).
Reminiscences. London and New York:
Macmillan and Co.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1887).
Correspondence Between Goethe and
Carlyle. London and New York:
Macmillan and Co.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1888). Letters
of Thomas Carlyle. London and New
York: Macmillan and Co.
Thomas Carlyle on the Repeal of the
Union (1889). London: Field & Tuer, the
Leadenhall Press.
Newberry, Percy, ed. (1892). Rescued
Essays of Thomas Carlyle. The
Leadenhall Press.
Last Words of Thomas Carlyle (1892).
London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
Karkaria, R. P., ed. (1892). Lectures on
the History of Literature. London:
Curwen, Kane & Co.
Greene, J. Reay, ed. (1892). Lectures on
the History of Literature. London: Ellis
and Elvey.
Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1898). Historical
Sketches of Notable Persons and Events
in the Reigns of James I and Charles I.
London: Chapman and Hall Limited.
Norton, Charles Eliot, ed. (1898). Two
Note Books of Thomas Carlyle. New
York: The Grolier Club.
Copeland, Charles Townsend, ed.
(1899). Letters of Thomas Carlyle to His
Youngest Sister. Boston and New York:
Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
Jones, Samuel Arthur, ed. (1903).
Collecteana. Canton, Pennsylvania: The
Kirgate Press.
Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1904). New
Letters of Thomas Carlyle. London: The
Bodley Head.
Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1909). The Love
Letters of Thomas Carlyle and Jane
Welsh. 2 vols. London: The Bodley Head.

Carlyle, Thomas (1922). "Notes of a

Three-Days' Tour to the Netherlands" (htt
ps://archive.org/details/cornhillmagazin
126londuoft/page/626/mode/2up) .
Cornhill Magazine. Vol. 53. pp. 626–640.
Carlyle, Alexander, ed. (1923). Letters of
Thomas Carlyle to John Stuart Mill, John
Sterling and Robert Browning. London: T.
Fisher Unwin LTD.
Brooks, Richard Albert Edward, ed.
(1940). Journey to Germany, Autumn
1858. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Graham Jr., John, ed. (1950). Letters of

