West Visayas State University

EED 204 RESEARCH IN EDUCATION

Ruthell Moreno, PhD

Myra Angelie Oliveros
Course Facilitators

Unit 3: Research Methodology

Part 1: Quantitative Research
Part 2: Qualitative Research
Part 3: Mixed-Methods Research
Part 4: Action Research

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Research Design. describes the research mode (whether it is qualitative research or
quantitative research, or if the researcher will use a specific research type e.g., descriptive,
survey, historical, case, or experimental).
2. Respondents of the Study. target population and the sample frame.
3. Instruments of the Study. describes the specific type of research instrument that will be
used such as questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-checklist, interview schedule,
teacher-made tests, and the like.
4. Establishing and validating reliability. instrument must pass the validity and reliability
tests before it is utilized.
5. Statistical Treatment. One of the many ways of establishing the objectivity of research
findings is by subjecting the data to different but appropriate statistical formulas and
processes.

CHOOSING AN APPROPRIATE STUDY DESIGN

What is a Research Design?

 the “ blue print” of the study.
 It guides the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
 It is a plan or course of action which the research question/s or solve the research problem.
 A good research requires a good design.
 The use of an appropriate design minimizes the occurrence of error in the conduct of the study
and in the conclusions drawn from the study.
 A wrong choice of a design puts at risk the validity and the reliability of the study.

Part 1: Quantitative Research

Definition of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research:
 a formal, objective, systematic process for obtaining quantifiable information about the world;
 presented in numerical form, and analysed through the use of statistics;
 used to describe and to test relationships;
 used to examine the cause-and-effect of relationships.
Quantitative research is concerned with numbers, statistics, and the relationships between
events/numbers.
-explain phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematical based
methods (in particular statistics) (Aliaga and Gunderson, 2000).
A phenomenon is a peculiar incident that can happen anywhere, with any discipline or in any
organization (Examples: increase in sales, change in turn-over rates, change in drop-out rates,
decrease in the number of failing students in Mathematics, shift in the percentage of dengue patients,
rise in the rate of youth drug addiction. and decrease in juvenile crime rates in the rural areas)

-quantitative researchers attempt to measure relevant factors and variables by attaching numeric
values that express quantity. Analyzing numbers to answer a scientific inquiry is done through
mathematical formulas usually used in descriptive and inferential research.
-traditional, positivist scientific method which refers to a general set of orderly, disciplined procedures
to acquire information.
-utilizes deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world. It is systematic
since the researcher progresses logically through a series of steps and according to a pre-specified
plan of action.

The following definition, taken from Aliaga and Gunderson (2000),

describes what we mean by quantitative research methods very well:

“Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analysed using
mathematically based methods (in particular statistics)”.

▪ In a nutshell, quantitative research generates numerical data or information that can be

converted into numbers.

▪ Only measurable data are being gathered and analyzed in quantitative research.

▪ Goal or Aim of the Research:

– The primary aim of a Quantitative Research is to focus more in counting and classifying
features and constructing statistical models and figures to explain what is observed.

▪ Quantitative Research is highly recommended for the late phase of research because it
provides the researcher a clearer picture of what to expect in his research compared to
Qualitative Research.

▪ Data Gathering Instrument

– Quantitative Research makes use of tools such as questionnaires, surveys,

measurements and other equipment to collect numerical or measurable data.

▪ Type of Data

– if you are conducting a Quantitative Research, what will most likely appear in your
discussion are tables containing data in the form of numbers and statistics.

▪ Approach

– In Quantitative Research, researchers tend to remain objectively separated from the

subject matter. This is because Quantitative Research is objective in approach in the
 sense that it only seeks precise measurements and analysis of target concepts to
answer his inquiry.

Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research approaches

Quantitative Qualitative
General Seek to confirm hypotheses about Seek to explore phenomena
Framework Phenomena
Instruments use more rigid style Instruments use more flexible,
of eliciting and categorizing iterative style of eliciting and
responses to questions categorizing responses to questions
Use highly structured methods Use semi-structured methods such as
such as questionnaires, surveys, in-depth interviews, focus
and structured observation groups, and participant observation

Analytical To quantify variation To describe variation

objectives To predict causal relationships To describe and explain relationships
To describe characteristics of a To describe individual experiences
population To describe group norms

Question format Closed-ended Open-ended

Data format Numerical (obtained by assigning Textual (obtained from audiotapes,

numerical values to responses) videotapes, and field notes)

