CHAPTER 14

Solids and Fluids

Major Points

1. The elastic properties of a material are characterized by Young's modulus,

A vortex produced by the passage of a
the shear modulus, and the bulk modulus.
wingtip through smoke. 2. Pascal's principle applies to an enclosed fluid subject to an external pressure.
3. Archimedes' principle relates the buoyant force on a body immersed in a
fluid to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
4. The equation of continuity in fluid flow is a statement of the conservation of
mass.
5. Bernoulli's equation applies to the laminar flow of an ideal, incompressible
fluid.

Matter is usually classified into one of three states or phases: solid, liquid, or gas.
Because they flow easily, both liquids and gases are called fluids. A solid has a
fixed shape which it tends to retain, whereas fluids have no fixed shape. A liquid
sinks to the bottom of its container, and a gas expands to fill the available volume.
The atoms in a solid vibrate about fixed equilibrium positions, whereas the atoms
or molecules in a liquid move about relatively freely and collide frequently with
each other. The atoms in a solid or a liquid are quite closely packed, which makes
it difficult to reduce their volume; they are almost incompressible. On the average,
the atoms or molecules in a gas are far apart, typically about ten atomic diameters
at room temperature and pressure. They collide much less frequently than those in
a liquid. Gases in general are compressible.
The distinction between solid and liquid is not always clear-cut. For example,
how should one classify asphalt or cold molasses? Glass, which is solid, and even
brittle, can flow over a long period of time. Rock material under the earth's mantle
is subject to high pressure and temperature and flows slowly over millennia. In
this chapter we will discuss the elastic properties of solids and the behavior of
fluids at rest and in motion.

14.1 DENSITY
At some time in the third century B.C., King Heiron of Syracuse supplied a
certain weight of gold to a goldsmith to make a crown. When the task was com-
pleted, the king was uneasy. He asked Archimedes to find a way of determining
 14.2 ELASTIC MODULI 285

whether or not the gold had been mixed with silver. On entering a bathtub one
day, Archimedes noticed that the level of water would rise or fall depending on
how deeply he immersed himself. He was immediately struck by the connection to
his problem. According to legend, he shouted "Eureka!" (I have found it) and ran
home naked. Archimedes had realized that even though the crown had a compli-
cated shape, he could measure its volume by the volume of water it displaced.
This could then be compared to the volume of water displaced by an equal weight
of pure gold. Archimedes had discovered a use for the concept of density. The
average density p of an object of mass m and volume V is defined as
m
p =- (14.1)
V

If the density varies from point to point, one must use the definition Definition of density

dm
p = dV

where dm is an infinitesimal mass element and dV is the infinitesimal volume

element that it occupies. The SI unit of density is kg/m 3 . Sometimes densities are
stated in the cgs unit g/cm3 , where I g/cm 3 = 103 kg/m 3 . Table 14.1 shows the
densities of a few substances. The density of a material depends on the pressure
and temperature, although the variation is much larger for a gas than for a solid or
a liquid. In addition to determining the purity of gold crowns, measurements of
density are used to determine the condition of the electrolyte in an automobile
battery or the antifreeze solution in the radiator. It is also one step in blood or
urine analysis.

TABLE 14.1 DENSITIES AT DoC AND 1 atm (kg/m 3 )

--'=:--------------
PUr 1.29 Pine 0.43 X 103
H 0.09 Al 2.70 x 1Q3
He 0.18 Fe 7.86 x 1Q3
o 1.43 Ag 10.5 X 103
Hg 13.6 X 10 3 Pb 11.3 x 1Q3
Au 19.3 x 1Q3 Pt 21.4 x 1Q3
Cu 8.9 X 103 Ethyl Alcohol 0.8 X 103
Seawater 1025 Blood 1.05 X 103

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of water at
4°C, which is 1000 kg/m 3 • Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity numerically
equal to the density quoted in g/cm 3. For example, the specific gravity of mercury
is 13.6, and the specific gravity of water at 100 °C is 0.998.

14.2 ELASTIC MODULI

A force applied to an object can change its shape. In general, the response of a
material to a given type of deforming force is characterized by an elastic modulus,
which is defined as
. Stress
ElastiC modulus = -S-.- (14.2)
tram
The precise definition of stress depends on the particular situation being"consid-
ered, but in general it is a force per unit area. The strain indicates some fractional
286 CHAP. 14 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

change in a dimension or volume. The unit of stress is N 1m2 , whereas strain is a

dimensionless number. We will discuss three elastic moduli: Young's modulus for
solids, the shear modulus for solids, and the bulk modulus for solids and fluids. In
some instances the elastic moduli of a solid depend on direction in the material.
For example, wood has different properties along or across the grain. We ignore
such complications and assume that the materials are isotropic; that is, their
properties are the same in all directions.

Young's Modulus
Young's modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to a change in its length
when a force is applied perpendicular to a face. Consider a rod with an unstressed
length L o and cross-sectional area A, as in Fig. 14.1a. When it is subject to equal
and opposite forces F o along its axis and perpendicular to the end faces, as in Fig.
14.1b, its length changes by D.L. These forces tend to stretch the rod. The tensile
stress on the rod is defined as

Tensile stress = :0 (14.3)

Forces acting in the opposite direction, as in Fig. 14.1c, would produce a com-
pressive stress. The resulting strain is defined as the dimensionless ratio
. D.L
S tram = L; (14.4)

Young's modulus Y for the material of the rod is defined as the ratio

Young's modulus Young , s mo d u1us -- Tensile

T'l
stress
.
ens] e stram
Y = FnlA
fj,L1L o (14.5)

By rewriting Eq. 14.5 in the form F = YA(fj,LIL o), we see that if Y is a constant
then the force required to produce a given strain is proportional to the strain and
to the cross-sectional area of the rod.

I--------;--jI - I
I
I
,
Po

F I :iL
I-
F"
FIGURE 14.1 A force applied normal to the end face of a rod causes a change in length.