Thomas Carlyle to William Graham.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Shine, Hill, ed. (1951). Carlyle's
Unfinished History of German Literature.
Lexington: University of Kentucky Press.
Bliss, Trudy, ed. (1953). Letters to His
Wife. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.
King, Marjorie P. (1954). " "Illudo Chartis":
An Initial Study in Carlyle's Mode of
Composition" (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/3718901) . The Modern Language
Review. 49 (2): 164–175.
doi:10.2307/3718901 (https://doi.org/1
0.2307%2F3718901) . ISSN 0026-7937
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0026-79
37) . JSTOR 3718901 (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/3718901) .
Baumgarten, Murray (1968). "Carlyle and
"Spiritual Optics" " (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/3825228) . Victorian Studies.
11 (4): 503–522. ISSN 0042-5222 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0042-5222) .
JSTOR 3825228 (https://www.jstor.org/
stable/3825228) .
Marrs, Edwin W. Jr., ed. (1968). The
Letters of Thomas Carlyle to His Brother
Alexander: with Related Family Letters (ht
tps://archive.org/details/lettersofthoma
sc0000carl/mode/2up) . Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press.
Clubbe, John, ed. (1974). Two
Reminiscences of Thomas Carlyle (http
s://archive.org/details/tworeminiscence
s0000club) . Durham, N.C.: Duke
University Press. ISBN 978-0822303077.
Fielding, K.J. (1979). "Unpublished
Manuscripts – I: Carlyle Among the
Cannibals" (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/44945570) . Carlyle Newsletter (1):
22–28. ISSN 0269-8226 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/issn/0269-8226) .
JSTOR 44945570 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/44945570) .
Henderson, Heather, ed. (1979).
Wooden-Headed Publishers and Locust-
Swarms of Authors. University of
Edinburgh.
Campbell, Ian, ed. (1980). Thomas and
Jane: Selected Letters from the
Edinburgh University Library Collection.
Edinburgh.
Fielding, K.J. (1980). "Unpublished
Manuscripts – II: Carlyle's Scenario for
"Cromwell" " (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/44945576) . Carlyle Newsletter (2): 6–
13. ISSN 0269-8226 (https://www.world
cat.org/issn/0269-8226) .
JSTOR 44945576 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/44945576) .
Kaplan, Fred (1980). " "Phallus-Worship"
(1848): Unpublished Manuscripts – III: A
Response to the Revolution of 1848" (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/44945578) .
Carlyle Newsletter (2): 19–23.
ISSN 0269-8226 (https://www.worldcat.
org/issn/0269-8226) . JSTOR 44945578
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/4494557
8) .
Carlyle, Thomas (1981). "The Guises" (ht
tps://www.jstor.org/stable/3827058) .
Victorian Studies. 25 (1): 13–80.
ISSN 0042-5222 (https://www.worldcat.
org/issn/0042-5222) . JSTOR 3827058
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/382705
8) .
Trela, D. J. (1984). "Carlyle and the
Beautiful People: An Unpublished
Manuscript" (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/44937838) . Carlyle Newsletter (5):
36–41. ISSN 0269-8226 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/issn/0269-8226) .
JSTOR 44937838 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/44937838) .
Tarr, Rodger L.; McClelland, Fleming,
eds. (1986). The Collected Poems of
Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle.
Greenwood, Florida: The Penkevill
Publishing Company.
Fielding, K. J. (1991). "Carlyle Writes
Local History: "Dumfries-Shire Three
Hundred Years Ago" " (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/44945533) . Carlyle Annual
(12): 3–7. ISSN 1050-3099 (https://www.
worldcat.org/issn/1050-3099) .
JSTOR 44945533 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/44945533) .
Fielding, K. J.; Neuberg, J. (1992). "New
Notes for "The Letters": I. Carlyle's
Sketch of Joseph Neuberg II. "Leave it
Alone; Time Will Mend It" " (https://www.j
stor.org/stable/44945549) . Carlyle
Annual (13): 3–15. ISSN 1050-3099 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/1050-3099) .
JSTOR 44945549 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/44945549) .
de L. Ryals, Clyde (1995). "Thomas
Carlyle on the Mormons: An Unpublished
Essay" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/44
946088) . Carlyle Studies Annual (15):
49–54. ISSN 1074-2670 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/issn/1074-2670) .
JSTOR 44946088 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/44946088) .
Campbell, Ian (1 January 1996). "Peter
Lithgow: New Fiction by Thomas Carlyle"
(https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/ssl/vo
l29/iss1/3) . Studies in Scottish
Literature. 29 (1). ISSN 0039-3770 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-3770) .
Hubbard, Tom (2005), "Carlyle, France
and Germany in 1870", in Hubbard, Tom
(2022), Invitation to the Voyage: Scotland,
Europe and Literature, Rymour, pp. 44 -
46, ISBN 9-781739-596002
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Altick, Richard D., ed. (2000). Past and

Present (Reprint ed.). New York: New
York University Press.
Cate, George Allen, ed. (1982). The
Correspondence of Thomas Carlyle and
John Ruskin. Stanford, California:
Stanford University Press.
Fielding, Kenneth J.; Campbell, Ian, eds.
(2009). Reminiscences (Reprint ed.).
Glasgow: Kennedy & Boyd.
Goldberg, M. K.; Seigel, J. P., eds.
(1983). Carlyle's Latter-Day Pamphlets.
Canadian Federation for the Humanities.
McSweenery, Kerry; Sabor, Peter, eds.
(2008). Sartor Resartus. Oxford World's
Classics. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Sanders, Charles Richard; Fielding,
Kenneth J.; Ryals, Clyde de L.; Campbell,
Ian; Christianson, Aileen; Clubbe, John;
McIntosh, Sheila; Smith, Hilary;
Sorensen, David, eds. (1970–2022). The
Collected Letters of Thomas and Jane
Welsh Carlyle. Durham, North Carolina:
Duke University Press.
Kinser, Brent E. (ed.). "The Carlyle
Letters Online: A Victorian Cultural
 Reference" (https://carlyleletters.du
keupress.edu/home) .
Slater, Joseph, ed. (1964). The
Correspondence of Emerson and Carlyle.
New York and London: Columbia
University Press.
Sorensen, David R.; Kinser, Brent E.;
Engel, Mark, eds. (2019). The French
Revolution. Oxford World's Classics.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
The Norman and Charlotte Strouse
Edition of the Writings of Thomas Carlyle.
6 vols. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press. 1993–
2022.
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Allingham, William (1907). William

