CHAPTER 25

Electric Potential

Major Points

1. The definition of electric potential.

2. (a) Calculating the potential given the electric field.
(b) Calculating the field strength given the potential function.
3. Electrostatic potential energy of point charges.
4. Electric field lines are perpendicular to equipotential surfaces and point
toward lower potentials.

This Cockcroft-Walton generator at Los

Alamos laboratory produces a large
In mechanics we introduced the concept of potential energy and used it to formu- potential difference to accelerate
late the law of conservation of energy. In Chapter 8 we discussed the fact that elementary particles called mesons.
potential energy can be defined only for conservative forces. Also recall that the
gravitational force, given by Newton's of gravitation, which has the form F =
f(r)r, is conservative. Since Coulomb's law has the same form, the electrostatic
force is also conservative. This allows us to define an electrostatic potential
energy, analogous to gravitational potential energy, and to apply the law of con-
servation of energy in the analysis of electrical problems.
This chapter is devoted to the concept of electric potential, which is closely
related to potential energy. But whereas potential energy is a property of a system
of particles (including any "test" particle), potential, like the electric field
strength, is a property of a point in space and depends only on the source charges.
The electric field strength gives the force per unit charge at a given point. The
potential tells us the potential energy per unit charge. It is often easier to analyze a
physical situation in terms of potential, which is a scalar, rather than the electric
field strength, which is a vector.

25.1 POTENTIAL
The motion of a particle with positive charge q in a uniform electric field is
analogous to the motion of a particle of mass m in the uniform gravitational field
near the earth; see Fig. 25.1. To move a particle against the field requires work by
an external agent-for example, you. If the external force is equal and opposite to
490 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Foo tbe force due to tbe field, the kinetic energy of the particle will not change. In this
ca e all the external work is stored as potential energy in the system:
t -[/,
(v constant) W EXT = +tiV = V r - Vi (25.1)
where Vr and Vi are the final and initial potential energies.
The gravitational potential energy function near the surface of the earth is
Vg = mgy. One can obtain a function that does not depend on m by defining the
gravitational potential as the potential energy per unit mass: V g = Vglm = gy. The
SI unit of Vg is J/kg. The gravitational potential at a point is the external work
FIGURE 25.1 The motion of a point needed to lift a unit mass from the zero level of potential (y = 0) to the given
mass m in a gravitational field is height, without a change in speed. A useful feature of the potential function is that
analogou to the motion of a point it depend only the our e of th field (the earth) through the value of the gravita-
charge q in an electric field. If the
peed of !:he particle' con. tanl, the
tionaJ field trength , and not on the value of the "te t" rna ,m.
change in potential energy i related to When a charge q move between two point in an electro tatic field, the
the work done by an external agent; change in electric potential ti V. i defined a the change in electro tatic potential
WEXT = +!i.U. energy per unit charge,

Definition of electric potential tiV=tiV (25.2)

q
The SI unit of electric potential is the volt (V), in honor of Alessandro Volta,
inventor of the voltaic pile (the first primitive electric battery). Note that
1 V = 1 J/C
The quantity ti V depends only on the field set up by the source charges, not on the
test charge. Once the potential difference between two points is known, the exter-
nal work needed to move a charge q, with no change in its speed, may be found
from Eq. 25.1:
(v constant) WEXT = q tiV = q(Vr - Vi) (25.3)
The sign of this work depends on the sign of q and the relative magnitudes of
Vi and V r. If W EXT > 0, work is done by the external agent on the charge. If
W EXT < 0, work is done on the external agent by the field. In the latter case, in
order to keep the speed constant, the external force acts opposite to the displace-
ment of the charge.
From Eq. 25.3 we see that only changes in potential, rather than the specific
value of Vi and V r , are significant. One can choose the reference point at which the
potential is zero at some convenient point such as infinity. In electronic circuits it
is convenient to choose the ground connection to earth as the zero of potential. If
Vi = 0, we may write V r = WEXTlq:

The potential at a point is the external work needed to bring a positive unit
charge, at constant speed. from the position of zero potential to the given
point.

Electric potential, measured in J/C, is analogous to gravitational potential,

measured in J/kg. When the height of a particle is increased, its gravitational
potential energy increases. Similarly, when a positive charge is moved to a point
of higher potential, its electrostatic potential energy increases. If allowed to,
positive charges tend to move "downhill" in potential, just as do ordinary masses.
However, negative charges tend to move "uphill" in potential. In an external
electric field, both positive and negative charges tend to decrease the electrostatic
potential energy.
 25.2 POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY IN A UNIFORM FIELD 491

Although the concept of work done by an external agent is helpful in introduc-

ing potential energy, it is preferable to refer instead to the internal conservative
forces within the system of interacting particles. From Eq. 8.4, the definition of
potential energy in terms of the work done by the conservative force is Ii.U =
- We. The negative sign tells us that positive work by the conservative force leads
to a decrease in potential energy. In an electrostatic field, the (conservative) force
on a test charge q is Fe = qE. Therefore, the change in potential energy, dU =
-dWe , associated with an infinitesimal displacement ds, is
dU = -Fe' ds = -qE . ds
From Eq. 25.2 the infinitesimal change in potential associated with the displace-
ment ds is
dU
dV = - = -E· ds (25.4)
q
Figure 25.2 shows a curved path in a nonuniform field. The finite change in
potential in going from point A to point B is the sum (integral) of these infinitesimal
changes,

(25.5)

Since the electrostatic field is conservative, the value of this line integral depends
only on the end points A and B, not on the path taken. The sign of the integral is FIGURE 25.2 The change in
determined (1) by the signs of the components ofE, and (2) by the direction of the potential in moving from point A
path taken-which is indicated by the limits. to point B in an electrostatic field is
VB - VA = - f E . ds and is
independent of the path taken.

25.2 POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY IN A UNIFORM FIELD

In a uniform field, E is constant, and therefore the integral in Eq. 25.5 may be
written as f E . ds = E . f ds = E . li.s. The finite change in potential Ii. V associated
with a finite displacement li.s takes the form
(Uniform E) Ii.V = -E, li.s (25.6a)
Note that li.s and Ii. V depend only on the initial and final positions, not on the path
taken.
Figure 25.3 shows a uniform field E = Ei. Let us find the change in potential in
going from point A to point B, which are separated by a distance d along the lines. _E
Since the electric field has only an x component, Eq. 25.6a reduces to Ii. V =
-Exli.x. If we write Ex = E and li.x = +x, we have
Vex) - YeO) = -Ex (25.6b)
The potential decreases linearly along the x axis, as depicted in the graph of Fig.
25.3. Notice that the field lines point from high potential to low potential. Suppose
now that the actual path in Fig. 25.3 is replaced by the two steps AC and CB. Since
E is perpendicular to the displacement along BC, no work will be done on a test '------------x
charge along this segment. Work is done only along the segment AC parallel to the FIGURE 25.3 In a uniform field, the
field lines. Since only the component of the displacement along, or against, the change in potential in moving from A to
field lines is significant, Eq. 25.6a is often written in the form B is V = - E . In a uniform field
the potential decreases linearly with
(Uniform E) Ii.V = ±Ed (25.6c) distance along the field lines.
492 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

where d is the magnitude of the component of the displacement along, or against,

the field. The positive sign applies to a displacement opposite to the field. From
Eq. 25.6c we see that an equivalent unit for electric field is V1m:
I VIm = I NIC

Equipotentials
A relief map, as in Fig. 25.4, has contour lines that are formed by joining points of
equal elevation. Usually, the contours are drawn for equal intervals in elevation,
say 100 m. The lines are close together where the terrain is steep; they are far
apart where the terrain slopes gradually. An equipotential is a surface that joins
points of equal potential. In a two-dimensional plot, the surfaces are depicted as
equipotential lines. The contour lines actually trace the gravitational equipoten-
tials. In a similar fashion, one can draw electrical equipotentials.
------------ In the uniform field of Fig. 25.3, each value of x has a particular value of V.
,.,..:-------- -....... Thus, the equipotential surfaces are flat planes, although they are depicted as
,/ " .... ".......... ----
;'" .......