Figure 14.2 shows the relationship between tensile stress and strain for a
typical metal. Below the proportional point, which typically corresponds to a
strain of 0.01, stress is directly proportional to strain, which means Y is a con-
stant. In this region the material obeys Hooke's law. Provided the strain is below
the yield point, the material returns to its original shape and size when the force is
removed. Beyond the yield point, the material retains a permanent deformation
 14.2 ELASTIC '10DULI 287

Stress (N/m 2) Plastic range

<------::-'::-:-----------'---Strain

FIGURE 14.2 The stress-strain relationship for a metal. Beyond the yield point the material
stretches with a small increase in the stress. The curve goes down toward the breaking point
because the calculation of the stress is based on the original cross-sectional area, whereas the
sample usually "necks down"; that is, its cross-sectional area decreases.

after the stress is removed. For stresses beyond the yield point, the material
exhibits plastic flow, which means that it continues to elongate for little increase in
the stress. The material fractures at a strain of perhaps 0.1.
EXERCISE 1. A copper wire has a length of 1.5 m and a radius of 0.5 mm. What is
the change in its length when it is subject to a tension of 2000 N? Take Y = 1.4 X
10 11 N/m 2 •

Shear Modulus
The shear modulus of a solid indicates its resistance to a shearing force, which is a
force applied tangentially to a surface, as shown in Fig. 14.3. (Since the bottom of
the solid is assumed to be at rest, there is an equal and opposite force on the lower
surface.) The top surface is displaced by relative to the bottom surface. The
shear stress is defined as
Tangential force F,
Shear stress = A = A
rea
where A is the area of the surface. The shear strain is defined as
.
Shear stram =h FIGURE 14.3 A shearing force F,
applied tangentially to one face causes
the body to deform as shown. Such a
where h is the separation between the top and bottom surfaces. The shear modulus deformation is easily produced in a
S is defined as textbook.

Shear stress
Sh ear mo duIus = .
Shear stram Shear modulus
S = F/A (14.6)
:::"x/h
An ideal fluid cannot sustain a shear stress. Although a real fluid cannot sustain a
permanent shearing force, there are tangential forces between adjacent layers in
relative motion. This produces an internal friction called viscosity.

Bulk Modulus
The bulk modulus of a solid or a fluid indicates its resistance to a change in
volume. Consider a cube of some material, solid or fluid, as shown in Fig. 14.4.
We assume that all faces experience the same force F n normal to each face. (One
288 CHAP. 14 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

way to accomplish this is to immerse the body in a fluid-as long as the change in
pressure over the vertical height of the cube is negligible.) The pressure on the
cube is defined as the normal force per unit area

P = Fn
A
The SI unit of pressure is N/m 2 and is given the name pascal (Pa). Pressure is a
scalar because on any infinitesimal volume, it acts in all directions; it has no
unique direction.
When the pressure on a body is increased, its volume decreases. The change
FIGURE 14.4 A cube of some material
is subject to equal forces normal to in pressure 6..P is called the volume stress and the fractional change in volume 6.. VI
each face. This condition may be V is called the volume strain. The bulk modulus B of the material is defined as
achieved by immersing the body in a
fluid. Bulk modulus = Volume
Volume stram
6..P-
Bulk modulus B= --
6..VIV
(14.7)

The negative sign is included to make B a positive number since an increase in

pressure (ilP > 0) leads to a decrease in volume (6.. V < 0). The inverse of B is
called the compressibility, k = liB. Table 14.2 shows that the bulk moduli of
liquids are comparable to those of solids. From this we can infer that the atoms in
a liquid are almost as close to each other as they are in a solid. The bulk moduli of
gases are quite low; they are easily compressed. The bulk moduli of solids and
liquids are approximately constant for small changes in pressure. The bulk modu-
lus of a gas depends on pressure (see Section 19.8).

TABLE 14.2 ELASTIC MODULI (x 10 9 N/m 2 )

Y S B
Cast iron 100 40 90
Steel 200 80 140
Aluminum 70 25 70
Concrete 20
Pine 7.6
Water 2.1
Mercury 2.6

14.3 PRESSURE IN FLUIDS

We now consider several features of the pressure exerted by a fluid at rest. Figure
14.5 shows the forces on a "particle" of a fluid at rest in a container. The particle
is a tiny volume element that contains many molecules, yet it is small in compari-
son with the total volume of fluid. An ideal (nonviscous) fluid cannot exert a
shearing force and so it exerts only a force normal to any given area. If the fluid is
at rest, each particle is in equilibrium. Consequently, the pressure on a tiny
t volume element exerted by the surrounding fluid is the same in all directions. If
this were not the case, it would contradict our assumption of equilibrium. (The
FIG URE 14.5 The pressure on an effect of gravity is negligible for such a tiny volume.)
element of fluid in equilibrium is the The air around us exerts a pressure of about 105 N/m 2 on us. This fact is easily
same in all directions. The pressure
demonstrated by a tube, about a meter long, that is filled with mercury and then
may be measured by the contraction of
a spring attached to a piston within a inverted into a bowl of mercury, as in Fig. 14.6. The column ofliquid is supported
cyclinder. by the pressure of the air on the open surface. It was first pointed out by E.
 14.3 PRESSURE IN FLUIDS 289

TorriceUi that this pressure is due to the weight ofthe atmosphere above. In 1645,
Otto von Guericke presented a dramatic demonstration of the forces due to
atmospheric pressure. He placed together two hemispheres and evacuated the
space within them. As Fig. 14.7 shows, two teams of eight horses could not pull
the hemispheres apart.

FIGURE 14.6 The fact that the

atmosphere exerts a pressure may be
demonstrated by inverting a tube of
liquid, such as mercury, into a bowl of
the same liquid. A liquid column is
supported by the pressure at its base.
At normal atmospheric pressure, a
column of mercury is 76 cm high.

FIGURE 14.7 In 1645 Von Guericke placed two hemispheres together and evacuated the space
inside. He then demonstrated that two teams of horses could not pull the hemispheres apart.

Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Liquid

An important feature of the pressure in a liquid may be inferred from the appa-
ratus illustrated in Fig. 14.8. Several vessels of different shapes and cross sections
are connected at the bottom by a tube. When liquid is poured into the vessels, it
reaches the same level in all the vessels. The pressure at each top surface is that of
the atmosphere. It is clear that the pressure in a liquid increases with depth
because, as we go lower, each successive volume element has to support a greater
body of liquid above it. The demonstration of Fig. 14.8 shows that the pressure is
a function only of depth and does not depend on the shape of the container. For
example, if the pressure at A were greater than that at B, the liquid would flow
from A to B.

FIGURE 14.8 Liquid fills several interconnected vessels to the same level. This demonstrates that
pressure depends only on depth.

