Vern J.

Ostdiek
Donald J. Bord

Chapter 9
Optics
Light waves
 Light generally refers to the narrow band of
EM waves that can be seen by human
beings.
 These are transverse waves.
 The frequencies range from 4×1014 to
7.5×1014 hertz.
Light waves, cont’d
 We typically express the wavelengths in
nanometers.
1 nanometer  109 meter
 0.000 000 001 meter
 1 nm

 The wavelengths of visible light range from

750 nm (red light) to 400 nm (blue light).
Light waves, cont’d
 Keep in mind that:
 We perceive different frequencies of light as
different colors.
 White light is typically a combination of all
frequencies of the visible spectrum.
 Black is the color of objects that do not emit or
reflect light in any part of the visible spectrum;
they absorb all such frequencies of light.
Black can be defined as the visual impression
experienced when no visible light reaches the
eye
Light waves, cont’d
 To describe various properties of light, we
use two different methods:
 wavefronts
 light rays
 Reflection

 Specular reflection is reflection off of a very

smooth surface.
 Specular reflection occurs when the direction
the light wave is traveling changes.

To study reflection, we need some terminology.

 Reflection, cont’d
 The normal is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to
the mirror and touching it at the point where the incident
ray strikes the mirror.
Reflection, cont’d
 The angle of incident is the angle between
the incident ray and the normal.
 The angle of reflection is the angle between
the reflected ray
and the normal.
Reflection, cont’d
 The law of reflection states that the angle of
incidence equals the angle of reflection.
Reflection, cont’d
 Diffuse reflection occurs when light strikes a
surface that is not smooth and polished but
rough.
 The light rays
reflect off of the
random bumps
and nicks in the
surface.
Reflection, cont’d
 Objects have color because the light actually
penetrates into the material.
 Some of the light is reflected and some is
absorbed.
 Reflection, cont’d
 A white surface takes the color of whatever
light strikes the surface.
 Shining a red light onto a white piece of paper
makes the paper look red.
Reflection, cont’d
 A colored surface only reflects light of the
same “color” as the surface.
 A red surface looks red when you shine white
light on it.
 It appears somewhat black if you shine blue on it.
 Diffraction
 Diffraction occurs when a wave passes through a
hole or a slit.
 It is only observable when the opening is not too
much larger than the
wavelength of
the wave.
 Diffraction, cont’d
 Since the wavelength of visible light is so small,
diffraction is not noticeable through a window.
 You need a very narrow slit to see the diffraction of
light.
 This figure shows the
result of laser light after
passing through a slit
0.008 cm wide.
 The screen was
10 meters from the slit.
 Interference
 Interference occurs when two waves overlap.
 Two waves are said to be “in phase” when their
peaks overlap.
 When two waves are in phase, their amplitudes
add.
 This is called constructive interference.
Interference, cont’d
 Two waves are said to be “out of phase”
when the peaks of one wave overlap the
valleys of the other..
 When two waves are out of phase, their
amplitudes cancel.
 This is called destructive interference.
 Interference, cont’d
 Here is a diagram illustrating a two-slit interference
experiment.
 Light is passed through two slits.
 The light strikes a screen behind the slits.
 An interference
pattern appears
 Interference, cont’d
 Bright regions on the screen indicate constructive
interference.
 The light from each slit constructively interferes.
 Dark regions on the screen indicate destructive
interference.
 The light from each
slit destructively
interferes.
Interference, cont’d
 Here is an actual photograph of two-slit
interference using a laser.
 Interference, cont’d
 Thin-film interference occurs when light passes
through a thin layer of one substance next to
another substance.
 Here, light passes
from air, through a
thin layer of oil
floating on a
surface of water.
 Interference, cont’d
 Some of the light is reflected off the top surface of
the oil.
 The rest of the light passes through the oil.
 Some of the
transmitted light
is eventually
reflected off the
water’s surface and
passes back into
the air.
 Interference, cont’d
 The ray that passes through the oil travels a
greater distance.
 If the two waves emerge in step, you have
constructive
interference.
 If the two waves
emerge out of step,
you have
destructive
interference.
Interference, cont’d
 Important factors that determine whether the
interference is constructive or destructive
include:
 The wavelength of the light
 The thickness of the film
 The angle at which the light strikes the film
 If a single wavelength of light is used, you
obtain bright and dark areas.
 If several wavelengths of light are used (white
light), you obtain different colors.
 Interference, cont’d
 Here are two examples of thin-film interference
using multi-wavelength light.
 Polarization
 Imagine a rope attached at one end to a wall.
 The other end is free for you to move.
 If you move your hand from side-to-side, we would
say that the wave is horizontally polarized.
 Polarization, cont’d
 If you move your hand from up and down, we would
say that the wave is vertically polarized.
 Polarization is only possible with transverse waves.
 Polarization, cont’d
 Since light is a transverse wave, it can be polarized.
 A Polaroid filter, absorbs light passing through it
unless the light is polarized in a particular direction.
 Polarization, cont’d
 If vertically polarized light is passed through a vertical
polarizer, all the light passes.
 If light polarized to 45º from the vertical is passed
through a vertical polarizer, only some of the light
passes.
 Polarization, cont’d
 If horizontally polarized light is passed through a
vertical polarizer, none of the light passes
through the polarizer.
 Polarization, cont’d
 Most light is unpolarized.
 It contains components with random polarizations.
 If unpolarized light is passed through a vertical
polarizer, then
only those components
that were originally
vertically polarized
pass through the
filter.
 Polarization, cont’d