I' " ' I

\
\
straight dashed lines in Fig. 25.3. Note that the electric field lines are perpendicu-
, '/- I \ I I I lar to the equipotentials and point from higher to lower potentials, that is, "down-
r I . , I
I ", - 500 rn 1400 m to. I
hin" in potential. The fact that the field lines are perpendicular to the equipoten-
...... -./ m

------- -
-----_____ - ..... /
__ -/100 m
tials is a general result. From Eq. 25.4 the change in potential associated with an
- infinitesimal displacement ds is dV = - E . ds. If the displacement is along an
equipotential, then dV = O. Thus, E . ds = 0, from which we conclude that E is
FIGURE 25.4 In a relief map, the
contours join points of equal elevation
perpendicular to ds. No work is required to move a particle along an equipotential
(or gravitational potential). surface.
EXERCISE 1. Figure 25.5 shows two points A and B in a uniform electrical field. A
charge q moves from A to B. (a) Does the potential increase or decrease? (b) Does
its potential energy increase or decrease? Consider both positive and negative
B- -A
values for q.

FIGURE 25.5 When a charge moves Motion of Charges

from A to B what happens to its
potential and to its potential energy? The motion of a charge in an electric field may be discussed in terms of the
conservation of energy, 11K + I1U = O. When we refer to the "potential energy of
a charge," it is implied that the other charges are fixed in position. In terms of
potential, the conservation law may be written as
11K = -ql1V (25.7)
The sign of 11K depends on the signs of both q and 11 V. For example, if q > 0, and
the charge moves "downhill" in potential (11 V < 0), it will gain kinetic energy. It is
often convenient to measure the energy of elementary particles, such as electrons
and protons, in terms of a non-SI unit called the electronvolt (eV). When a particle
with a charge of magnitude e moves through a potential difference of one volt, its
kinetic energy changes by one electronvolt. From Eq. 25.7,
11K = e 11 V = (I.602 X 10- 19 C) (l V)
Thus,
I eV = 1.602 x 10- 19 J (25.8)
In terms of this unit, chemical bonding energies are of the order of a few electron-
volts per bond. The electrons in the beam of a cathode ray tube have approxi-
mately 104 eV.
 25.3 POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY OF POINT CHARGES 493

EXAMPLE 25.1: A proton, of mass 1.67 x 10- 27 kg, enters the Solution: According to Eq. 25.7, the change in kinetic energy is
region between two parallel plates a distance 20 cm apart.
There is a uniform electric field of 3 x 105 Vim between the
- = -q V (i)
plates, as shown in Fig. 25.6. If the initial speed of the proton is Since the displacement is along the direction of the field lines,
5 x 106 mis, what is its final speed? the change in potential is negative. From Eq. 25.6c,

d
-Ed = -6 x IO"V
I' From (i) we have
+
+
m

.>0:"
+
= (5 x 106 1)2 _ 2(1.6 X 10- 19 C)(-6 x l()4 V)
ms 1.67 x 10 27 kg
= 36.5 X 10 12 m 2/s 2

Thus, Vf = 6 X 106 m/s.

EXERCISE 2. A charge q «0) moves in an electric field. If it

FIGURE 25.6 As a proton moves along the field lines, its moves "uphill" in potential, does its kinetic energy increase or
potential energy decreases and its kinetic energy increases. decrease?

25.3 POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY OF POINT CHARGES

We now consider how the potential varies in the vicinity of a point charge Q. The
electric field is

E = E r i = kQ
r2
i

Since E is radial, as in Fig. 25.7, only the radial component ofthe displacement ds
can contribute to E· ds; thus, E· ds = E r dr. From Eq. 25.5 the change in potential
in moving from A to B along any path is

VB - VA =- J: Erdr = -[ - k;J:
= kQ (1-rB - 1-)
rA
If we choose V = 0 at r = 00, the potential at a distance r from Q is

V=kQ (25.9)
r

FIGURE 25.7 The change in potential from point A to point B is VB - VA = - E . ds.

494 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

This potential function, which depends only on the source charge Q, is plotted in

---- -- Fig. 25.8. Since each value of r has a unique value of V, the equipotentials are
spherical surfaces centered on the charge. In Fig. 25.8 the equipotentials are
drawn as dashed circles. Near the charge the potential changes rapidly with
distance, so the equipotentials are close together. The field lines (solid lines) are
normal to the equipotentials and point toward lower values of potential. The field
is strong where the equipotentials are closely spaced.

Potential of a System of Point Charges

In Chapter 23 it was pointed out that electric fields obey the principle of linear
superposition. Since the potential function is derived from the electric field (as in
Eq. 25.5), the potential function also obeys this principle. When several point
charges are present, the total potential at some point is given by the algebraic sum
of the potentials due to all the charges:

v = 2: kQ; (25.10)
r;

------...l..-----_r
The scalar nature of potential means that we need to keep track only of the signs
of the charges in the above sum.
FIGURE 25.8 The potential function Figure 25.9 shows the total potential due to two equal and opposite point
V = kQlr for a point charge. The
dashed circles represent the
charges. The dashed curves are the individual potential functions whereas the
equipotential surfaces (which are solid curve is the total potential function that would be encountered by another
spheres centered on the charge). charge brought into the region. Figure 25.10 is a two-dimensional plot of the
equipotentials and field lines for two equal and opposite charges. Once the equipo-
tentials have been obtained, the field lines are easily drawn perpendicular to them.
Notice that at the midpoint in Fig. 25.9, V = 0 but E +- O.
Figure 25.11 is a two-dimensional plot of the equipotentials and field lines for
two equal positive charges. Figure 25.12 shows the total potential due to two equal
positive point charges. Notice that at the midpoint in Fig. 25.12, E = 0 but V+- O.

FIGURE 25.9 The dashed lines are the

potentials due to each of two equal and opposite
charges. The solid lines show the total potential.

FIGURE 25.10 A two-dimensional view of the equipotentials

(dashed lines) and the field lines (solid lines) for two equal and
opposite charges.
 25.3 POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL ENERGY OF POINT CHARGES 495

FIGURE 25.12 The dashed lines are

the potentials due to each of two equal
positive charges. The solid lines show
the total potential.

FIGURE 25.11 A two-dimensional view of the equipotentials (dashed lines) and the field lines
(solid lines) for two equal and positive charges.

Potential Energy of Point Charges

Consider a point charge q placed at a position where the potential is V. The
potential energy associated with the interaction of this single charge with the
charges that created V is
U = qV (25.11)
If the source of the potential is a point charge Q, the potential at a distance r from
Q is V = kQ/r. Therefore, the potential energy shared by two charges q and Q
separated by r is

U = kqQ (25.12a)
r
Implicit in Eq. 25.12a is the choice U = 0 at r = 00, which allows the following
interpretation:
The potential energy of the system of two charges is the external work needed
to bring the charges from infinity to the separation r without a change in
kinetic energy.
When both charges have the same sign, their potential energy is positive: Positive
work is needed to reduce their separation against their mutual repulsion. When
the charges have opposite signs, the external work is negative. In this case, the
external force has to prevent the particles from speeding up-which means that
the external force is directed opposite to the displacement. Negative potential
energy means that external work is required to separate the charges.
When calculating the total potential energy of a system of several charges, it is A color-coded map of
better to write Eq. 25.12a as equipotentials in the brain. These
are "evoked" potentials measured
U IJ.. = kqiqj (25.12b) ahout 0.1 s after a stimulus, such
rij as a flash or a click. The upper
display shows the presence of a
This form helps us not to double-count the contributions of the charges. Note that tumor; the lower display is that of
Uij = Uji and that we do not include terms for which i = j. Since the potentials a person with epilepsy.
496 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

obey the principle of linear superposition, the total potential energy of a system is
simply an algebraic sum and does not depend on how the charges are assembled.