Flexibility in Study design is stable from Some aspects of the study are
study design beginning to end flexible (for example, the addition,
exclusion, or wording of particular
interview questions)
Participant responses do not Participant responses affect how
influence or determine how and and which questions researchers
which questions researchers ask ask next
next

Study design is subject to Study design is iterative, that is,

statistical assumptions and data collection and research
conditions questions are adjusted according
to what is learned

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

deal primarily with numbers Deal primarily involve words
usually base their work on the belief that facts and world is made up of multiple realities, socially
feelings can be separated, that the world is a single constructed by different individual views of the
reality made up of facts that can be discovered. same situation.
seek to establish relationships between variables more concerned with understanding situations and
and look for and sometimes explain the causes of events from the viewpoint of the participants.
such relationships.
has established widely agreed on general have a much greater flexibility in both the strategies
formulations of steps that guide researchers in their and techniques they use and the overall research
work; designs tend to be preestablished. process itself. Their designs tend to emerge during
the course of the research.
Why Quantitative Research?

▪ If your study aims to find out the answer to an inquiry through numerical evidence, then you
should make use of the Quantitative Research.

▪ In general, use qualitative research at the beginning of a design process to uncover

innovations. Use quantitative research at the end of a design process to measure
improvement.

▪ French sociology Pierre Bourdieu followed a typical arc to the narrative research by first
investigating economic class in an open-ended fashion. Once he established what he thought
was going on, he tested these ideas with large surveys.

▪ The main activity for which quantitative research is especially suited is the testing of
hypotheses.

Importance of Quantitative Research in Different Fields

Most areas of study have to deal with processes that involve experimentations, tests, and
research. In these situations, quantitative measures are more or less involved. In validating results
or findings, quantitative research can be useful. Whenever there are data or numbers to be surveyed,
such as the prevailing behaviors, attitudes, patterns and trends, and other quantifiable aspects,
quantitative research serves as a multi-purpose method, i.e. to test, to identify, to count, to assess, to
clarify jobs, etc. Some areas of study and the function of quantitative research in them are provided
below.

Education. Quantitative research can be used in:

-measuring the level of performance of students as well as the teachers.

-assessing the effectiveness of the methods used, the different programs conducted, and the
satisfaction of all stakeholders in the educational sector including students, faculty, parents,
administrators, the community, the government, and non-governmental organizations. The interests
of these groups can be advanced or enhanced by implementing quantifiable best practices.

Business.
-can improve that overall marketing strategy;
-help the company make informed decisions on how to move forward with a particular product or
service; and even solicit consumers’ opinions for productivity.
-utilized in product development and to create favorable marketing campaigns. Data that are often
used in this type of research are market size, demographics, and user-preferences.

Medical and Health Allied Services. The statistics on the rate of recovery, the number of patients
with illnesses and sicknesses, the efficacy of medicines and drugs, among others, when analyzed, can
become rich resources of information and a basis of good practices in medical treatment and
intervention. Experimental research on effective medicines, vaccines and other drugs to cure specific
sickness or illness, is conducted through quantitative research. Data on the level of satisfaction of
patients on services rendered by the employees in a hospital and the patients’ profile when treated
statistically can be an ideal group for the distribution of health funds and assistance.
Science and Technology. The noted observation for a phenomenon, the rate of processing of
certain services, and the time consumed for any procedure are factors to be considered. The data
collected will lead to a more responsible and accountable operation of the different components of
technology. During experiments on new devices, inventions, discoveries, and innovations, the
recorded data are very vital for any test of efficiency.

QUANTITATIVE DATA

“Quantitative data is information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and
written down with numbers.”
▪ Some examples of quantitative data are your height, your shoe size, and the length of your
fingernails.
▪ Quantitative data defines whereas qualitative data describes.
▪ Quantitative data is numeric. This is useful for mathematical and statistical analysis 
predictive formula.
▪ Qualitative data is based on human judgement. You can also turn qualitative data into
quantitative data

Units and variables in Quantitative data

▪ Units:
When we collect data in quantitative educational research, we have to collect them from
someone or something. The people or things (e.g. schools) we collect data on or from are known as
units or cases.
▪ Variables:
The data that we are collecting from these units are known as variables. Variables are any
characteristic of the unit we are interested in and want to collect (e.g. gender, age, self-esteem).