Allingham's Diary 1847–1889
(Paperback ed.). London: Centaur Press
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Baker, William (1 January 1976).
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reminiscences of Thomas Carlyle: The
"Perfect owl of minerva for knowledge"
on a "Poet without music" " (https://doi.o
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Neophilologus. 60 (1): 145–152.
doi:10.1007/BF01513592 (https://doi.or
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Conway, Moncure D. (1881). Thomas
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Duffy, Sir Charles Gavan (1892).
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Espinasse, Francis (1893). Literary
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Fox, Caroline (1883). Pym, Horace N.
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Explanatory notes
a. For the letter, written by John Morley and
David Masson, and list of signatories, see
New Letters of Thomas Carlyle, edited by
Alexander Carlyle, vol. II, pp. 323–324.

b. Matthew Arnold described Carlyle as such

in an 1849 letter to Clough.[139]

c. Goethe used the concept in his Maximen

und Reflexionen, number 201, and in
Wilhelm Meister's Travels and "The Tale",
both of which were translated by
Carlyle.[154]
d. Taken from Fichte's "'Ueber das Wesen des
Gelehrten, On the Nature of the Literary
Man.'"[155]

e. Via Oxford Reference.[180]

f. In a footnote to "Jean Paul Friedrich Richter
Again" (1830), Carlyle identified the quote
as being taken from an article in the
Quarterly Review on John Thurtell's trial for
his role in the Radlett murder. Richard Altick
has shown that the QR article misquoted a
different article on the trial which appeared
in the Morning Chronicle. Carlyle later
misidentified the source of the exchange in
"The Diamond Necklace" (1837) as
originating from a transcript of the trial.
However, it is not found in any of the six
published accounts from 1824.[181]
g. Quoted from Stirling's fifth Gifford Lecture,
all of which were published in 1890 as
Philosophy and Theology.

h. From "Boswell's Life of Johnson" (1832).

i. The "total number of quotations from that
author used in the dictionary as examples."

j. The "number of quotations that are

considered first uses of a word that is a
main entry—in other words the author can
claim to have used the word first, or to have
coined it."
k. The "number of words or phrases that are
used by the author for the first time in a
particular sense, such as figuratively
instead of concretely, or for using a
particular noun as a verb for the first time,
or coining a phrase made from existing
known words."

l. Pictured.
m. Houndsditch is a mercantile district in the
East End of London which was associated
with Jewish merchants of used clothing.

n. In his journal, Carlyle wrote that "right is the

eternal symbol of might", and described
himself thus: "never [was there] a son of
Adam more contemptuous of might except
where it rests on the above origin."[342]
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47. Reminiscences, pp. 318–319.
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73. Cumming 2004, p. 406–407.

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79. Cumming 2004, p. 61.
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83. CLO, TC TO JAMES FRASER; 7 March 1835.

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326. Agnew, Lois (1998). "Heroic Intensity:

Thomas Carlyle's Rhetorical Foundation for
Victorian Aestheticism" (https://www.jstor.o
rg/stable/44945773) . Carlyle Studies
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ttps://www.jstor.org/stable/44945773) .