EXAMPLE 25.2: Three point charges, ql = 1 /-LC, q2 = -2/-LC, total potential energy is therefore U = -1.41 X 10- 2 J. This
and q3 = 3 /-LC are fixed at the positions shown in Fig. 25.13a. negative potential energy means that external work is needed to
(a) What is the potential at point P at the corner of the rectan- separate the particles and place them at infinity.
gle? (b) How much work would be needed to bring a charge
EXERCISE 3. A point charge ql = -2 /-LC is located at (- 2 m, 0)
q4 = 2.5 /-LC from infinity and to place it at P? (c) What is the
and charge q2 = 3 /-LC is at (4 m, 3 m). Point A is (0, 0) and point
total potential energy of ql , q2, and q3?
B is (4 m, 0). (a) Find the total potential at points A and B. (b)
How much work would be required to move a point charge q3 =
5 /-LC from A to B at constant speed?

lP EXAMPLE 25.3: In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a model of the

I hydrogen atom in which an electron orbits a stationary proton
I
5m I in a circular path. Find the total mechanical energy of the elec-
3m
I tron given that the radius of the orbit is 0.53 x 10- 10 m.

I Solution: This problem is analogous to that of a satellite in orbit

around the earth. The mechanical energy is the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies, E = K + U. From Eq. 25.12a,
FIGURE 25.13 The potential energy of this system of charges is the potential energy is
negative.
ke 2
U= - - (i)
r
To find the kinetic energy we must calculate the orbital speed,
Solution: (a) The total potential at the point P is the scalar sum
v. The centripetal force is provided by the coulomb attraction
V = V + V + V = kql + kq2 + kq3 between the proton and the electron. From Newton's second
P I 2 3 rl r2 r3 law, F = rna,
With the given values, ke 2 mv2
-;:2 = -r-
9
VI = (9.0 X 10 C) = 2.25 x 1Q3 V
Thus, the kinetic energy of the electron is
Similarly, V 2 = -3.6 X 103 V, and V 3 = 9 X 103 V. The total ke 2
K = Imv 2 = - (ii)
potential is V p = 7.65 X 103 V. 2 2r
(b) The external work is WEXT = q(Vr - Vi)' In this case, Vi = 0,
Therefore, the total mechanical energy is
so
ke 2
WEXT = q4 Vp = (2.5 X 10-6 C)(7.65 x 1Q3 V) = 0.19 J
(c) The total potential energy of the three charges is the (scalar)
sum -(8.99 X 109 N·m 2/C2)(1.60 x 10- 19 C)2
U = U 12 + U B + U23 (1.06 x 10 10 m)
= kqlq2 + kqlq3 + kq2q3
rl2 rB r23 = -2.18 X 10- 18 J = -13.6 eV
We find, for example In Section 8.9 we saw that a negative total energy means that
U _ __ 6 _C,-,)(_-_2__
·m_2_/_2-,:,-)(_10_-_ 6 ---,-C)
10_-_ the orbiting particle is bound. The value 13.6 eV is in very good
12 - 3m agreement with the experimental value of the ionization energy
of the atom-the minimum energy required to remove the elec-
= -6 X 10- 3 J
tron from its lowest orbit. The Bohr model is discussed further
Similarly, U B = +5.4 X 10- 3 J and U23 = -13.5 X 10- 3 J. The in Chapter 40.
 25.4 ELECTRIC FIELD DERIVED FROM POTENTIAL 497

25.4 ELECTRIC FIELD DERIVED FROM POTENTIAL

In Section 8.7 we saw how a conservative force can be derived from the derivative
of the associated potential energy function, F x = -dU/dx. Similarly, once the
(scalar) potential function is known, one can determine the (vector) electric field.
From Eq. 25.4 the change in potential associated with a displacement ds is
dV = - E . ds = - E ds cos (J

Since E s = E cos (J is the component of E along ds, the above equation may be
written as dV = - E s ds, from which we infer that
E __ dV
s - ds (25.13)

Since the direction of ds is arbitrary, Eq. 25.13 may be interpreted as follows: Any
component of E may be found from the rate of change of V with distance in the
chosen direction. There will be one direction for which this rate of change is a
maximum. The full magnitude of E is given by this maximum value of the spatial
derivative: that is, E = -(dV/ds)max. As Fig. 25.14 shows, the maximum occurs in \ I'-
\ I"
the direction in which the equipotentials are most closely spaced.
\ \
\ ,'II
In rectangular components the electric field is E = Exi + Eyj + Ezk and an \ \ I I I
\ 'I II ,I I
infinitesimal displacement is ds = dxi + dyj + dzk. Thus, I

dV = -E . ds = -(Ex dx + Ey dy + E z dz)
For a displacement in the x direction, dy = dz = 0 and so dV = -Exdx. Therefore,
High Low
E = _(dV) V V
x dx y.z constant
FIGURE 25.14 The electric field points
A derivative in which all variables except one are held constant is called a partial from high potential to low potential.
derivative and is written with a a instead of d. The electric field is therefore The component of the field along a
displacement ds is E, = -dVlds. The
field itself is normal to the
E = - av i _ av j _ av k (25.14) equipotentials.
ax ay az
The right side of Eq. 25.14 is called the gradient of V. There are no new rules of
differentiation to learn, as the following example illustrates.

EXAMPLE 25.4: The potential due to a point charge is given V= kQ

by V = kQ/r. Find: (a) the radial component of the electric field; (x2 + y2 + (2)112
(b) the x component of the electric field.
To find the x component of the electric field, we treat y and z as
Solution: (a) From Eq. 25.13 the radial component is given by constants. Thus,
E = _ dV
r dr E = _ iJV
x iJx
= + kQ
r2
This expression agrees with what we already know from Cou-
lomb's law.
(b) In terms of rectangular components, the radial distance is
r = (x 2 + y2 + (2)1/2; therefore, the potential function V = kQ/r EXERCISE 4. Continue the calculation and show that the vec-
is tor is E = (kQ/r 2)i.
498 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

25.5 CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS

The potential due to a system of discrete point charges is given by Eq. 25.10. The
potential due to a continuous charge distribution may be found in two ways. The
first is a direct calculation based on the contribution of an arbitrary charge element
dq. In Fig. 25.15, the contribution to the potential at point P at a distance r from an
infinitesimal (point) charge dq is

dV = k dq
r
p The total potential at P is the integral of this over the charge distribution,

FIGURE 25.15 One way to find the

potential due to a finite charge
v = k f dq,. (25.15)
distribution is to integrate the
contributions from infinitesimal charge This equation implies the choice V = 0 at infinity. Equation 25.15 is generally not
elements dq, so V = kfdq/r. suitable for an infinite distribution of charge because the potential at infinity
cannot be uniquely defined.
The second approach to calculating the potential is based on Eq. 25.5:

VB - VA = - 1: E . ds (25.16)

If E is already known-for example, from Gauss's law-then this equation may

be used to calculate !1 V. In this case, the potential can be chosen to be zero at any
convenient point.

EXAMPLE 25.5: A nonconducting disk of radius a has a uni- Since potential is a scalar, there are no components to worry
form surface charge density cr C/m 2 • What is the potential at a about. Notice that there is only one variable, x, in this expres-
point on the axis of the disk at a distance y from its center? sion; the distance y is fixed. The potential due to the whole disk
is the integral of the above expression:
Solution: The symmetry of the disk tells us that the appropriate
choice of element is a ring of radius x and thickness dx, as
f a x dx
shown in Fig. 25.16. All points on this ring are at the same V = 27Tkcr Jo (x2 + y2)112
distance, r = (x 2 + y2)112, from the point P. The charge on the
ring is dq = cr dA = cr(27TX dx) and so the potential due to the = 27Tkcr [(X 2 +
ring is
= 27Tkcr[(a2 + y2)1/2 - y]
dV = k dq = kcr(27TX dx)
. r (x 2 + y2)112
Let us see how this expression behaves at large distances, when
y » a, or a/y « l. We use the binomial theorem [(I + z)n ""
p
1 + nz for small z to expand the first term:

a2
""y ( 1+-+·
2y 2

Substituting this into the expression for V we find

V = kQ
Y
FIGURE 25.16 The appropriate charge element for a disk is a where Q = cr7Ta is the total charge on the disk. At large dis-
2

thin ring. Note that to find the potential one does not have to take tances, the potential due to the disk is the same as that of a
components. point charge Q.
 25.6 CONDUCTORS 499

EXAMPLE 25.6: A shell of radius R has a charge Q uniformly

distributed over its surface. Find the potential at a distance
r > R from its center.
Solution: The calculation of the potential from Eq. 25.15 is
similar to that in Example 13.4 for gravitational potential en-
ergy. Here it is more straightforward to use the electric field,
which we know from Gauss's law. At points outside a uniform v
spherical distribution the field is MI
RI---
E = kQ r
r2
The potential at a point for which r > R may be found from Eq. '----------;';R:----;2""R;;----r
25.5. Since E is radial, E . ds = E, dr. Since V(oo) = 0, we have

V(r) - V(oo) = -f'oor dr = -kQ [- roo!]'

