211 2a

 Those of which iron is the prime constituent
 They are produced in larger quantities than

any other metal type.
 They are used widely because of the
following factors:
 Iron-containing compounds exist in
abundant quantities within the earth’s crust.
 Metallic iron and steel alloys may be
produced using relatively economical
extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication
techniques
 Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that
they may be tailored to have a wide range
of mechanical and physical properties.
 The principal disadvantage of many
ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to
corrosion.
 Steels are alloys of
iron-carbon.
 May contain other
alloying elements.
 Several grades are
available:
 Low Alloy (<10 wt%)
◦ Low Carbon (<0.25
wt% C)
◦ Medium Carbon (0.25
to 0.60 wt%)
◦ High Carbon (0.6 to
1.4 wt%)
 High Alloy (Alloy steels)
◦ Stainless Steel (> 11
wt% Cr)
◦ Tool Steel
Low carbon steel
 Plain carbon steels - very low content of alloying
elements and small amounts of Mn.
 Most abundant grade of steel is low carbon steel
– greatest quantity produced; least expensive.
 Not responsive to heat treatment; cold working
needed to improve the strength.
 Good Weldability and machinability
 High Strength, Low Alloy (HSLA) steels - alloying
elements (like Cu, V, Ni and Mo) up to 10 wt %;
have higher strengths and may be heat treated.
Low carbon steel
 HSLA steels are ductile, formable, and
machinable
 They are more resistant to corrosion than
the plain carbon steels, which they have
replaced in many applications where
structural strength is critical (e.g., bridges,
towers, support columns in high-rise
buildings, and pressure vessels).
Low carbon steel
 Compositions of some low carbon and
low alloy steels
Low carbon steel
Properties and typical application of some low
carbon and low alloys steels
Medium carbon steel
 Carbon content in the range of 0.3 – 0.6%.
 Can be heat treated - austenitizing, quenching and then
tempering to improve their mechanical properties.
 Most often used in tempered condition – tempered
martensite
 Medium carbon steels have low hardenability
 Addition of Cr, Ni, Mo improves the heat treating
capacity
 Heat treated alloys are stronger but have lower ductility
 Typical applications – Railway wheels and tracks, gears,
crankshafts.
Medium carbon steel
Composition of some alloyed medium carbon
steels
High carbon steel
 High carbon steels – Carbon content 0.6 –
1.4%
 High C content provides high hardness and
strength. Hardest and least ductile.
 Used in hardened and tempered condition
 Strong carbide formers like Cr, V, W are added
as alloying elements and combine with carbon
to form carbides of these metals (e.g. C𝑟23 𝐶6 ,
𝑉4 𝐶3 , and WC).
 Used as tool and die steels owing to the high
hardness and wear resistance property.
High carbon steel
Compositions and Application of some Tool steels
Stainless steels
A group of steels that contain at least 11% Cr.
 Exhibits extraordinary corrosion resistance due
to formation of a very thin layer of C𝑟2 𝑂3 on
the surface.
 Categories of stainless steels:
 Ferritic Stainless Steels – Composed of 𝛼 ferrite (BCC)
 Martensitic Stainless Steels – Can be heat treated.
 Austenitic Stainless Steels – Austenite (𝛾) phase field is
extended to room temperature. Most corrosion
resistant and non magnetic
 Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels – Ultra
high strength due to precipitation hardening.
 Duplex Stainless Steels – Ferrite + Austenite
Stainless steels
Composition and Properties of some stainless steels
Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel
 Manganese – strength and hardness;
decreases ductility and weldability; effects
hardenability of steel.
 Phosphorus – increases strength and
hardness and decreases ductility and
notch impact toughness of steel.
 Sulfur – decreases ductility and notch
impact toughness and weldability. Found
in the form of sulfide inclusions.
Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel
 Silicon – one of the principal deoxidizers used
in steel making. In low-carbon steels, silicon is
generally detrimental to surface quality.
 Copper – detrimental to hot-working steels;
beneficial to corrosion resistance (Cu>0.20%)
 Nickel - ferrite strengthener; increases the
hardenability and impact strength of steels.
 Molybdenum – increases the hardenability;
enhances the creep resistance of low-alloy
steels.
 Chromium – increases corrosion resistance of
steels.
Applications of Stainless steels
Cast Irons
 Carbon 2.1- 4.5 wt% and Si (normally 1-3
wt%).
 Lower melting point (about 300 °C lower
than pure iron) due to presence of
eutectic point at 1153 °C and 4.2 wt% C.
 Low shrinkage and good fluidity and
casting ability.
 Types of cast iron: grey, white, nodular,
malleable and compacted graphite.
Grey Cast Iron
 Grey cast iron contains graphite in the
form of flakes. Named after its grey
fractured surface. C:3.0 – 4.0 wt%, Si: 1.0
– 3.0 %
 Microstructure: graphite flakes in 𝛼 ferrite
or pearlite matrix
Grey Cast Iron
 Weak & brittle in tension (the graphite
flake tips act as stress concentration sites).
Stronger in compression.
 Excellent damping capacity, wear
resistance.
 Microstructure modification by varying
silicon content and cooling rate
 Casting shrinkage is low
Nodular or Ductile Iron
 Addition of Mn and/or Cerium to grey
iron converts the graphite flakes to
nodules.
 The matrix is either pearlite or ferrite,
depending on heat treatment
Nodular or Ductile Iron
 Castings are stronger and much more
ductile than grey iron as the stress
concentration points existing at the flake
tips are eliminated.
White Cast Iron
 White cast iron – C: 2.5 – 3 wt.%, Si: 0.5
– 1.5%. Most of the carbon is in the form
of cementite. Named after its white
fracture surface.
 Results from faster cooling. Contains
pearlite + cementite, not graphite.
Thickness variation may result in non-
uniform microstructure from variable
cooling
White Cast Iron
 Very hard and brittle

 Used for rollers in rolling mills and as
intermediate to produce malleable cast iron
Malleable Cast Iron
 Malleable cast iron – Carbon: 2.3 – 2.7
wt%, Si: 1.0 – 1.75 %
 Obtained by heat treating white iron for
a prolonged period that causes
decomposition of cementite into
graphite.
 Heat treatment : Two stages – Isothermal
holding at 950 ℃ and then holding at
720 ℃.
Malleable Cast Iron
 Graphite forms in the form of clusters or
rosettes in a ferrite or pearlite matrix
depending on cooling rate.
 Reasonable strength
and improved ductility
(malleable).
Compact Graphite Iron (CGI)
 CGI graphite occurs as blunt flakes or with a
worm-like shape (vermicular). Carbon: 3.1 –
4.0 wt%, Silicon: 1.7 – 3.0 wt %.
 Microstructure and properties are between
gray and ductile iron.
Compact Graphite Iron (CGI)
 Alloying addition may be needed to minimize
the sharp edges and formation of spheroidal
graphite. Matrix varies with alloy additions or
heat treatment.
 As castable as grey iron, but has a higher tensile
strength and some ductility.
 Relatively high thermal conductivity, good
resistance to thermal shock, lower oxidation at
elevated temperatures.
Applications of Cast Iron
 Cast irons are used in wide variety of
application owing to the properties like good
fluidity, ease of casting, low shrinkage, excellent
machinability, wear resistance and damping
capacity.
 Applications –
 Car parts – cylinder heads, blocks and gearbox cases.
 Pipes, lids (manhole lids)
 Foundation for big machines (good damping
property)
 Bridges, buildings
 Cook wares – Excellent heat retention

211 2a

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211 2a

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 Those of which iron is the prime constituent

 They are produced in larger quantities than

 Very hard and brittle

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