• Polaroid sunglasses are very useful because

light is polarized to some extent when it reflects
off a smooth surface like that of water, asphalt, or
the paint on the hood of a car.
• In particular, the reflected sunlight is partially
polarized horizontally.
 Polarization, cont’d

• This reflected light, called glare, is usually bright

and annoying.
• Sunglasses using Polaroid lenses with their
transmission axes vertical will block most of this
reflected light, which makes it easier to see the
surface itself.
 Liquid Crystal Display LCD
• LCDs used in calculators, digital watches, laptop
computers, and video games also use polarization.
• The liquid crystal is
sandwiched between
crossed Polaroids,
and this assembly is
placed in front of a mirror.
 LCD, cont’d

• Without the liquid crystal present, the display would

be dark:
• Light passing through the first Polaroid is polarized
vertically and would be totally absorbed when it
reached the second Polaroid.
• No light would reach the mirror, so none would be
reflected back from the display.
 LCD, cont’d

 The specially chosen liquid-crystal material between

the Polaroids is arranged so that in its normal state
its molecules change the polarization of the light
passing through it.
 The liquid crystal twists
the polarized light 90°
 LCD, cont’d

• The polarization is changed from vertical V to

horizontal H for light passing through from the
front and from horizontal
H to vertical V for light
passing through from the
rear.
 LCD, cont’d

• To make images on the display, segments of it

are darkened.
• Here is where the liquid crystal property is used.
• An electric field is switched on in the parts of the
display to be darkened.
• This causes the molecules of the liquid crystal to
rotate and become aligned in one direction.
 LCD, cont’d

• As a result, they no longer change the polarization

of light passing through.
• Light going through this segment is absorbed by the
second Polaroid, and that part of the display is dark.
 LCD, cont’d

 The transmission axis of the first Polaroid is

oriented vertically so that you can see the display
while wearing Polaroid sunglasses.

 If you rotate an LCD — say, like that on a digital

watch — and look at it while wearing Polaroid
sunglasses, at one point all of it will be dark.
 Plane mirrors
 Most mirrors are plane mirrors.
 They are flat and almost perfect reflectors of light.
 The reflection
appears to
originate from
behind the mirror.
 One-way mirrors
 A “one-way mirror” is made by partially coating
glass so that it reflects some of the light and allows
the rest to pass through.
 This is called a
half-silvered mirror.
 “One-Way Mirror”

• When used as a window or wall between two

rooms, it will function as a one-way mirror if one
of the rooms is brightly lit and the other is dim.
• It will appear to be an ordinary mirror to anyone
in the bright room, but it will appear to be a
window to anyone in the dim room.
• This is because, in the bright room, the light
reflected off the half-silvered mirror is much more
intense than the light that passes through from
the other room.
 “One-Way Mirror”

• In the dim room, the transmitted light from the

bright room dominates.
• A person in the dim room can see what is
happening in the bright room without being seen
by anyone in the bright room.
 “One-Way Mirror”

• This device is often used in interview and

interrogation rooms and as a means of observing
customers in stores and gambling casinos.
windowpane.
• Note that if a bright light is turned on in the dimmer
room, the one-way effect is destroyed.
 “One-Way Mirror”

• Ordinary window glass is a crude one-way mirror

because it does reflect some of the light that
strikes it.
• At night, one can see into a brightly lit room
through a window, but anyone in the room has
difficulty seeing out because room light is
reflected by the windowpane.
 Curved Mirrors

 Reflectors—mirrors in this case—that are curved

have useful properties.
 Parallel light rays that reflect off a properly shaped
concave mirror—a mirror that is curved inward are
focused at a point called the focal
point.
 Curved Mirrors

• The energy in the light is concentrated at that point.