V = kQ (r > R) (25.17)
r
We see that the potential due to the uniformly charged shell is
the same as that due to a point charge Q at the center. The FIGURE 25.17 The variation of the potential and electric field for
a spherical charged conductor.
result is valid for any spherically symmetric charge distribution
since it may be treated as a series of concentric shells.
Equation 25.17 also applies to a conducting sphere since its
charge resides only on the surface (see Section 24.3). Figure
25.17 shows a spherical conductor of radius R with a charge Q sphere is dW = V dq = (kqIR)dq. The total work required to
uniformly distributed over its surface. Under static conditions, give the sphere a charge Q is therefore
E = 0 at points inside a conductor. From Eq. 25.16 we infer that
VB = VA, which means that any two points in the conductor W = (Q kq d = kQ2
must have the same potential. Thus, the potential has a fixed Jo R q 2R
value at all points within the conducting sphere equal to the This is the potential energy of the charge distribution on
potential at the surface, V = kQIR. The variation of the electric the surface of the conducting sphere. It has the form U =
field and the potential with r are shown in the figure. where V = kQIR is the potential ofthe sphere. This expression
should be compared with Eq. 25.11, U = QV. The factor of one-
half arises because these two potential energies have different
EXAMPLE 25.7: A metal sphere of radius R has a charge Q.
meanings. The expression U = QV represents the potential
Find its potential energy.
energy associated with a single charge Q at a point where the
Solution: We can find the potential energy by calculating the potential due to other charges is V. It is the work needed to
work needed to build up the charge to the final value. Suppose bring Q from infinity to the given position. The expression U =
at some time that the charge on the sphere is q. From Eq. 25.15, that we have just obtained is the potential energy of the
its potential is V = kqlR. The external work required to bring an whole system of charges. It is the work needed to bring the
infinitesimal charge dq from infinity and to deposit it on the system of charges together.

25.6 CONDUCTORS
Figure 25.18 shows an empty cavity within a conductor in electrostatic equilib-
rium. It might be charged or it might be placed in an external electric field. Within
the material of the conductor E = 0; thus the change in potential VB - VA =
- E . ds is zero between any two points in the material of the conductor,
including the surface. Since the integral is zero for any path, including one through
the cavity, we conclude that E must also be zero in the cavity. In general,
All points within and on the surface of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium FIGURE 25.18 The field is zero inside
are at the same potential. an empty cavity in a conductor.
500 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

For a displacement ds along the surface of a conductor, we have dV = E . ds = 0,

which means E is perpendicular to ds. As we noted in Section 23.3, the field lines
are perpendicular to the surface.
I. I
Figure 25.19 shows an uncharged spherical conductor in a uniform field. Far
from the sphere, we would expect the field pattern to be unchanged: The field lines
I I
there are uniform, and the equipotentials are planes. Near the sphere, the equipo-
tentials must be spherical and the field lines radial. The charges in the sphere
: : I
redistribute themselves so as to ensure that these conditions are met. The fact that
the field within the cavity is zero means that a conductor "shields" interior points
from an external field. This property is useful when one wants to isolate equip-
ment, or a signal-carrying cable, from external influences.
I I
Suppose two charged metal spheres with radii R I and R 2 are connected by a
I, I I long wire, as in Fig. 25.20. Charge will flow from one to the other until their
High V Low V
potentials are equal, that is, VI = V 2 • Since the spheres are far apart, their charges
FIGURE 25.19 A conductor shields will be uniformly distributed, and the potential of each may be taken to be V =
interior points from an external field.
kQIR. The equality of the potentials implies that
QI Q2
R1 = R2
For a uniform surface charge density u C/m2, the total charge Q = 47TR2 u , so the
above equation becomes
FIGURE 25.20 When two charged
spheres are joined by a wire they are at
the same potential. (25.18)

From Eq. 25.18 we infer that u ex: l1R: The surface charge density on each sphere
is inversely proportional to the radius. This relationship allows us to make at least
a qualitative statement regarding the charge distribution on a conductor of irregu-
lar shape, such as that in Fig. 25.21: The regions with the smallest radii of curva-
ture have the greatest surface charge densities. *
In Section 24.3, it was shown that close to the surface of a conductor, the field
strength is E = u/eo. From Eq. 25.18 we infer that the field strength is greatest at
sharp points on a conductor. If the field strength is great enough (about 3 x 106
V1m for dry air) it can cause an electrical discharge in air. The breakdown occurs
because there are usually some molecules in the air that have been ionized (that is,
electrons have been detached) by cosmic rays from space or by natural radioactiv-
FIGURE 25.21 On an arbitrary ity in the soil. The electrons accelerate rapidly under the action of the electric
charged conductor the surface charge
density is large where the radius of
field, collide with other molecules, and thereby create more ions. At this stage, the
curvature is small. air loses its insulating properties and becomes a conductor. The result is a "co-
rona discharge" that is accompanied by a visible glow. Examples include St.
Elmo's fire and a glow sometimes seen around electrical transmission wires. To
prevent corona discharge, high-voltage equipment has smooth surfaces with the
largest possible radius of curvature.
In some instances sharp points are desirable. A lightning rod is designed to
produce a continuous discharge that tends to neutralize the cloud above. ** Air-
planes have short wires that trail from wings and serve the same purpose. In field-
ion microscopy, which is discussed later, very high electric fields are produced by
extremely sharp needles.

• We assume that all parts of the surface are convex; that is, they bulge outward. See R. H. Price and
R. J. Crowley, Am. J. Phys. 53: 843, (1985).
•• However, see the special topic on Atmospheric Electricity.
 SUMMARY 501

The potential at the surface of a charged sphere is V = kQ/R and the field
strength is E = kQ/R2. Thus, at the surface V = ER; so, for a given breakdown
field strength, VOC R. The potential of a sphere of radius 10 cm may be raised to
3 x 105 V before breakdown. On the other hand, a 0.05-mm dust particle can
initiate a discharge at 150 V. Dust in grain silos or cement mills can easily become
charged by friction and raised to this potential. The resulting electric discharges
have led to several serious dust explosions in Canada and the United States.

SUMMARY
Electric potential is a scalar quantity that is related to work and potential energy in
a conservative, electric field. The change in potential Ll V in moving from point A
to point B is

VB - VA = W EXT = Ll U
q q
where W EXT is the work required to move the charge q from A to B at constant
speed. WEXT = LlU is the associated change in potential energy. Like the electric
field, potential is a function that depends on the source charges, not on any "test"
charge. Only changes in potential are significant, so one can arbitrarily choose the
point at which V = O. Potential can also be related to the electric field:

The integral does not depend on the path taken from A to B.

In a uniform field, the change in potential may be written
(Uniform field) LlV = ±Ed
where ± d is the component of the displacement, from the initial to the final point,
parallel to E. The positive sign applies to a displacement against the field.
The potential at a distance r from a point charge Q is

V = kQ
r

[t is implies that V = 0 at r = 00. The sign of Q must be included. The potential due
a system of charges is given by the algebraic sum of the potentials due to
:ndividual charges. The potential due to a continuous charge distribution is given
Jy Eq. 25.16 or

V = Jk
The potential function may be represented by equipotential surfaces. In a two-
iimensional plot, the equipotentials are lines. The electric field is perpendicular to
:he equipotentials and points from higher to lower potential.
The potential energy associated with a single charge at a point where the
Jotential due to other charges is V is given by
U = qV
[n calculating the potential energy of a system of charges, care must be taken not
:0 double-count contributions. Positive potential energy means that positive ex-
502 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

ternal work was required to bring the charges from infinite and to place them at
their given positions. Negative potential energy means that positive external work
must be done to separate the charges.
Once the scalar potential function V has been found, the component of the
electric field in the direction of the displacement ds may be found from

Es =
av
as
where s is usually x, y, Z, or r.
For a homogeneous conductor in electrostatic equilibrium, the potential is the
same at all points within the material and on the surface.