If we ignore the slight increase in density of ordinary liquids at ordinary

depths, we can easily determine how the pressure increases with depth. Figure
14.9 shows a column ofliquid oflength h and cross-sectional area A. The weight of
the column, W = mg = (PAh)g, is supported by the net pressure force (P - Po)A ,
where Po is the atmospheric pressure at the top surface and P is the pressure at its
290 CHAP. 14 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

(a) (b)

FIGURE 14.10 The design of a dam is determined only by the

FIGURE 14.9 The weight of a column of liquid is balanced by depth of the water-which may be in a large reservoir or just a
the net pressure force. narrow channel.

base. From the condition 2:.Fy = 0 we find

Variation of pressure with depth P = Po + pgh (14.8)

We see that the pressure in a liquid increases linearly with depth and that all points
at a given depth are at the same pressure.
It is natural to think of a dam as "holding back" the huge reservoir behind it,
as in Fig. 14. lOa . What is surprising is that the dam would have to be constructed
in just the same manner if it had to contain a small body of water of the same
depth, as in Fig. 14.lOb. Around 1650, Blaise Pascal demonstrated this fact by
inserting a thin, long tube into a closed barrel. As he filled the tube from the top,
the pressure at the base increased until the barrel finally burst.

Pascal's Principle
Based on the fact that the static pressure in a fluid depends only on depth, Pascal
stated the following principle in 1653:
Pascal's principle An external pressure applied to a fluid in an enclosed container is transmitted
undiminished to all parts of the fluid and the walls of the container.
This principle has many practical applications. For example, in a hydraulic
jack or lift, shown in Fig. 14.11, the pressure due to a small force F I applied to a
piston of area A I is transmitted to the larger piston of area A z . The pressure at the
two pistons is the same: P = FilA] = FzIA z . Consequently, the force on the larger
piston is F z = (FIIAj)A z , or
Fz Az
F) = Al

Thus, a small force F] acting on a small area AI results in a larger force F z acting
on a larger area A z . Automobiles use a "hydraulic" fluid to activate the brakes.
FIGURE 14.11 A hydraulic lift is Pedal pressure is transmitted to a master cylinder and from there to the calipers or
based on the fact that the pressure due wheel cylinders. Controls in aircraft also use hydraulic lines. In an automobile
to a small force applied at a narrow garage, compressed air is often used to lift cars.
tube is equal to the pressure caused by
a large force applied at a wide tube.
Measurement of Pressure
A simple way to measure pressure is with a manometer, shown in Fig. 14.12. One
side of the U tube, which is filled with a suitable liquid such as mercury, is open to
the atmosphere while the other side is connected to the fluid whose pressure is to
be measured. The pressure is calculated from the difference in levels of the mer-
 14.4 ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE 291

cury. The absolute pressure P is the sum of the atmospheric pressure Po and the
gauge pressure pgh. Many pressure measuring devices record gauge pressure,
which is the excess over atmospheric pressure. Thus, a gauge pressure of 200 kPa
implies that the absolute pressure is about 300 kPa.
The inverted tube of mercury shown in Fig. 14.6 is a simple barometer, an
instrument that measures atmospheric pressure. It was devised by E. Torricelli, a ::.
::.
student of Galileo. It is sensitive to temperature changes and is affected by the '",
presence of mercury vapor in the region above the column.
Although the SI unit of pressure is N 1m2 or Pa, one often encounters other
units such as the atmosphere (atm):
1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 101.3 kPa FIGURE 14.12 A simple manometer.
The pressure in the vessel may be
Pressure is also specified in terms of the length of the column of mercury it can calculated from the difference in levels
support. From Eq. 14.8 the pressure due to a column of mercury 1 mm high is of the liquid in the V-tube.

P = pgh = (13.6 x 103 kg/m 3)(9.8 m/s 2)(10-3 m) = 133 Pa

A pressure of 1 atm is equivalent to a reading of 760 mm Hg.
EXERCISE 2. How high would water rise in a closed inverted column, as in Fig.
14.6, at an atmospheric pressure of 1 atm?

14.4 ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE

An object that is partially or wholly immersed in a liquid seems to weigh less than
it does in air. From this we conclude that fluids exert a buoyant force. This
buoyant force causes wood to float on water and helium-filled balloons to rise in
air.

-
Figure 14.13 shows a body immersed in a liquid. In general it will not be in
equilibrium. An immersed body rises if its weight is less than the buoyant force
and it sinks if its weight is greater than the buoyant force. The magnitude of the
buoyant force is easily found by imagining that a body in equilibrium is removed
and its place is taken by the liquid. We might think of this body of liquid as being
separated by a thin membrane from the rest of the liquid. In addition to its weight,
the "new" liquid experiences pressure forces from all directions. The sum of
I ! w, \
these forces, due to the surrounding liquid, must support the weight of the new FIGURE 14.13 According to
liquid. Thus, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid within the Archimedes' principle, the buoyant
volume of the membrane. When the solid body is immersed in the liquid, it force F B acting on a body is equal to
displaces the same volume of liquid. Since the forces exerted by the surrounding the weight of the fluid displaced.
liquid are unchanged, we arrive at Archimedes' principle:
Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced
F B = Pf Vg (14.9)

where V is the volume of the body and Pf is the density of the fluid. Note that the
buoyant force arises because the pressure in the fluid is not uniform; it increases
with depth.
An object floats on water if it can displace a volume of water whose weight is
greater than that of the object. If the density of the material is less than that of the
liquid, it will float even if the material is a uniform solid" such as a block of wood.
If the density of the material is greater than that of water, such as iron, the object
can be made to float provided it is not a uniform solid. An iron-hulled ship is a
common example. A dirigible over an Amazon forest.
EXERCISE 3. How is it arranged for submarines to rise or to sink?
292 CHAP. 14 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

EXAMPLE 14.1: An iceberg with a density of 920 kg/m 3 floats and the buoyant force F B:
on an ocean of density 1025 kg/m3 • What fraction of its volume
W' = W - FB
is submerged?
Thus, the buoyant force is
Solution: Suppose the volume of the iceberg is Vi and that of
the submerged portion is V s ' The weight of the water displaced F B = W - W' (i)
is Pf Vsg, and hence this is also the buoyant force. The weight of
If V is the volume of the object and P is its density, then W =
the iceberg is Pi Vig where Pi is the density of the iceberg.
pg V and F B = Pfg V, where Pf is the fluid density. Hence,
Equating the weight of the iceberg to the buoyant force, we see
that W_£. (ii)
FB - Pf

Combining (i) and (ii) we find

or
P = Pf W
Vs Pi
Vi = Pc w- W'
_ .>.-(1-,-oJ-'.k,-",g7-/
-
m"",3".,,)(2:-9_.4--<.) = 8.6 X 103 kg/m 3
The fraction of the volume of the iceberg submerged equals the - 3.4
ratio of the densities. With the given numbers we find that Vs/Vi The metal may be mostly copper.
is approximately 90%.
EXERCISE 4. A spherical balloon filled with helium at 1 atm
EXAMPLE 14.2: When a 3-kg crown is immersed in water, it just lifts a 2-kg load (which includes the mass of the balloon).
has an apparent weight of 26 N. What is the density of the What is its radius?
crown?
EXERCISE 5. A 5-kg ball of density Pb = 6 g/cm 3 is completely
Solution: The apparent weight, W' = 26 N, is the difference submerged in water. What is the tension in a string attached to
between the real weight, W = mg = (3 kg)(9.8 m/s 2) = 29.4 N, the ball?