327. Kerry, Pionke & Dent 2018, p. 306.

328. Campbell 1987, p. 58.
329. CLO, Introduction to Volume 27.
330. Allingham, p. 241.
331. Duffy 1892, p. 117.
332. Kaplan 1983, p. 526.
333. Kaplan, Fred (1993). Thomas Carlyle: A
Biography. University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0520082007. "Carlyle's active
anti-Semitism was based primarily upon his
identification of Jews with materialism and
with an anachronistic religious structure. He
was repelled by those "old clothes"
merchants . . . by "East End" orthodoxy, and
by "West End" Jewish wealth, merchants
clothed in new money who seemed to
epitomise the intense material corruption of
Western society."

334. Cumming 2004, p. 252.

335. Slater 1964, p. 428.
336. Froude, 4:449.
337. Froude, 2:13.
338. Letters, 22:187.
339. Robinson, Henry Crabb. Henry Crabb
Robinson on Books and their Writers. 3
vols. Ed. Edith J. Morley. London: Dent,
1938. 2:541.

340. Carlyle's Latter-Day Pamphlets. Ed. Michael

K. Goldberg and Jules P. Seigel. Ottawa:
Canadian Federation for the Humanities,
1983. p. 451.

341. Cumming 2004, pp. 393–394.

342. Froude, 4:422.
343. Stewart, Herbert L. (1918). "The Alleged
Prussianism of Thomas Carlyle" (https://w
ww.jstor.org/stable/2377535) .
International Journal of Ethics. 28 (2): 159–
178. doi:10.1086/intejethi.28.2.2377535 (ht
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7535) . ISSN 1526-422X (https://www.worl
dcat.org/issn/1526-422X) .
JSTOR 2377535 (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/2377535) . S2CID 159741457 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1597414
57) .

344. Cole 1964, p. 80.

345. Joyce 1940, p. 165.
346. Kerry & Hill 2010, p. 196.
347. Kerry & Hill 2010, p. 193.
348. Kerry & Hill 2010, pp. 200.
349. Kerry & Hill 2010, p. 197.
350. Tennyson 1973, pp. 79–80.
351. Cumming 2004, pp. 158–159, "Fiction, The
Carlyles In".

352. Clubbe 1976, pp. 298–316, "Parody as

Style: Carlyle and His Parodists".

353. Cumming, Mark. "Carlyle and Goethe in

Sterling's 'The Onyx Ring.' (https://www.jsto
r.org/stable/44945551) " Carlyle Annual 13
(1992–1993): 35–43.

354. Cumming 2004, pp. 367–368, "Parodies of

Thomas Carlyle".

355. Cumming 2004, p. 162.

356. Sorensen & Kinser 2018, Carlyle and
America.
357. Cumming 2004, p. 458.
358. Merritt, James D. "The Novelist St. Barbe in
Disraeli's Endymion: Revenge on Whom?"
Nineteenth-Century Fiction, vol. 23, no. 1,
1968, pp. 85–88,
https://doi.org/10.2307/2932319 .
Accessed 19 Apr. 2022.

359. Cumming 2004, p. 459.

360. Schuyler, Montgomery (1 June 1883).
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ntic.com/magazine/archive/1883/06/carlyl
e-and-emerson/632624/) . The Atlantic.
Retrieved 27 June 2022.
361. Tarr, Rodger L., and Carol Anita Clayton.
"'Carlyle in America': An Unpublished Short
Story by Sarah Orne Jewett." American
Literature, vol. 54, no. 1, 1982, pp. 101–15,
https://doi.org/10.2307/2925724 .
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362. "Carlyle in America" (http://www.sarahornej

ewett.org/soj/ms/carlyle.html) . The Sarah
Orne Jewett Text Project.

363. James, Henry (1886). "Book Second, XXI"

(https://www.gutenberg.org/files/19717/19
717-h/19717-h.htm#XXI) . The Bostonians.