ANSWERS TO IN·CHAPTER EXERCISES

1. (a) The potential increases in a direction opposite to the field V = + kq2 = 6 x IQ3 V
lines, .:l V > O. (b) .:lU = q .:l V. The potential energy of a B 6m 3m
positive charge would increase. The potential energy of a
(b) The work needed to move q3 from A to B is
negative charge would decrease.
2. .:lK = -q .:l V. Since q is negative and .:l V is positive, it WEXT = Q3(VB - VA) = (5 x 10- 6 C)(9.6 x IQ3 V) = 48 mJ
follows that .:lK > O. 4. E y and E z have the same form as Ex. So,
3. (a) The total potential at any point is V = kq]/r] + kq2lr2.
E = (xi + yj + zk) = r
r r
V = kq] + kq2 = -3.6 X 103 V
A 2m 5m Note that r = rr.

QUESTIONS
1. (a) If the potential is zero at a point, what can you say about 11. Can two equipotential surfaces cross? Explain why or why
the electri.: field at that point? (a) If the field strength is zero not.
at a point, what can you say about the potential function? 12. A circular ring of radius R has a charge + Q uniformly
2. Does it make sense to speak of a "potential field"? If so, distributed around its circumference. A negative point
how would you represent it pictorially? charge -Q starts at an arbitrary point on the axis and moves
3. Points A and B have the same potential. In general would a to the center of the ring. (a) Does the potential of the point
net force be needed to move a charge from A to B? Would charge increase or decrease? (b) Does the potential energy
net work be required? of the point charge increase or decrease?
4. (a) Can the potential of a charged object be zero relative to 13. Is it possible to move a charge in an electric field without
ground? If so, explain how. (b) Is it possible for an un- doing work? If so, how?
charged body to be at a nonzero potential? 14. What is the shape of an equipotential surface for an infinite
5. On a dry day, a spark between your finger and some object line of charge?
may involve several thousand volts. Why is this not danger- 15. A metal shell of radius 10 cm is charged till its potential is
ous when a mere 120 V at a wall outlet can be fatal? 70 V. (a) What is the potential at the center? (b) What is the
6. Points A and B are at the same potential. What can be said electric field at the center?
about the field strengths at these points? 16. Two charged metal spheres of radii Rand 2R are temporar-
7. Why is the reception on a pocket radio better outside a car ily placed in contact and then separated. At the surface of
than inside it? each sphere, which sphere has the greater value for the
8. The surface of a metal object is an equipotential. Does this following: (a) charge density; (b) total charge; (c) potential;
mean that the excess charge on it is uniformly distributed? (d) electric field?
9. Is the equation .:l V = ± Ed generally valid? Explain why or 17. The electric field strength inside a charged hollow metal
why not. cube is zero, but the gravitational field strength inside a
hollow cubic mass distribution is not. Why the difference?
10. As one follows a given field line in the direction of the field,
does the potential increase, decrease, or stay fixed?
 EXERCISES 503

EXERCISES
25.1 Potential
1. (I) A lightning flash may transfer up to 30 C of charge
through a potential difference of lOS V. (a) How much en-
ergy does this involve? State your answer in eV. (b) For
how long could this much energy light a 6O-W bulb?
2. (I) A 12-V car battery is rated at 80 A . h, which is the
charge it can transfer from one terminal to the other
through an external circuit. (1A = 1 Cis.) (a) How much
charge can the battery transfer? (b) How much energy can
it provide, assuming that the potential difference between FIGURE 25.22 Exercise II.
the terminals stays constant as it discharges?
3. (I) External work equal to 4 x 10- 7 J is needed to move a
-5-nC charge at constant speed to a point at which the
potential is - 20 V. What is the potential at the initial point? E
4. (I) A uniform electric field is given by E = -180k V1m. (a)
What is the change in potential from ZA = 5 cm to ZB = 15
cm? (b) How far apart along the Z axis are two points that FIGURE 25.23 Exercise 12.
differ in potential by 27 V?
S. (II) An electric field is given by E = 2x1 - 3y 2j N/C. Find
the change in potential from the position rA = i - 2j m to charge placed between them experiences a force of 2.4 x
rB = 2i + j + 3k m. 1O- 2i N. Find the potential difference between the plates.
6. (II) Given the following electric fields, find the correspond- 14. (I) What potential difference would be required to acceler-
ing potential functions V(x): (a) E = (Alx)i. Take V = 0 at ate the following particles from rest to O.lc = 3 x 107 m/s:
x = Xc; (b) E = A exp(-Bx)i. Take V = 0 at x = O. (a) an alpha particle with a charge 2e and a mass 4 u; (b) a
uranium nucleus with a charge 92e and a mass 235 u?
15. (I) In clear weather, at the earth's surface there is a uniform
25.2 Potential and Potential Energy in a Uniform Electric Field electric field of about 120 V1m directed vertically down.
What is the potential difference between the ground and the
7. (I) Given that an electron starts from rest in a uniform field,
following heights: (a) the top of the head of a person of
what potential difference is needed to give it the following
height 1.8 m; (b) the top of the Sears tower whose height is
speeds: (a) 330 mls (the speed of sound); (b) 11.2 km/s (the
433 m?
escape speed from the earth); (c) O.lc (10% of the speed of
light)? 16. (I) Two infinite parallel plates separated by 3 cm are con-
nected to a 120-V battery. An electron starts at rest from
8. (I) Repeat Exercise 7 for a proton.
the negative plate. (a) What is the electric field strength? (b)
9. (I) Suppose a 12-V car battery is used as a source of energy What is the work done by the field on the electron by the
to accelerate particles. Find the speeds that would be at- time it hits the positive plate? (c) What is the change in
tained by (a) an electron; and (b) a proton. Assume the potential of the electron?(d) What is the change in potential
particles start at rest. energy of the electron?
10. (I) The gap in the spark plug of a car is 0.1 cm. What 17. (I) What is the work required to move a particle of mass 2 x
potential difference is needed to produce a spark given that 10- 2 g and a charge of -15 ""C through a change in potential
the breakdown field strength of air is 3 x 1()6 V1m. of -6000 V and also to increase its speed from zero to 400
11. (I) Figure 25.22 shows two equipotential (dashed) surfaces m/s?
such that VA = -5 V and VB = -15 V. What is the external
work needed to move a -2 ""C charge at constant speed
from A to B along the indicated path? 25.3 Potential due to a Point Charge
12. (I) In Fig. 25.23 points A and B are 4 cm apart along the 18. (I) Two protons in a nucleus are 10- 15 m apart. (a) What is
lines of a uniform field E = 600i V1m. (a) Find the change in their electrical potential energy? (b) If they were free to
potential VB - VA. (b) What is the change in potential en- move and start from rest, find their speeds when they are
ergy VB - V A as a point charge q = - 3 ""C is moved from A 4 x 10- 15 m apart.
to B? 19. (I) A uranium nucleus with a charge +92e can spontane-
13. (I) Two large parallel conducting plates carry equal and ously undergo fission into two fragments carrying charges
opposite charges and are separated by 5 cm. An 8-""C point +48e and +44e. If the fragments are initially at rest 7 x
504 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

10- 15 m apart, what is their total kinetic energy when they 24. (I) At a distance r from a point charge Q, the field strength
are infinitely far apart? is 200 V/m and the potential is 600 V. Determine Q and r.
20. (I) (a) Find the potential due to the three charges in Fig. 25. (I) A point charge +4Q is at x = O. At what point(s) on the x
25.24 at the lower left corner. (b) A charge -2p.C is placed axis is the total potential zero if at x = 1 m there is a second
at the lower left corner. What is its potential energy? (c) charge equal to (a) -Q; (b) -9Q?
What is the potential energy of the system of four charges? 26. (I) In Fig. 25.27, the charges QI = 3 p.C, Q2 = -2p.C and
Q3 = 5 /LC are fixed. What is the external work needed to
move a charge q = -4 p.C at constant speed from point A at
21"C 41"C the center of the square to point B at the corner? What is
.... -----------ip
j 4 em I the significance of the sign of your answer?