The Stability of Boats

The stability of a boat depends on the effective point of application of the buoyant
force. The weight of the boat acts at its center of gravity. The buoyant force acts
at the center of gravity of the displaced liquid. (Why?) This is called the center of
buoyancy. Under equilibrium conditions the center of gravity G and the center of
buoyancy B lie along the vertical axis of the boat, as in Fig. 14.14a.
When the boat tilts to one side, the center of buoyancy shifts relative to the
center of gravity, as shown in Fig. 14.14b. The two forces act along different
vertical lines. As a result, the buoyant force exerts a torque about the center of
(0)
gravity. The line of action of the buoyant force crosses the axis of the boat at the
point M, called the metacenter. If G is below M, the torque will tend to return the
boat to its equilibrium position. If M is below G, the boat will be unstable. (Draw a
diagram to show what happens when M is below G.)

14.5 THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

In order to describe the motion of a fluid, in principle one might apply Newton's
laws to a "particle" (a small volume element of fluid) and follow its progress in
time. This is a difficult approach. Instead, we consider the properties of the fluid,
such as velocity and pressure, at fixed points in space.
(b)
The motion of a fluid may be either laminar or turbulent. Laminar flow may be
FIGURE 14.14 (a) The buoyant force represented by streamlines, which can be made visible by injecting smoke or a
acts at the center of gravity of the colored dye into the fluid, as in Fig. 14.15a. The velocity of a particle at a given
displaced fluid. (b) When the boat tilts, point is along the tangent to a streamline. For steady flow, each particle that
the line of action of the buoyant force
intersects the axis of the boat at the
passes through a given point follows the same streamline. Therefore, streamlines
metacenter M. In a stable boat, M is never cross. Because of this last property it is convenient to introduce the concept
above the center of gravity of the boat. of a tube of flow. The fluid flows through a tube of flow as if it were confined to a
 14.5 THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY 293

FIGURE
(b) When 14.15 (a) Streamlines
the airfoil is tilted, theinflow
a fluid flowing
behind past an turbulent.
it becomes airfoil.
(c) Eddies or vortices formed in a fluid as it flows past a
(c) cylindrical object.

real tube (whose cross-sectional area may change). When the fluid velocity is large
or when the fluid encounters most obstacles, the flow becomes turbulent, as in
Fig. 14.15b. Under certain conditions eddies, which are like little whirlpools, form
behind the object (Fig. 14.15c). Turbulent flow involves loss of mechanical en-
ergy.
In order to simplify the discussion we make several assumptions:
1. The fluid is nonviscous: There is no dissipation of energy due to internal friction
between adjacent layers in the liquid.
2. The flow is steady: The velocity and pressure at each point are constant in time.
3. The flow is irrotational: A tiny paddle wheel placed in the liquid will not rotate.
In rotational flow, for example, in eddies, the fluid has net angular momentum
about a given point.
In general, the velocity of a particle will not be constant along a streamline.
The density and the cross-sectional area of a tube of flow will also change. Con-
sider two sections of a tube of flow, as shown in Fig. 14.16. The mass of fluid
contained in a small cylinder of length at', and area Al is am] = p,A1at',. Since
fluid does not leave the tube of flow, this mass will later pass through a cylinder of
length at'z and area A z . The mass in this cylinder is amz = pzAzat'z. The lengths

FIGURE 14.16 A "tube of flow." The fluid contained in the lower cylinder of length 1 is later
contained in the upper cylinder of length
294 CHAP. 14 SOHnS '\'\fJ Fums

Lle l and Lle2 are related to the speeds at the respective locations: Lle l = ulLlt and
Lle 2 = U2Llt. Since no mass is lost or gained, Llml = Llm2, and
tlow) , I I =. l" (I-LIlll
This is called the equation of continuity. It is a statement of the conservation of
mass.
If the fluid is incompressible, its density remains unchanged. This is a good
approximation for liquids, but not for gases. If PI = P2, then Eq. 14.10 becomes
(lncompressibJe) ( l-.t. ! 1>
f'lGUU. 14.17 A fluid flowing through The product Au is the volume rate offlow (m 3 /s). Figure 14.17 shows a pipe whose
a pipe whose cross section changes.
Notice that the streamlines are closer
cross section narrows. From Eq. 14.11 we conclude that the speed of a fluid is
together in the narrower section. This greatest where the cross-sectional area is the least. Notice that the streamlines are
indicates that the fluid is moving faster. closer together where the speed is higher.

14.6 BERNOULLI'S EQUAnON

An important theorem concerning fluid flow may be derived when the fluid is
incompressible and nonviscous and the flow is steady and laminar. Figure 14.18
shows a tube of flow that varies in height and cross-sectional area. We focus our
attention on the motion of the shaded region. This is our "system." The lower
cylindrical element of fluid of length Lle l and area AI is at height YI, and moves at
speed VI. Mter some time, the leading section of our system fills the upper cylin-
der of fluid of length Lle 2 and area A 2 at height Y2, and is then moving at speed U2.
A pressure force F] acts on the lower cylinder due to fluid to its left (not shown),
and a pressure force F 2 acts on the upper cylinder in the opposite direction. The
net work done on the system by F I and F 2 is
W = FILle l - F 2Lle2
= p]AILle l - P2A 2 Lle2
= (PI - P 2 )Ll V
where we have used the relations F = PA and Ll V = A1Lle i = A 2 Lle 2 . The net
effect of the motion of the system is to raise the height of the lower cylinder of

>'1
I
I] J'2

--------- -
';( !{! lUll The motion of a fluid in a tube of flow. The work done by the pressure forces
equals the change in energy of the shaded volume of fluid.
 14.6 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION 295

mass 6.m and to change its speed. The changes in the potential and kinetic ener-
gies are
6. U = 6.m g(yz - YI)
6.K = !6.m - vI>
These changes are brought about by the net work done on the system, W
6.U + 6.K:

(PI - P z)6. V = 6.m g(yz - YI) + !6.m - vI>

Since the density is p = 6.ml6. V, we have
PI + pgYI + !pvj = P z + pgyz +
Since the points 1 and 2 can be chosen arbitrarily, we can express this result as
Bernoulli's equation:
P + pgy + 1PU 1 = constant (14.12) Bernoulli's equation
Daniel Bernoulli derived this equation in 1738. It applies to all points along a
streamline in a nonviscous, incompressible fluid. It is a disguised form of the
work-energy theorem. Notice that when v = 0, we obtain Eq. 14.8.