• Sunlight focused by a concave mirror can heat things

to very high
temperatures.
 Curved Mirrors

 Even when a mirror’s surface is curved, the law of

reflection still holds at each point that a ray strikes
the mirror.
 If a normal line is drawn at each point (as was
done in the figure below), the angle of incidence
equals the angle of reflection.
 Curved Mirrors

 One such normal line is shown in the figure.

 A concave mirror can be used to form images that
are enlarged—magnified.
 Magnifying makeup and shaving mirrors are concave
mirrors, as are the large
mirrors used in astronomical
telescopes.
 Curved Mirrors

• The figure shows a magnified image seen in a

concave mirror.
 Curved Mirrors

 A convex mirror is one that is curved outward.

 The image formed by a convex mirror is reduced —
it is smaller than the image formed by a plane mirror.
 Curved Mirrors

 The advantage of a convex mirror is that it has a

wide field of view—images of things spread over
a wide area can be viewed in it.
 The figure shows the fields of view for a convex
mirror and a plane mirror of the same size.
 Curved Mirrors

• One glance at a well-

placed convex mirror
on a bike path allows
quick surveillance of a
large area.
 Curved Mirrors

 Passenger-side rearview mirrors on cars and

auxiliary “wide-angle” rearview mirrors on trucks
and other vehicles are convex so the driver can
view a large region to the rear.
 Care must be taken when using such a mirror
because the reduced image makes any object
appear to be farther away than it actually is.
 Refraction
 Imagine a light ray passing through air as it arrives
at the surface of another transparent substance,
e.g., glass.
 The boundary between the air and the glass is called
an interface.
 Refraction, cont’d
 Part of the ray passes into the glass while the rest
reflects.
 The reflected light obeys the law of reflection.
 The ray that passes into the glass obeys the law of
refraction.
 Refraction, cont’d
 The ray that passes into the glass is called the
refracted ray.
 The angle between the refracted ray and the normal is
the angle of refraction.
 Refraction, cont’d
 The law of refraction states that:
 A light ray is bent toward the normal when it enters a
transparent medium in which light travels slower.
 A light ray is bent away from the normal when it enters
a transparent
medium in
which light
travels
faster.
 Refraction, cont’d
 This figure illustrates the effect as the light passes from the glass into the air.
 Since light travels faster in air than glass, the ray is bent away from the
normal.
 The principle of reversibility states that the path of a light ray through a
refracting surface is reversible.
 9.3 Refraction
• Refraction of light affects how you see things that
are in a different medium, such as under water.
• The figure on the left shows a coin at the bottom of
an empty glass;
• On the right is the same coin at the bottom of a
glass full of water.
 9.3 Refraction
• Note the difference in the sizes of the coin in the
two photos.
• The coin in the figure on the right appears larger
because the image of the coin formed in water is
closer to the observer than the image formed in
air.
 9.3 Refraction
• The figure displays a ray diagram for this
circumstance revealing how the bending of the
rays of light from the edges of the coin as they
enter the air from the water causes the coin to
appear to be closer to the surface than it is.
 9.3 Refraction
 The speed of light in any transparent material is
less than the speed of light c in a vacuum.
 For example:
c = 3×108 m/s in vacuum
the speed of light in water = 2.25×108 m/s
the speed of light in diamond = 1.24×108 m/s
Refraction, cont’d
 Refraction, cont’d
 The speed of light is determined by the type of
medium.
 The frequency must remain constant.
 If you shine red light into glass, it still looks like red light.
So, our formula still holds.

v  f
Refraction, cont’d
 Here is a graph of the angle of incidence
passing from air into glass.
Example
Example 9.1
The figure depicts a light ray going from air into
glass with an angle of incidence of 60º. Find
the angle of refraction.
Example
Example 9.1
ANSWER:
Looking at the figure, we can find the refracted
angle since we know the incident angle.
So the refracted angle is 36º.
 Total internal reflection
Consider passing light from glass to air:
 The light passes from the glass into the air.
 As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of
refraction increases till it reaches a certain angle at
which light no longer passes out of the glass.