4 em! : y
I I
I
---7]8
I
I I
I I
I
L =-I
-31lC 10 A/ ,i
I
FIGURE 25.24 Exercise 20. I
--->:

21. (I) Four point particles with charges 0.6 p.C, 2.2 /LC, -3.6 FIGURE 25.27 Exercise 26.
p.C and +4.8 p.C are placed at the corners of a square of
side 10 cm. What is the external work needed to bring a
charge of - 5 p.C from infinity to the center of the square? 27. (I) A 5-p.C point charge is placed at the origin in Fig. 25.28.
(Assume the speed of the -5 /LC charge is kept constant.) Find the potential at the points (a) A, (b) B, and (c) C.
What is the significance of the sign of your answer?
22. (I) Two charges Q and -Q are held fixed at a separation of 4
m as shown in Fig. 25.25. Take Q = 5 p.C. (a) What is the y
change in potential VB - VA? (b) A point particle of mass
m = 0.3 g and charge q = 2 p.C starts from rest at A. What B
is its speed at B? I
11 em
I

• 2m
1.5 em
2.5 em
A
FIGURE 25.25 Exercise 22.

23. (I) Two point particles with equal charge Q are located FIGURE 25.28 Exercise 27.
as shown in Fig. 25.26. The points A and Bare (0, 4 m)
and (0, 0), respectively. (a) Find the change in potential
VB - VA' (b) If a point charge -q of mass 3 x 10- 8 kg is 28. (I) Two point charges, -4 p.C and +6 /Lc, are located as
released from rest at A, what is its speed at point B? Take shown in Fig. 25.29. (a) What is the potential at the origin?
q = Q = 5/LC. (b) What is the external work required to bring a 2-p.C
charge at constant speed from infinity to the origin?
y
29. (I) In the quark model of elementary particles a proton
A consists of two up (u) quarks, each with charge +2e/3, and
a down (d) quark with charge -e/3. Assuming that the
quarks are equally spaced around a circle of radius 1.2 x
4m 10- 15 m, find the total electrostatic potential energy.
30. (I) A point charge q. = -4p.C is located at (3 cm, 0) and a
charge q2 = 3.2 p.C is located at (0, 5 cm). Find: (a) the
----4t-------+---------t....-- .. potential due to q2 at the position of q. ; (b) the potential due
Q 3m B 3m Q
to q. at the position of q2; (c) the potential energy of the
FIGURE 25.26 Exercise 23. pair.
 EXERCISES 505

30'
50'

Scm
61'C

FIGURE 25.29 Exercise 28. FIGURE 25.31 Exercise 35.

31. (I) Three point charges, q\ = 6 IJ,.C, q2 = - 21J,.C, and q3, are 106 m/s. (a) What is the potential difference between the
located as shown in Fig. 25.30. For what value of q3 will the two positions? (b) What is the electric field?
potential at the origin be: (a) 0 V; (b) -400 kV? 37. (II) Carbon dioxide (C02) is an example of a linear quadru-
pole, shown in Fig. 25.32. Find the potential at a point (a)
(x, 0), and (b) (0, y) for y > a. In each case, show that VOC
.Y
I 1,-3 for r » a, where r is the distance from the origin.

,\'
3 em
q

II
2.5 em 2.5 em
-.----=-'-"--'-'-----I.--=::....::.;.;.'--.-_J: 2t J:

a
FIGURE 25.30 Exercise 31.
-q

32. (I) A -W-IJ,.C point charge is located at (0, 3 cm) and a 6-IJ,.C FIGURE 25.32 Exercise 37.
point charge is located at (4 cm, 0). (a) What is the potential
difference between the origin and the point (4 cm, 3 cm)?
(b) How much external work would it take to bring a -2-IJ,.C
point charge at constant speed from infinity to the origin? 38. (II) (a) A 2-nC charge is at the origin. Find the distances at
33. (I) A uranium nucleus with a charge of 92e undergoes spon- which the potential is 0.5 V, I V, 1.5 V, 2 V, 2.5 V, 3 Vand
taneous fission into two fragments with equal charges. 3.5 V. (b) Repeat part (a) for a negative charge (- 2 nC) and
They are initially at rest and are separated by 7.4 x 10- 15 m. negative potentials. (c) Place the charges 12 m apart. Draw
(a) What is the initial potential energy? (b) What is the final circles to represent the equipotentials of the invididual
kinetic energy of the fragments when they are infinitely far charges. Indicate the points of intersection of the two sets
apart? (c) Assuming 30% of the kinetic energy of the frag- of circles where the net potential is either I V or 0.5 V.
ments can be harnessed in a nuclear reactor, how many Finally, join each set of points having the same potential.
fissions per second are required for a power output of Compare the shapes of your equipotential curves with Fig.
I MW? 25.10.
34. (II) The field produced by an infinite sheet of charge in the 39. (II) Starting at a point I m away from a 2 nC charge, how
y z plane with density (j C/m 2 is (j/2eo i. (a) Write an expres- far in the radial direction are the points at which the poten-
sion for the potential V(x) at a distance x from the sheet. tial is (a) I V higher; (b) I V lower?
Take V = 0 at a distance xo. (b) What displacement is 40. (II) An a particle of mass 6.7 x 10- 27 kg and charge + 2e has
associated with a potential difference of 20 V? Take (j = 7 an initial kinetic energy of 4.2 MeV. It is fired at a gold
nC/m 2• nucleus of charge +7ge. Assuming that the nucleus stays at
35. (II) A uniform electric field of 400 V1m is directed at 37° rest and that the a particle returns along its original path,
below the x axis, as shown in Fig. 25.31. Find the changes find the distance of closest approach.
in potential: (a) VB - VA; (b) VB - Ve · 41. (II) A uranium nucleus with a charge of 92e can spontane-
36. (II) An electron travels along the lines of a uniform electric ously decay into a thorium nucleus of charge 90e and an a
field. Its initial speed is 8 x 106 mls and its final speed after particle of charge 2e. The mass of the thorium is 234 u and
traveling a distance of 3 mm along the positive x axis is 3 x that of the a particle is 4 u. Assume that just after the decay
506 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