EXA:\1PLE 14.3: Water emerges from a hole at the bottom of a that falls freely through the same vertical distance. This rather
large tank, as shown in Fig. 14.19. If the depth of water is h, surprising result is called Torricelli's theorem.
what is the speed at which the water emerges?
Solution: If the tank is large and the hole small, the speed of the
particles at the top surface will be essentially zero. The pres-
sure at the top surface and at the hole is atmospheric. Thus,
Bernoulli's equation reduces to
pgh =

or
U2 = V2ih
FIGURE 14.19 Water emerges from a hole in a tank. Its speed is
The speed of the emerging fluid is the same as that of a particle the same as if it hac fallen thfCIugh the height h.

J
Figure 14.20 shows a tube whose cross section changes from AI to A 2 • Since
the heights of the sections are the same, Bernoulli's equation takes the form

L
p+I
1 Z_p+1
"2P V I - z "2P vZ
z
We see that where the pressure is high, the speed is low, and vice versa. This
lowering of tQe pressure where the speed is greater is called the Bernoulli effect. _Uz
The Bernoulli effect is the basis of the Venturi meter, which is a device used
to measure the speed of flow. From the equation of continuity we know that --_/
A\v\ = Azvz. On substituting v\ = uz(AzIA I), we find
FIGURE 14.20 A fluid flowing through
a tube whose cross section decreases.
2 _ PI - P z)
The pressure in the narrower tube,
V2 - p(Aj - AD
where the fluid is moving faster, is
lower.
Since must be positive, it is necessary that PI > P z. That is, the pressure is
lower in the narrow section. The streamlines are closer together where the speed
is higher and the pressure is lower (see Fig. 14.17).
Perfume atomizers and automobile carburetors employ the Bernoulli effect.
In an atomizer, shown in Fig. 14.21a, liquid in a container is at atmospheric
pressure. When air is blown through tube A connected to a rubber bulb, the
296 CHAP. 14 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

pressure at the top of tube B decreases. This drop in pressure causes the liquid to
A
rise in tube B and mix with the fast-moving air. A fine mist emerges from the
B nozzle. In a carburetor, sketched in Fig. 14.21b, gasoline in the fuel bowl can flow
through a tube connected to a narrow section of the throat. Air is sucked into the
carburetor because of the partial vacuum created by the motion of the pistons.
Since the air speeds up at the constriction, its pressure is lower than that of the
fuel in the bowl and so gasoline is drawn into the engine. The flow of air is
controlled by the throttle valve, which is connected to the accelerator pedal.
(1.1)

SUMMARY
The response of a material to an external stress is characterized by an elastic
modulus defined as
. Stress
Elastic modulus = -S-.-
tram

(b)
where the stress is a measure of the force per unit area on a surface, and the strain,
a dimensionless quantity, is a measure of the deformation produced. A force F n
FIGURE 14.21 (a) A perfume applied normal to both end faces of a rod of length L produces a change in length
atomizer. When air is blown through
tube A past the top of tube B, the tiL. Young's modulus Y is defined as
pressure at the top of B is lower than
normal. Liquid in the container is Y = FnlA
forced into B, mixes with the air in A, tiLiL
and emerges as a fine mist through a
nozzle at the end of A. (b) The flow of
When a force F l is applied tangential to a surface of area A, it produces a relative
fuel to an engine is controlled by a displacement fix between two surfaces separated by h. The shear modulus S is
throttle valve in a carburetor. The defined as
pressure of the air is lowered as it
flows through the constriction and
allows gasoline to emerge from a small
pipe connected to the fuel bowl.
When a force F is applied normal to a surface of area A, the pressure exerted
on the surface is

When a pressure is applied to a body its volume changes. The bulk modulus of
the material is defined as
tiP
B = - uVIV

The pressure at a depth h in a liquid of density p in a container exposed to the

atmosphere, whose pressure is Po, is
P = Po + pgh
According to Pascal's principle, an external pressure applied to a confined fluid is
transmitted undiminished to all parts of the fluid.
Archimedes' principle states that a body wholly or partially immersed in a
fluid experiences a buoyant force given by
Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced
In the steady, laminar flow of an incompressible fluid through a pipe whose
cross-sectional area changes from Al to A z, the volume flow rate is constant:
 QUESTIONS 297

This is a special case of the equation of continuity (Eq. 14.10).

Bernoulli's equation for the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid of density
pis
p + tpu 2 + pgy = constant
This equation is an expression of the work-energy theorem.

ANSWERS TO IN-CHAPTER EXERCISES

1. The cross-sectional area of the wire is A = 7Tr 2 = 7.84 X 4. The buoyant force is Fa = PagV where Pa is the density of
10- 7 m2 • From Eq. 14.5, the air and V is the volume of the balloon. This force must
equal the weight of the load and the helium in the balloon:
t.L = FLo Fa = mg + PHegV. Thus,
AY
(2 x IQ3 N)(l.5 m) -
V-
m _ 2kg _
1.8 m 3
= (7.84 x 10 7 m2)(l.4 x 1011 N/m 2) Pa - PHe - 1.11 kg/m 3 -
= 2.73 cm Since V = 47Tr 3/3, we find r = 0.75 m.
2. The pressure at the base of the water column, pgh, is 1 atm: 5. The volume of the ball is Vb = m/Pb = 8.33 X 10- 4 m3 • The
1.01 x 1Q5 N/m 2 = (IQ3 kg/m 3)(9.8 m/s 2)(h); thus, h = 10.3 m. tension is equal to the apparent weight; that is,
3. A submarine is made to sink when water is allowed into T = W - Fa = mg - PwgVb
ballast tanks. When the water is pumped out, the submarine = 49 N - 8.16 N = 40.8 N
rises.