▪ The label ‘variable’ refers to the fact that these data will differ between units.
For example, achievement will differ between pupils and schools, gender will differ between
pupils, and so on.
▪ If there are no differences at all between the units we want to study, we probably aren’t going
to be able to do any interesting research (for example, studying whether pupils are human
would not yield interesting findings).

Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative research design is the standard experimental method of most scientific
disciplines.
 They are most commonly used by physical scientists, although social sciences, education and
economics have been known to use this type of research. It is the opposite of qualitative
research.
 Quantitative experiments all use a standard format, with a few minor inter-disciplinary
differences, of generating a hypothesis to be proved or disproved. This hypothesis must be
provable by mathematical and statistical means, and is the basis around which the whole
experiment is designed.
 Randomization of any study groups is essential, and a control group should be included,
wherever possible. A sound quantitative design should only manipulate one variable at a time,
or statistical analysis becomes cumbersome and open to question.
  Ideally, the research should be constructed in a manner that allows others to repeat the
experiment and obtain similar results.

There are four main types of Quantitative research:

1. Descriptive
2. Co relational
3. Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental
4. Experimental Research.

1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
▪ This type of research describes what exists and may help to uncover new facts and meaning.
The purpose of descriptive research is to observe, describe, document spects of a situation
as it naturally occurs.

▪ This involves the collection of data that will provide an account or description of individuals,
groups or situations. Instruments we use to obtain data in descriptive studies include
questionnaires, interviews (closed questions), observation (checklists, etc.)

▪ There is no experimental manipulation or indeed any random selection to groups, as there is

in experimental research.

▪ The characteristics of individuals and groups such as nurses, patients and families may be the
focus of descriptive research. It can provide a knowledge base which can act as a springboard
for other types of quantitative research methods.

Surveys  Surveys include cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or interviews
for data collection with the intent of estimating the characteristics of a large population of interest
based on a smaller sample from that population.

2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
▪ Quantitative correlational research aims to systematically investigate and explain the nature
of the relationship between variables in the real world. Often the quantifiable data (i.e. data
that we can quantify or count) from descriptive studies are frequently analysed in this way.

▪ Correlational research studies go beyond simply describing what exists and are concerned
with systematically investigating relationships between two or more variables of interest
(Porter & Carter 2000).

▪ Such studies only describe and attempt to explain the nature of relationships that exist, and do
not examine causality (i.e. whether one variable causes the other).

3. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE/QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
▪ Quasi-experimental research attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the
variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key
differences.

▪ An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and effects of
the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured.

▪ It is not the same as true experimental research because quasi-experimental research studies
lack one or both of the essential properties of randomisation and a control group.
 ▪ The researcher does not randomly assign groups and must use ones that are naturally formed
or pre-existing groups.

▪ The major drawback with quasi-experimental research is that, compared to experimental

research, it has a weakness in that is not possible to deliver 'cause and effect' results.

▪ In other words, we cannot infer from quasi-experimental research that, for example, doing
one thing causes a particular phenomenon (e.g. smoking cigarettes causes cancer).

▪ Identified control groups exposed to the treatment variable are studied and compared to
groups who are not.

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
▪ often called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect
relationship among a group of variables that make up a study.

▪ The true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case;
a laboratory setting has nothing to do with it. A true experiment is any study where an effort
is made to identify and impose control over all other variables except one.

▪ An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent

variables. Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments rather than identified
in naturally occurring groups

DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL Causal-Comparative/ Experimental

Quasi-Experimental

Attitudes of The relationship How does having a The Effect of positive

Scientists between diet and working mother affect a reinforcement on
regarding global anxiety child’s school attitude toward school
warming absenteeism?

What is the basic methodology for a quantitative research design?

The overall structure for a quantitative design is based in the scientific method. It
uses deductive reasoning, where the researcher forms an hypothesis, collects data in an investigation
of the problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is made and conclusions
are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false. The basic procedure of a quantitative design
is:

1. Make your observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new. Investigate
current theory surrounding your problem or issue.

2. Hypothesize an explanation for those observations.

3. Make a prediction of outcomes based on your hypotheses. Formulate a plan to test your
prediction.

4. Collect and process your data. If your prediction was correct, go to step 5. If not, the
hypothesis has been proven false. Return to step 2 to form a new hypothesis based on your
new knowledge.