364. Doyle, Arthur Conan (1887). "Chapter II. The

Science of Deduction." (https://gutenberg.or
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2) . A Study in Scarlet.
365. Butler, Samuel (1903). "Chapter LIX". The
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s/2084/2084-h/2084-h.htm) .

366. Underhill, Evelyn (1909). "The Column of

Dust" (https://d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/t
ext/underhill-column-of-dust) . The
Camelot Project: A Robbins Library Digital
Project. Retrieved 30 October 2022.

367. Carman, Bliss (1912). "The Last Day at

Stormfield" (https://d.lib.rochester.edu/cam
elot/text/carman-last-day-at-stormfield) .
The Camelot Project: A Robbins Library
Digital Project. Retrieved 30 October 2022.

368. Cumming 2004, pp. 258–259.

369. Kerry, Pionke & Dent 2018, p. 319.
370. Cumming 2004, pp. 130–133, "Drama, The
Carlyles In".

371. Karshan, Thomas (2006). DPhil Thesis:

Nabokov and Play (https://ora.ox.ac.uk/obj
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ec837e11/download_file?file_format=appli
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Church, Oxford. pp. 152–3.

372. Tennyson 1973, p. 45.

373. Tarr 1989.

External links
Wikisource has original works by or
about:
Thomas Carlyle
 Wikiquote has quotations related to
Thomas Carlyle.

Wikimedia Commons has media related

to Thomas Carlyle.
Carlyle Studies Annual (https://www.jsto
r.org/journal/carlstudannu) on JSTOR
The Norman and Charlotte Strouse
Edition of the Writings of Thomas
Carlyle (https://www.ucpress.edu/serie
s/sewtc/the-norman-and-charlotte-strou
se-edition-of-the-writings-of-thomas-carl
yle)
The Collected Letters of Thomas and
Jane Welsh Carlyle (https://www.dukeupr
ess.edu/the-collected-letters-of-thomas
-and-jane-welsh-carlyle)
The Carlyle Society of Edinburgh (http
s://www.ed.ac.uk/literatures-languages-
cultures/english-literature/research/curr
ent/carlyle-letters/carlyle-society)
The Ecclefechan Carlyle Society (https://
web.archive.org/web/20130718072402/
http://thomascarlyle.org/)
Thomas & Jane Carlyle's Craigenputtock
(https://web.archive.org/web/20091108
115057/http://www.thomascarlyle.eu/)
the official site
Portraits of Thomas Carlyle (https://ww
w.npg.org.uk/collections/search/perso
n.php?LinkID=mp00760) at the National
Portrait Gallery, London
Electronic editions

Works by Thomas Carlyle in eBook form

(https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/th
omas-carlyle) at Standard Ebooks
Works by Thomas Carlyle (https://www.
gutenberg.org/author/Carlyle,+Thoma
s) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Thomas Carlyle (http
s://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%
28subject%3A%22Carlyle%2C%20Thom
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0%28%221795-1881%22%20AND%20Ca
rlyle%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatyp
e:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Thomas Carlyle (https://librivo
x.org/author/4602) at LibriVox (public
domain audiobooks)
Poems by Thomas Carlyle (http://www.p
oetryfoundation.org/archive/poet.html?i
d=1083) at PoetryFoundation.org
 The Carlyle Letters Online (https://carlyle
letters.dukeupress.edu/home)
The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily,
Thomas Carlyle's translation (1832)
from the German of Goethe's Märchen or
Das Märchen (http://wn.rsarchive.org/Re
lAuthors/GoetheJW/GreenSnake.html)

Archival material

"Archival material relating to Thomas

Carlyle" (https://discovery.nationalarchiv
es.gov.uk/details/c/F63355) . UK
National Archives.
A guide to the Thomas Carlyle Collection
at the Beinecke Rare Book and
 Manuscript Library (http://www.library.ya
le.edu/beinecke/index.html)
Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle
Photographs (https://findingaids.smith.e
du/repositories/3/resources/422) at
the Mortimer Rare Book Collection,
Smith College Special Collections

Academic offices

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James
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