QUESTIONS
1. Given the densities of two liquids could you conclude any- depth? (b) Would the buoyant force on an object in a given
thing with respect to the following: (a) the relative masses liquid be the same on the moon as on earth? (c) Is Archi-
of the molecules; (b) the number of molecules per unit vol- medes' principle valid if the fluid is in a container that has a
ume; (c) the number of molecules in 1 kg? vertical acceleration?
2. Why might airplane passengers be advised to remove ink 6. Reinforced concrete has steel rods embedded in it. The
from fountain pens? rods are held under tension while the concrete cures and
3. The three vessels in Fig. 14.22 have bases with the same the tension is removed after the concrete has set. In what
area and are filled to the same level with a liquid. (a) Com- way is the concrete "stronger"?
pare the forces exerted by the base of each vessel on the 7. How is it possible for a person to lie on a bed of nails?
liquid. (b) Compare the forces exerted by the base on the 8. When a person's blood pressure is measured, why is the
table. (c) If your answers to (a) and (b) are different, explain inflatable cuff attached to an arm at the level of the heart
why. (This is called the "hydrostatic paradox.") rather than, say, at an ankle?

uuu
9. Why do our bodies not collapse under the enormous pres-
sure to which the atmosphere subjects us?
10. (a) Does the buoyant effect of the air act on an object lying
on the ground? (b) Is a diver's buoyancy affected by the
amount of air in the lungs?
FIGURE 14.22 Question 3. 11. Why does a suction cup stick to a smooth surface?
12. An ice cube floats in a glass of water filled to the brim. What
4. A ball floats on water in a jar. If the top of the jar is sealed happens to the level of the water as the ice melts?
and the air pressure increased, can the ball be made to 13. A beach ball can be held in stable equilibrium in the jet of
sink? Assume that both the ball and the liquid are incom- air from a vacuum cleaner, even if the tube is tilted from the
pressible. vertical; see Fig. 14.23a. How is this possible?
5. (a) Does the buoyant force exerted by a liquid change with 14. A Ping-Pong ball can be held in the stream of air directed
298 CHAP. 14 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

downward to an inverted funnel, as in Fig. 14.23b. Explain

how this is possible.

FIGURE 14.25 Question 18.

22. What is the maximum depth at which a suction pump, Fig.

14.26, can operate? Could two or more pumps be used in
tandem? If so, how?

FIGURE 14.23 Questions 13 and 14.

15. Grain silos have reinforcing circular steel bands; see Fig.
14.24. Why are the bands not uniformly distributed?

T
FIGURE 14.26 Question 22.

FIGURE 14.24 Question 15. 23. A rubber raft floats in a swimming pool. A rock is taken
from the raft and dropped into the water. Does the water
16. Explain why a liquid rises when you suck on a straw. level of the pool change? If so, how?
17. Explain why, in laminar flow, the vertical stream from a 24. Why does a hot air balloon rise? How does the pressure of
faucet gets narrower (see Fig. 14.36). the air in the balloon compare with that of the surrounding
18. (a) Hold two thin strips of paper vertically, as in Fig. 14.25, cool air?
and blow between them. Explain what happens. (b) Hold a 25. Is there a limit to the height to which a helium-filled balloon
single strip of paper below your lower lip and blow. Explain can rise?
what you see. 26. Why is a tall chimney more effective than a short one in
19. A roof may be detached when the wind of a hurricane flows producing a draft for a fireplace?
over it. Would it help to have larger vents around the pe- 27. Compared to the values attained in a vacuum, the air re-
rimeter? duces the horizontal range of a baseball but increases that
20. Why does the fabric top of a convertible bulge outward of a golf ball. Explain why.
when the car moves at high speed? 28. Suppose that a little water is boiled in a tin can and the can
21. Compare the weights of 1 kg of lead and 1 kg of feathers as is sealed. What happens when the can cools down?
measured on a spring scale. How would you know that you 29. How would you determine the density of an object that (a)
have exactly 1 kg? sinks in water; (b) floats in water?
 EXERCISES 299

EXERCISES

t t
14.1 Density
1. (II) The antifreeze in a radiator consists of 70% ethylene
glycol of density 0.8 g/cm 3 and 30% water. Find the density
of the mixture if the percentages refer to: (a) volume; (b)
mass. (Ignore the fact that the volume of the mixture is
somewhat less than the sum of the original volumes.)
2. (I) A bottle has a mass of 25 g when empty and 125 g when
filled with water. When filled with another liquid, the total
mass is 140 g. What is the density of the liquid?
3. (I) A nucleus has a mass of 3 x 10- 26 kg and a radius of 2 x
10- 14 m. (a) What is its density? (b) What would be the
radius of the earth if it had the density of nuclear matter? FIGURE 14.28 Exercise 11.
14.2 Elastic Moduli
4. (I) A rod of length 2.5 m and cross-sectional area 0.3 cm 2
stretches by 0.1 cm when a tension of 800 N is applied.
14.3 Pressure in Fluids
What is its Young's modulus?
5. (I) A circular steel wire of length 1.8 m must not stretch U. (II) (a) Estimate the mass of the earth's atmosphere given
more than 1.5 mm when a load of 400 N is applied. What is that the pressure at the surface is 101 kPa. Assume that the
the minimum diameter required? force of gravity does not vary with height. (b) If the density
6. (I) A sample of a liquid has an initial volume of 1.5 L. The of air is 1.29 kg/m 3 , what is the "effective" height of the
volume is reduced by 0.2 mL when the pressure increases atmosphere?
by 140 kPa. What is the bulk modulus of the liquid? 13. (I) The pressure at the center of a tornado is 0.4 atm. If the
7. (I) An 8oo-kg elevator hangs by a steel cable for which the tornado suddenly passes over a house, what is the net force
allowable stress is 1.2 x 108 N/m 2• What is the minimum on a windowpane whose dimensions are 1.2 m x 1.4 m?
diameter required if the elevator accelerates upward at 1.5 Assume that the house is airtight and that the pressure
m/s 2 ? inside is 1 atm.
8. (I) The pressure at the bottom of the Marianas Trench in 14. (I) The cabin pressure in an aircraft is 90 kPa, whereas the
the Pacific Ocean is about 1.08 x lOS Pa. What is the frac- external atmospheric pressure is 70 kPa. What is the force
tional change in volume if a given mass of water is moved on a window of dimensions 15 cm x 20 cm?
from the surface to this depth? 15. (I) The piston in a hypodermic syringe has a radius of 0.5
9. (I) A human bone has a Young's modulus of about 10 10 cm, and the needle has a hole of radius 0.15 mm. What
N/m2 • It fractures when the compressive strain exceeds force must be applied to the plunger in order to inject fluid
1%. What is the maximum load that can be sustained by a into a vein in which the blood pressure is 20 mm Hg?
bone of cross-sectional area 3 cm 2? 16. (I) What is the absolute pressure in water at the following
10. (II) A steel bolt of diameter 1.2 cm is used to join two depths: (a) 3 m in a swimming pool; (b) 100 m in a lake; (c)
plates, as shown in Fig. 14.27. What equal and opposite 10.9 km in the Marianas Trench in the Pacific Ocean?
forces applied to the plates will cause the bolt to undergo 17. (I) A U tube of inner radius 0.4 cm contains 60 mL of
shearing failure? The ultimate shear strength is 3.5 x 108 mercury. When 25 mL of water is added to one arm, what is
N/m 2 • the difference in the levels of the liquid-air interfaces?
18. (I) Suppose that a phonograph stylus is a rod of radius 2 x