the decay products are 7.4 x 10- 15 m apart and at rest. (a) 52. (I) The potential of a metal sphere of diameter 2 cm is 104 V
What is the initial potential energy? (b) Find the final ki- relative to ground. (a) What is the surface charge density?
netic energy of the ex particle assuming that the thorium (b) How many electrons were removed from the sphere? (c)
stays at rest. (In Problem 1 this assumption is omitted.) What is the electric field strength at the surface?
25.4 Electric Field Derived from Potential 53. (II) Two concentric spherical metal shells have radii a and
b, respectively. The inner shell of radius a has charge Q,
42. (II) Two equal positive charges Q are at (0, a) and (0, -a), while the outer shell has charge -2Q. Sketch V and E as
respectively. (a) Find the potential Vex) at a point (x, 0). (b) functions of r, the distance from the center.
Use Vex) to find the electric field along the x axis.
43. (II) Two equal positive charges Q are located at (0, a) and
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
(0, -a). (a) Find the potential V(y) at a point (0, y) for y >
a. (b) Use V(y) to find the electric field along the y axis. 54. (I) What is the external work needed to give a -2.5 /-tC
44. (II) A dipole consists of charges -Q at (-a, 0) and +Q at charge a displacement of 2 m at 30° above the horizontal + x
(a, 0). (a) What is the potential Vex) at a point (x, 0) for x> axis in a field 420i N/C without a change in its kinetic en-
a? (b) From Vex) find the electric field along the x axis. ergy? Ignore gravity.
45. (II) A sphere of radius R has a charge Q uniformly distrib- 55. (I) Two 4-nC point charges are at (3 m, 0) and (- 3 m, 0).
uted throughout its volume. For r < R, the potential func- Find: (a) the potential at (0, 2 m); (b) the potential energy of
tion is a -2-nC charge placed at (0, 2 m).
kQ(3R2 - r 2 56. (I) Two point charges are located as follows: QI = 5 /-tC is at
VCr) = 2R3
rl = 2i + 3j - 5k m and Q2 = 2/-tC is at r2 = -i + 4j + 2k m.
Find the radial component of the electric field from VCr). What is their potential energy?
46. (II) The potential VCr) at a perpendicular distance r from an
57. (I) Two point charges are located as follows: Ql = 3 nC is at
infinite line of charge with density A C/m is rl = 3i - 2j + k m and Q2 = -2 nC is at r2 = i - 2j + 6k m.
Find: (a) the potential at the origin. (b) the potential energy
VCr) = V(ro) - 2kA In (fo) of a point charge q = -5 nC at the origin.
58. (II) Consider the uniform electric field E = -2i + 3j - 5k
where ro and V(ro) are constants. From VCr), find the elec- Vim. Point A is at -i + 2j + 3k m and point B is at 3i - j +
tric field. 7k m. What is the change in potential VA - VB?
47. (II) The potential at a point along the axis of a uniformly 59. (I) Two 3-nC point charges are located at the ends o.f a
charged disk was found in Example 25.5. Use this expres- diameter of a circle of radius 15 cm. What is the potential at
sion to find the electric field strength along the central axis. the ends of the perpendicular diameter?
48. (II) A hypothetical potential function has the following 60. (I) The potential at a distance of 15 cm from the surface of a
form: uniformly charged sphere of radius 10 cm is 3.8 kV. What is
the surface charge density?
Vex, y,z) = 2x 3y - 3xy 2z + 5YZ 3
61. (I) Two uniformly charged conducting spheres are con-
What is the electric field? nected by a wire. The surface charge density on one sphere
25.5 Continuous Charge Distributions of radius 0.4 m is 8.2 nC/m 2 • What is the charge on the other
sphere of radius 0.25 m?
49. (I) Assume the proton is a uniformly charged sphere of 62. (II) Two positive point charges are on the x axis: QI is at x
radius 10- 15 m. Find the potential at the following points: = 0 and Q2 is atx = 2 m. Atx = 1 m, E = -27i N/C and V =
(a) its surface; (b) the position of the electron in a hydrogen 63 V. Find QI and Q2'
atom; that is, 5.3 x 10- 11 m. (c) How would these results
63. (II) What is the external work required to bring four 2-nC
change if the proton were a spherical shell instead?
point charges from infinity and to place them at the cornen
50. (II) A charge Q is uniformly spread around a ring of radius of a square of side 0.14 m?
a. (a) Find the potential V(y) along the central axis at a
64. (II) Suppose that a potential function is given by Vex) = 3x:
distance y from the center. Does your expression behave
- 15x + 7 V, where x is in meters. At what point is the
appropriately wheny;» a? (b) Use V(y) to find the electric
electric field strength zero?
field strength along the central axis. Does your expression
behave appropriately when y ;» a? 65. (II) Two identical drops of mercury have identical charge5
and a potential of 1000 V at each surface. The drops collide
25.6 Conductors and combine into a larger drop with no loss in charge. Whal
51. (I) The breakdown field strength of dry air is 3 x 106 N/C. is the potential at the surface of the large drop?
At this value, what would be the potential at the surface of 66. (II) Two uniformly charged conducting spheres of radii
a charged metal sphere of radius: (a) 0.01 mm; (b) I cm; (c) and 7 cm are connected by a wire and share a total chargt
1 m? of 30 nCo What is the charge on each sphere?
 PROBLEMS 507

67. (II) The potential at the surface of a charged conducting 71. (I) When the electric field reaches 3 MV/m, air breaks down
sphere is 320 V. At a distance of 15 cm from the surface the (a spark is seen). What is the maximum potential possible
potential is 220 V. Determine the radius of the sphere and for a metal sphere of radius 40 cm?
its total charge. 72. (I) An electron starts at rest and moves 1.6 cm in a uniform
68. (II) A semicircular arc has a uniform linear charge density electric field 4800 N/C. (a) What is the kinetic energy ac-
2.2 nC/m. What is the potential at the center? quired (in eV)? (b) What is the final speed?
(II) A ring of radius 3 cm has a uniform linear charge den- 73. (I) The speed of a proton moving antiparallel to the lines of
sity of 1.5 nC/m. A particle of mass 0.0 I g and charge 2 nC an electric field is reduced from 2.4 x 106 m/s to 8 x 105
initially at rest at the center is slightly displaced along the mls. What is the change in potential between the two
central axis. (a) What is the potential energy of the particle points?
at the center? (b) What is the speed of the particle when it is 74. (I) Two large parallel plates are uniformly charged and 8 cm
at an infinite distance from the center? apart. An electron between the plates experiences a force
l. (II) A nonconducting disk of radius 20 cm has a uniform of 8.2 x 10- 16 N. What is the potential difference between
surface charge density 2 nC/m2• What is the external work the plates?
required to bring a 5-nC point charge from infinity and to
place it on the central axis at a distance of 10 cm from the
center?

PROBLEMS
1. (I) A uranium nucleus (charge 92e, mass 238 u) at rest goes into heating the target, how long does it take for the
decays into a thorium nucleus (charge 9Oe, mass 234 u) and temperature of the target to rise by 10 °C? (The specific
an a particle (charge + 2e, mass 4 u). Just after the decay heat of tungsten is 134 J/kg . K.)
the particles are at rest and separated by 7.4 X 10- 15 m. 5. (I) A metal sphere of radius R, has a charge Q•. It is en-
Find the kinetic energy of each decay particle when they closed by a conducting spherical shell of radius R 2 that has
are infinitely far apart. Do not assume that the thorium a charge -Q2; see Fig. 25.34. Determine: (a) the potential
stays at rest. VI of the inner sphere; (b) the potential V2 of the outer
2. (I) A disk of radius b has a concentric hold of radius a. sphere; (c) the potential difference VI - V2 . (d) Under what
There is a uniform surface charge density 0". Find the po- condition is VI = V2 ?
tential at a point on the axis of the disk at a distance y from
the center.
3. (I) In a NaCI crystal, Na+ and Cl- ions lie on a three-
dimensional cubic array, as shown in Fig. 25.33. The near-
est neighbor of any ion is at a distance 2.82 x 10- 10 m. Find
the potential energy of a Na+ ion: (a) including only the
contributions of the six nearest neighbors; (b) by including
the contributions of the twelve next-nearest neighbors.

-Q2

I FIGURE 25.34 Problem 5.

I
I
I
A. I:
I I
6. (II) A balloon of radius R has a uniform surface charge
density 0" C/m 2 • Show that the surface experiences an elec-
trostatic force per unit area equal to 0"212eo N/m2 • (Hint:
! Use the relation F r = dU/dr.)
7. (I) A coaxial cable has an inner wire of radius a with a linear
charge density A C/m surrounded by a cylindrical sheath of
radius b carrying a linear charge density - A. (a) Use the
FIGURE 25.33 Problem 3. electric field (E = 2kA/r) between the wire and the sheath to
show that the potential difference between them is
4. (II) A beam of electrons is accelerated by 20 kV and bom-
bards a 500-g tungsten target with 4 x IO J6 electrons per
V(b) - V(a) = -2kA In
second. Assuming that 30% of the energy of the electrons
508 CHAP. 25 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

(b) In a radiation detector, called a Geiger counter, that has

a similar cylindrical geometry, a = 3 x 10- 3 cm, b = 2.5
cm, and .:1 V = 800 V. What is the electric field strength at
the surface of the inner wire?
8. (I) A rod of length L has a charge Q uniformly distributed
along its length. Find the potential at a distance a from one
end, along the axis of the rod, as in Fig. 25.35.

FIGURE 25.35 Problem 8.