This means all the light is reflected back into the glass.
 Total internal reflection, cont’d

 This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

 The angle at which total internal reflection begins is

called the critical angle.
 Total internal reflection, cont’d
 At an angle of
43º, the angle of
refraction equals
90º.
 So, the critical
angle is 43º.
 This could be
seen from
Table 9.1
 Example 9.2
A homeowner wishes to mount a floodlight on a wall
of a swimming pool under water so as to provide
the maximum illumination of the surface of the pool
for use at night. At what angle with respect to the
wall would the light be pointed?
 Example 9.2
ANSWER:
To illuminate the surface, we want the light to be
refracted so that the angle of refraction is along
the surface.
This corresponds to total internal reflection.

So, we need the critical angle for water into air.

 Example 9.2
ANSWER: Table 9.1 gives the critical angle as
48.6º.
 Fiber optics
• Optical fibers are flexible, coated strands of glass
that utilize total internal reflection to channel light. In
a sense, an optical fiber does to light what a garden
hose does to water.
• The figure shows the path of a particular light ray as
it enters one end of an optical fiber.
• When this ray strikes the wall of the fiber, it does so
with an angle of incidence that is greater than the
critical angle, so the ray undergoes total internal
reflection.
 Fiber optics
 This is repeated each time the ray encounters the
fiber’s wall, so the light is trapped inside until it
emerges from the other end.
 You may have seen decorative lamps with light
bursting from the ends of a “bouquet” of optical fibers.
 Fiber-optic cables consisting of
dozens or even hundreds of individual
optical fibers are now in common use to
transmit information.
Fiber optics
• Devices incorporating this technology are
routinely used to examine hard-to-reach
places like the insides of a nuclear reactor, a
jet engine, or the human body.
• When used in the latter capacity, the
instrument is generally called an endoscope.
• Specific examples of endoscopes include
bronchoscopes (for examining lung tissue),
gastroenteroscopes (for checking the stomach
and digestive tract), and colonoscopes (for
surveying the bowel).
 Lenses and images
 A lens is a piece of glass (or other material)
specially ground to alter the paths of light rays.
 Imagine a block of glass round so that one end
takes the shape of a segment of a sphere.
 Lenses and images, cont’d
 The optical axis is the symmetry line.
 Assume that parallel rays are striking the convex side
of the glass.
 The incident rays are refracted.
 Those above the optical axis are refracted down, those below are
refract up.
 Lenses and images, cont’d
 The overall effect is that the light is focused at a point,
called the focal point.
 One can work this out from the law of refraction by considering
each ray.
 So, a convex surface serves to converge incoming
light.
 Lenses and images, cont’d
 Next, shine light on a concave surface of glass.
 The rays diverge as the light passes into the glass.
 Lenses and images, cont’d
 But they diverge as if they originated at a point
outside of the glass.
 So, a concave surface serves to diverge incoming
light.
 Lenses and images, cont’d
 A converging lens causes parallel light rays to
converge to a point, called the focal point.
 The distance from the center of the lens to the focal
point is called the focal
length.
 If a source is placed
at the focal length,
the rays will emerge
parallel to each other.
 Lenses and images, cont’d
 A diverging lens causes parallel light rays to
diverge, appearing to originate from a point called
the focal point.
Lenses and images, cont’d
 For both types of lenses, there are two focal
points.
 One on each side
 As a rule, converging lenses are thicker at the
center than at the ends.
Image formation
 The main use of lenses is to form images.
 We can draw a model of image formation
using just three rays.
 The particular rays we use are chosen
because they satisfy the law of refraction in a
straightforward manner.
Image formation, cont’d
 The rays are:
 A ray initially parallel to the optical axis passes
through the focal point on the other side of the
lens.
 A ray that passes through the focal point (on
the same side as the object) emerges parallel
to the optical axis on the other side.
 A ray that passes exactly through the center of
the lens is undeviated because the two
interfaces it encounters are parallel.
 Image formation, cont’d
 Here is a diagram of these three rays.
 Where the rays intersect on the opposite side of
the lens defines the image.
 Image formation, cont’d
 The distance from the lens to the object is called the
object distance denoted by the symbol s
 The distance from the lens to the image is called the
image distance denoted by the symbol p
 Image formation, cont’d
 By convention:
with light traveling from left to right:
s is positive when the object is to the left of the lens.
p is positive when the image is to the right of the lens.