F_ ----.,=r1= 10- 5 m with a flat end face. The tonearm is adjusted to

apply a force of 15 mN to a flat surface. What height of a
column of water would produce the same pressure?
19•. (I) Given that the density of blood is 1.05 g/cm 3 , what is the
difference in hydrostatic pressure between the head and the
FIGURE 14.27 Exercise 10. feet of a standing person whose height is 1.8 m? Assume
that the veins and arteries can be treated as ordinary tubes.
11. (II) A steel bolt connects two parts of a machine, as shown (In fact, the distribution of blood in the circulatory system
in Fig. 14.28. The shank of the bolt has a diameter of 1.2 cm is controlled by several physiological mechanisms.)
and a head of height h = 0.8 em. What is the maximum 20. (I) As a parachutist falls, the eardrums "pop" each time the
tensile load that the bolt head can withstand if its ultimate pressure within the inner ear is made equal to the external
shear strength is 3.5 x 108 N/m 2? pressure. Suppose this did not happen. What would be the
300 CHAP. 14 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

force on the eardrum of area 0.5 cm 2 as a result of a change and the density of the fluid is 1025 kg/m3, what is the mini-
in altitude of 1000 m? Assume that the density of air is mum value of h for the fluid to enter the vein?
constant at 1. 29/g/m3 • 27. (II) The gauge pressure in the tires of a car is 200 kPa. The
21. (I) The densities of two liquids can be compared with the area of each tire in contact with the road is 120 cm 2 . What is
apparatus shown in Fig. 14.29. The liquids rise when the the mass of the car?
tubes are partially evacuated. One liquid is water which 28. (II) In Otto von Guericke's famous experiment, Fig. 14.7,
rises to a height hI = 4.8 cm. What is the density of the the hemispheres had a radius of about 30 cm. Assuming
other liquid if h 2 = 4.4 cm? that the pressure inside the sphere was 0.1 atm, what was
the force required to pull the two hemispheres apart? (The
Partial net force exerted by the air on a hemisphere is the same as
vacuum
that on a flat disk of the same radius.)

14.4 Archimedes' Principle

29. (II) A glass tube of radius 0.8 cm floats vertically in water,
as shown in Fig. 14.31. What mass of lead pellets would
cause the tube to sink a further 3 cm?

FIGURE 14.29 Exercise 21.

22. (II) What is the absolute pressure as a function of depth in a

liquid that is in a container which has a vertical acceleration
a upward?
23. (I) What is the minimum gauge pressure required at the FIGURE 14.31 Exercise 29.
base of a building of height 200 m for water to reach a
closed faucet at the top of the building at a gauge pressure
of 500 kPa?
24. (I) By inhaling, a person can create a gauge pressure of -60 30. (I) A raft with dimensions 3 m x 3 m x 0.16 m is made of
mm Hg. To what height could the person raise water in a
wood of density 600 kg/m 3 • What uniformly distributed load
straw? (in kg) would cause it to be 80% submerged in water?
25. (I) The manometer shown in Fig. 14.30 contains oil of den-
31. (II) A sphere floats in water with 60% of its volume sub-
sity 850 kg/m 3 . What is the absolute pressure of the gas in
merged. It floats in oil with 70% of its volume submerged.
the bulb? The atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa.
What is the density of the oil?
32. (I) A 2-kg block of copper, of density 9000 kg/m 3 , has an
apparent weight of 17 N when completely submerged in a
liquid. What is the density of the liquid?
33. (I) A 400-g cubic block of wood floats with 40% of its vol-
ume submerged. How much weight should be placed on the
wood to cause it to just become fully submerged?
6 em
34. (II) The weight of an object is 12 N in air. It has an apparent
weight of 8 N when totally immersed in water. Find its
density and volume. Ignore the buoyant effect of the air.
35. (II) A body of weight 30 N requires a vertical force of 10 N
to just submerge it in water. What is its density?
36. (I) A block of wood of density 600 kg/m 3 has a length of 40
FIGURE 14.30 Exercise 25. cm, a width of 30 cm, and a height of 20 cm (the vertical
dimension). To what depth does it sink in oil of density 950
26. (I) In an intravenous infusion of fluid, a container is held at kg/m 3 ?
a height h above the arm. If the blood pressure is 20 mm Hg 37. (II) An object of mass 0.5 kg sinks in oil of density 800
 PROBLEMS 301