9. (I) A rod of length L with a uniform linear charge density A

C/m lies along the x axis. Find the potential at a distance y
from one end, perpendicular to the rod; see Fig. 25.36. The FIGURE 25.37 Problem 12.
length of the rod is L. (See the table of integrals in Appen-
dix C.)
kp . r
V = -3-
r
Use Ex = -aVlas, where s = x or y, to show that if the
dipole moment is directed along the +x axis, then
FIGURE 25.36 Problem 9. = kp(2x 2 - y2). _ 3kpxy
Ex E--
r5 'Y rj-
10. (II) A sphere of radius R has a charge Q uniformly distrib-
uted throughout its volume. Show that for r < R, the poten-
tial is 14. (II) Show that the expression

V( r)
= kQ(3R2 - r 2
2R3
E = ;3 [3(p . i)i - p]

(Hint: The electric field within a uniformly charged sphere yields the same results for Ex and Ey as Problem 13 for the
is E = kQr1R3. Evaluate VCr) - V(R).) field due to a dipole. (Hint: Assume p = pi. Express i = r/r
in terms of x and y.)
11. (II) A nonconducting sphere of radius R has a total charge
Q spread uniformly throughout its volume. Show that the 15. (II) The potential energy of a dipole, whose dipole moment
potential energy of the sphere is is P2, in the field E, due to another dipole is U = -P2 . E, .
Use the expression for E in Problem 14 to show that the
3kQ2 potential energy of the dipole-dipole interaction is
U=5R
k
(Hint: First obtain an expression for the potential at the U = 3 [PI' P2 - 3(p, . i)(P2 . i)]
r
surface ofa uniformly charged sphere of radius r < R. The
charge within a thin shell from r to r + dr is dq = p(471'r 2 Evaluate the interaction energy for two water molecules for
dr). The work needed to bring an infinitesmal charge dq which p = 6.2 X 10- 30 C . m. Take r = 0.4 nm. Do this for
from infinity to a point with potential V is V dq.) four configurations of the dipole moments: (a) parallel side-
by-side; (b) antiparallel side-by-side; (c) in line parallel; (d)
12. (II) (a) Show that the potential due to a dipole (see Fig.
in line antiparallel.
25.37) with a dipole moment p = 2aq at a distance r from its
center is given by 16. (II) The potential energy of a system of charges is given by

vee) = kp cos e U = L kqjq;

r2 rij

where r a. (Note: r_ - r+ = 2a cos e and r+r_ = r 2.) (b) where the sum is taken over all distinct pairs; that is, there
Use the above expression to find the components of the is no double-counting and i f- j. Show that an equivalent
electric field: expression is
E = _ avo 1 av U = !qjVj
Eo =
r ar' r ae
where the sum is over all charges in the system and Vi is the
13. (II) At large distances, the potential due to a dipole may be potential at the position of qj produced by all charges, but
written in the form (see Problem 12) not including qj.
 SPECIAL TOPIC 509

SPECIAL TOPIC: Electrostatics

Static electricity can be a nuisance-for example, when +

clothes stick together or when we receive tiny shocks on a
dry day. It can also trigger dangerous events such as light-
ning strokes or explosions in grain silos and oil tankers.
There are, however, several useful applications of electro-
statics. Electrostatic charges are used in the separation of
minerals, in spraying paint or chemicals, in separating
grain from rodent droppings, in the coating of sandpaper or
flocked wallpaper, and in priming auto bodies (Fig. 25.38).
Here are a few applications discussed in more detail.

VAN DE GRAAFF ACCELERATOR 2

In Section 24.3 it was pointed out that the net charge on a
conductor resides on its surface, This fact is used in a
charged particle accelerator invented by Van de Graaff of
MIT in 1932. In this device, charge is sprayed via corona FIGURE 25.39 A Van de Graaff
discharge from a metal comb at high potential (2 x 104 V) generator.
onto a moving belt (Fig. 25.39). The insulating belt carries
the charge into a large spherical dome supported by an
insulating column. A second comb collects the charge from
the belt and transfers it to the outer surface of the sphere. potential relative to ground. Therefore, charged particles,
The charge and potential of the sphere rise until the break- such as protons or ions, can be accelerated along a tube to
down field is reached at the surface. To increase the break- collide with a target where they produce effects studied in
down field, the whole apparatus is enclosed in a high-pres- nuclear physics, solid state physics, or medical applica-
sure (400-psi) vessel containing some gas. For a belt 50 cm tions.
wide moving at about 20 mis, the charging current is I = 1
mA.
An ion source placed inside the sphere is at a high PRECIPITATOR
In 1907, F. G. Cottrell invented a simple device to clean
emissions from the smoke stacks in cement mills, steel
smelters, power generating stations, and other chemical
processing plants. In a typical precipitator, shown in Fig.
25.40, a short wire is maintained at a high potential (60 kV)
relative to a grounded outer cylindrical conductor. Polluted
gases enter at the bottom and pass through the strong elec-
tric field around the wire. There is a constant corona dis-
charge from the wire into the surrounding air. Electrons
accelerated by the high field produce further ionization in
the particles of the pollutants. The resulting positively
charged particles are attracted to the outer sheath, where
they stick. This enables the preciptator to remove particles
whose size is about 10 ILm. Figure 25.41 shows the effec-
tiveness of the technique. The cylinder has to be periodi-
cally shaken or flushed to remove the collected material. In
commercial plants the central wire is negative. In house-
hold versions, the central wire is positive because it has
FIGURE 25.38 The particles of a paint primer are attracted to a been found that this polarity minimizes the production of
car that is raised to a high potential. ozone.
510 CHAP.2S ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Coulson. After several years of development, the first prod-

Clean uct was put on the market by the Xerox Corporation in 1948.
_ gas
At the heart of the process is a material called a photo-
Olit
conductor, which is an insulator in the dark. When exposed
to light, it becomes a conductor because some electrons
acquire enough energy to escape from their parent atoms
and become free electrons. The photoconducting material
10 m
is usually in the form of a thin layer (25 ,...m thick) of sele-
nium or ZnO powder in plastic, spread over a conducting
substrate. The essential steps in the copying process are
Gas
in outlined below:
1. A thin wire (0.015 cm) at high potential (7 kV) moves
over the plate and applies a uniform layer of positive
charge on the photoconducting layer via corona dis-
FIGURE 25.40 In an electrostatic precipitator, a large potential charge (see Fig. 25.42a).
difference is maintained between a short central wire and the 2. The photoconductor is then exposed to light reflected
outer casing. Pollutant particles become ionized and attracted to
from the subject-for example, a typed page. The areas
the casing and collect there.
exposed to the light become conducting and allow the
surface charge to drain through the grounded plate be-
low (see Fig. 25.42b).
3. The photoconductor is now coated with "toner" parti-
cles, as in Fig. 25.42c. For example, glass beads (600
,...m in diameter) may be coated with a monomolecular
layer of some carbonized plastic or resin. The two mate-
rials become oppositely charged as they are shaken.
Alternatively, a charged carbon particles (1 ,...m in diam-
eter) or an aerosol is sprayed over the photoconductor.
The negatively charged toner particles adhere to the
positively charged regions.

(al

, I I I I I II I
III II 1111
+ + + HI ·.-+H +tttt +
.f
-+

I
(b)

FIGURE 25.41 The emissions from a smoke stack are reduced

by an electrostatic precipitator.
(c)

IMAGING
Perhaps the most widespread use of electrostatics is in the
(d)
copying machines found in most modern offices. The pro-
cess of electrostatic imaging was invented in 1935 by C. F. FIGURE 25.42 The essential steps in electrostatic imaging.
 SPECIAL TOPIC 511

4. The latent image must now be transferred to a paper etched with acid to produce a tip whose radius is about
hard copy. Since the toner particles retain some nega- 0.05 p,m. The tip is then inserted into a glass enclosure in
tive charge, it is necessary to spray the paper with posi- which there is a high vacuum (10- 9 mm Hg), and a large
tive charge, as shown in Fig. 25.42d. potential difference is applied between the (positive) tip
5. The image on the paper is fused by heat from a filament. and the (negative) enclosure. The field strength at the tip is
about 4.5 x 108 VIm. Only certain metals, such as platinum,
As you know, the whole process occurs in about one tungsten, and chromium, can withstand such high fields
second. without disintegrating. Finally, a gas of inert atoms, such as
He or Ne, is introduced into the enclosure. When a He atom
comes close to the tip, it becomes ionized and the He+ ion
is accelerated toward a fluorescent screen on the other side
FIELD-ION MICROSCOPE
of the enclosure. The pattern of dots on the screen (Fig.
E. W. Muller of The Pennsylvania State University invented 25.44) reflects the arrangement of atoms on the surface of
the field-ion microscope (Fig. 25.43) in 1955. This device is the tip. When the tip is cooled-for example, by liquid hy-
used to study defects in semiconductors, thin films, and drogen-to minimize the thermal vibrations of the atoms,
other surface structures. For this device, a very fine wire is details as small as 2.5 x 10- 10 m can be resolved.

Vacuum
pump

He
gas

FIGURE 25.43 The field-ion microscope. FIGURE 25.44 The tip of a needle as revealed in a field-ion
microscope.