f is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging

lens.
 Image formation, cont’d
 If we know the object focal length and object
distance, the image distance is

p
sf
s f
lens formula 
Example
Example 9.3
In a slide projector, a slide is positioned 0.102
meters from a converging lens that has a
focal length of 0.1 meter. At what distance
from the lens must the screen be placed so
that the image of the slide will be in focus?
Example
Example 9.3
ANSWER:
The problem gives us: s  0.102 m
f  0.1 m
From the lens formula:

p
sf

 
0.102 m 0.1 m 
s f 0.102 m  0.1 m
 5.1 m.
 Image formation, cont’d
 A real image is an image that can be projected onto a
screen.
 You can see the image on the opposite side of the lens.
 The image formed in a camera or in a slide projector.

 A virtual image is an image that cannot be projected

onto a screen.
 You see the image by looking into the lens (magnifying
glass).
 Similar to the “mirror image” seen looking into a plane
mirror.
Image formation, cont’d
 These figures
demonstrate the
difference
between real &
virtual images.
 Example
Example 9.4
A converging lens with focal length 10 centimeters
is used as a magnifying glass. When the object
is a page of fine print 8 centimeters from the
lens, where is the image?
Example
Example 9.4
ANSWER:
The problem gives us: s  8 cm
f  10 cm
From the lens formula:

p
sf

 
8 cm 10 cm 
s f 8 cm  10 cm
 40 cm.
Example
Example 9.4
DISCUSSION:
The negative sign indicates that the image is on
the same side of the lens as the object.
Therefore, it is a virtual image and must be
viewed through the lens.
Image magnification
 Typically, a lens produces an image that is
not the same height as the object.
 The magnification, M, of a lens is the ratio of
the image height to the object height:

image height
M
object height
Images Magnification

• The magnification that one gets with a

particular lens changes if the object distance
is changed.
• Because of the simple geometry, the
magnification also can be written in an
alternate, equivalent form as minus the image
distance divided by the object distance.
-p
M=
s
 Images Magnification

• From this we can conclude that:

• If p is positive (image is to the right of the lens and
real), M is negative; the image is inverted.
 Images Magnification

• If p is negative (image is to the left of the lens and

virtual), M is positive; the image is upright.
Example
Example 9.5
Compute the magnification for the slide projector
in Example 9.3 and for the magnifying glass in
Example 9.4.

Example 9.3 Example 9.4

s  0.102 m s  8 cm
f  0.1 m f  10 cm
p  5.1 m p  -40 cm
Example
Example 9.5
ANSWER:
 p 5.1 m
For the projector: M 
s 0.102 m
 50

For the glass:

M 

 p  40 cm 
s 8 cm
 5
Example
Example 9.5
DISCUSSION:
The projector image is 50 times as large as the
slide and is inverted (since M is negative).

The magnifying glass image is 5 times larger

and upright (since M is positive).
Aberration
 Recall that spherical aberration is the effect
that rays that pass through different part of
the lens are focused at different locations.
Aberration, cont’d
 Chromatic aberration occurs when a lens
illuminated with white light focuses the
various colors at different locations.
 This effect is due to dispersion (more later).
 The human eye
 Light passes through the opening in the iris and
forms an image on the retina.
 The cornea and lens acts as a single converging
lens.
 The eye muscles
change the
thickness of the
lens to change
the focal length.
 The human eye, cont’d
 The eye muscles change the thickness of the
lens to change the focal length.
 A thinner lens is used for far objects.
 A thicker lens
is used for
near
objects.
 The human eye, cont’d
 Myopia (nearsightedness) causes the lens to focus
distant objects in front of the retina.
 A diverging
lens corrects
the problem.
 The human eye, cont’d

 Hyperopia (farsightedness) causes the lens to

focus near objects behind of the retina.
 A converging lens corrects the problem.
 Dispersion and color
 Dispersion is a phenomenon in which the speed of
light through a medium depends on the frequency
of the light.
 Dispersion is why passing a
white light through a prism
causes the individual colors
to be separated.
 The different frequencies
are refracted at differing
angles.
 Dispersion and color, cont’d
 Shorter wavelengths are refracted more than longer
wavelengths.
Dispersion and color, cont’d
 This is because (in most materials), violet
light travels slower through the material than
red light.
 In common glass, the speed of violet light is
1.95×108 m/s while for red light it is 1.97×108 m/s.
 This difference in speed is only about 1%.

 In diamond, the difference in speeds is closer to

2%.
 This explains the “brilliance” of diamond.