kg/m 3. It has an apparent weight of 4.2 N when fully im- be 200.00 g, what is its real mass? The density of copper is
mersed in the oil. What is its density? 9 g/cm3•
38. (I) An oil freighter has an approximately rectangular hori- 44. (I) A blimp in the form of a cylinder of radius 5 m and length
zontal cross section of 15 m x 200 m. It sinks by an addi- 40 m is filled with helium at a pressure of I atm. The density
tional5 m in seawater when it is loaded. What is the mass of of the helium is 0.18 kg/m 3 . What maximum load (including
the load? The density of seawater is 1025 kg/m 3 . its own mass) can the blimp lift?
39. (II) A 6O-kg person floats vertically in a pool with just her 14.5 Equation of Continuity
head, of volume 2.5 L, exposed. What is her (average)
density? 45. (I) Water flows at 1.2 mls through a hose of diameter 1.59
40. (I) An iceberg of density 920 kg/m 3 floats in seawater of em. How long does it take to fill a cylindrical pool of radius
density 1025 kg/m 3 with an exposed volume of 106 m3 • What 2 m to a height of 1.25 m?
is its total mass? 46. (I) A duct of square cross section (0.5 m x 0.5 m) is used to
41. (I) A barge has a draft (submerged depth) of 3 m at sea.
change the air in a room of dimensions 4 m x 3 m x 3 m
Assume that it has a rectangular horizontal cross-section. every 20 min. What is the required speed of the airflow
By how much does this change when it reaches a fresh- through the duct?
water lake? The density of seawater is 1025 kg/m 3 • 47. (I) Water flows at 2.4 mls through a garden hose of diameter
42. (II) A hydrometer is used to measure the density of liquids. 1.59 cm and emerges from a nozzle of radius 0.64 cm. If the
It consists of a bulb weighted with lead pellets and a long nozzle is directed vertically upward, to what height would
stem; see Fig. 14.32. The stem has a graduated scale from the water rise?
which density may be read off. The bulb has volume of 4 14.6 Bernoulli Equation
mL and the stem has as mm diameter. The hydrometer has
a mass of 5 g. If the bulb sinks 1.5 em lower when it is 48. (II) A fountain sprays water through the top end of a verti-
moved from water to another fluid, what is the density of cal uniform pipe of radius 0.6 cm and length 2 m to a height
the fluid? of 10 m. What is the gauge pressure at the pump connected
to the lower end of the pipe?
49. (II) A 40-rn/s wind blows past a roof of dimensions 10 m x
15 m. Assuming that the air under the roof is at rest, what is
the net force on the roof?
50. (II) The wing of an airplane has an area of 80 m2 . Air flows
over the top at 200 mls and under the wing at 180 m/s. What
is the net force on the wing due to the Bernoulli effect?
51. (II) Water enters a basement inlet pipe of radius 1.5 cm at
40 crn/s. It flows through a pipe ofradius 0.5 cm at a height
of 35 m at a gauge pressure of 0.2 atm. (a) What is the speed
of the water at the higher point? (b) What is the gauge
pressure at the basement?
52. (II) The diameter of a horizontal pipe through which water
flows gradually decreases to one-half its original value. The
FIGURE 1432 E erci e 42.
initial speed and absolute pressure are 2.4 mls and 160 kPa.
Find the final speed and absolute pressure.
53. (II) Water flows at 2.4 mls through a 1.59-cm diameter gar-
43. (I) In accurate measurements of mass using a spring scale, den hose and emerges at atmospheric pressure from a noz-
corrections have to be made for the buoyancy of the air. If zle of radius 0.64 cm. What is the gauge pressure at the
the mass of a copper bar is measured by the spring scale to faucet?

PROBLEMS
1. (II) A dam has a height H and a width W (see Fig. 14.33). Evaluate your expression for H = 60 m and W = 200 m.
Assuming that the water level reaches the top, show that (Hint: Consider first the force on a horizontal strip.)
the net pressure force exerted on the dam is
2. (II) Assuming that the water level reaches the top of the
F = pgWH2 dam in Problem I, calculate the torque experienced by the
2 dam about a point at its base. Show that the torque would
302 CHAP. 14 SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

6. (I) The training of astronauts includes simulated weightless-

ness in a large pool; see Fig. 14.35. An astronaut of mass 90
kg (including spacesuit) can float vertically with just the
helmet, of volume 3 L, exposed. How much weight needs
to be added to the spacesuit to give neutral buoyancy (i.e.,
an average density equal to that of the water)?

FIGURE 14.33 Problem 1.

be the same if the total force exerted on the dam has an

"effective" point of application HI3 above the base.
3. (I) Show that the increase in density of a liquid as a function
of depth h is

where B is the bulk modulus. Estimate the density of water

at the bottom of the Marianas Trench at depth of 10.9 km
givenB = 2.1 x 109 N/m z. (Hint: Show that dVIV = -dplp.)
4. (II) A liquid of density p is in a bucket that spins with
angular velocity w as shown in Fig. 14.34. Show that the FIGURE 14.35 Problem 6.
pressure at a radial distance r from the axis is
Z 7. (I) A 3-kg block of wood in the form of a cube floats with
p = p + pw y2 60% of its volume submerged in water. What is the work
a 2
required to submerge it completely? Assume a vertical
where Pais the pressure at the axis at the same level below force is applied to the horizontal top face.
the bottom of the curved surface. (Hint: Write Newton's 8. (II) Water emerges at speed Vo from the opening of a faucet
second law for an elemental ring.) of radius R. In laminar flow, the cross-sectional area of the
vertical stream of water decreases as it falls. Obtain an
equation for the radius r of the stream as a function of the
.... vertical drop y (see Fig. 14.36).
I

y
I

FIGURE 14.34 Problem 4. FIGURE 14.36 Problem 8.

5. (I) A cylindrical can of length L and radius R is made of 9. (I) Water drains through an opening of area Al in a con-
sheet metal of density Ps and thickness t «<R). It is tainer of cross-sectional area A z; see Fig. 14.37. lithe mo-
floated III a liquid of density pI! with the end faces vertical. tion of the water surface in the container is not ignored,
Show that the fraction f of the volume submerged is show that the speed at which the water emerges is given by

f = 2t(L + R)ps u2 = 2g11

RLpc I -
 SUMMARY 303

.-\2
-- B

I I,II A !
--
A

II
FIGURE 14.37 Problem 9.

10. (II) A Pitot tube, shown in Fig. 14.38, is used to measure

the speed of an airplane relative to the air, or of a ship FIGURE 14.38 Problem 10.
relative to water. Fluid entering at inlet A is brought to rest,
whereas fluid flows past the opening at B. The difference in
pressure is measured by the manometer which contains a
liquid of density Pm. Show that the speed of the fluid of
density Pc moving past B is given by

u= .,j2gPrhP m

11. (I) Water emerges from a small opening at a height h from

the bottom of a large container, as in Fig. 14.39, which is
filled to a constant depth H. (a) Show that the distance R
H [
from the base at which water hits the ground is given by
R = 2Vh(H - h).
(b) At what other height would a similar opening lead to the
"
FIGURE 14.39 Problem 11.
same point of impact?