5. Verify your findings. Make your final conclusions. Present your findings in an appropriate
form for your audience.
Advantages of Quantitative Research

▪ Quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results and proving or disproving
a hypothesis. The structure has not changed for centuries, so is standard across many
scientific fields and disciplines.

▪ After statistical analysis of the results, a comprehensive answer is reached, and the results can
be legitimately discussed and published.

▪ Quantitative experiments also filter out external factors, if properly designed, and so the
results gained can be seen as real and unbiased.

▪ Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative
experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible directions for follow
up research to take.

▪ It allows the researchers to measure and analyze the data to arrive at an objective answer to
the problem posed or stated.
▪ The result is reliable since the study uses a big sample of the population.
▪ Standards are usually used in choosing the instruments, in sampling procedures, and in
choosing the most appropriate statistical treatment, thus making the research replicable.
▪ Personal biases can be avoided since personal interaction is not part of the research process.
▪ Processes involved are simplified since the steps in doing quantitative research are
made easy and systematic.
▪ Results can be reduced through statistical treatments and interpreted in a few statements.

Disadvantages of Quantitative Research

▪ Quantitative experiments can be difficult and expensive and require a lot of time to perform.

▪ They must be carefully planned to ensure that there is complete randomization and correct
designation of control groups.

▪ Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical analysis, which can be difficult, due to
most scientists not being statisticians. The field of statistical study is a whole scientific
discipline and can be difficult for non-mathematicians

▪ The requirements for the successful statistical confirmation of results are very stringent, with
very few experiments comprehensively proving a hypothesis; there is usually some ambiguity,
which requires retesting and refinement to the design. This means another investment of time
and resources must be committed to fine-tune the results.

▪ Quantitative research design also tends to generate only proved or unproven results, with
there being very little room for grey areas and uncertainty. For the social sciences, education,
anthropology and psychology, human nature is a lot more complex than just a simple yes or
no response.

▪ The context of the study or the experiment is ignored in such a way that it does not consider
the natural setting where the study is conducted.
▪ Having a large study sample requires researchers to spend more resources.
▪ Results are limited since they are usually based on the analysis of numbers and are not
obtained from detailed narratives.
▪ It provides less elaborate accounts of human perceptions.
 ▪ In experimental research, the level of control might not be normally placed in the real world
because it is usually done in a laboratory.
▪ Preset or fixed alternative answers may not necessarily reflect the true answers of the
participants.
▪ Findings cam be influenced by the researcher’s perspective since most of the time, the
participants are unknown to him/her.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Its main characteristics are:

▪ It is reliable and objective.

▪ It uses statistics to generalize the finding.
▪ It reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited of variables.
▪ It looks at the connections between variables and establishes cause and effect
relationships is highly controlled circumstances.
▪ It tests theories or hypotheses.
▪ It assumes that the sample is representative of the population.
▪ The subjectivity of its methodology is a secondary concern.
▪ It deals with the details of the subject.
▪ The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
▪ The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
▪ The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
▪ Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
▪ All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
▪ Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or
other non-textual forms.
▪ Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate
causal relationships.
▪ Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.
▪ The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and
construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

Quantitative Research Designs

Experimental Designs Non-experimental Designs
True Experimental Design Action Studies
Pretest-posttest control design Comparative Studies
Posttest only control group Correlational Studies
Solomon four-group Developmental Studies
Quasi-experimental Designs Evaluation Studies
Non equivalent Meta-analysis Studies
Time series Methodological Studies
Pre-experimental Designs Needs assessment Studies
One-shot case study Secondary Analysis Studies
One group pretest-posttest Survey Studies

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Experimental research is concerned primarily with cause and effect relationships in studies that
involve manipulation or control of the independent variables (cause) and measurement of the
dependent variables (effect).
- utilizes the principle of research known as the method of difference. This means that the effect
of a single variable applied to the situation can be assessed and the difference can be determined.

There are variables that are not part of the study but are believed to influence the outcomes called
intervening or extraneous variables. These variables are part of the study limitations. These
extraneous or intervening variables are labeled threats to internal or external validity. Internal validity
is the degree to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the independent
variable, however, is the degree to which the changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to
the extraneous variables.

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

1. Selection bias. This results when the subjects or respondents of the study are not randomly
selected. For example, a researcher wants to experiment on the best method in teaching
home science and technology. The researcher assigns the students from the higher section to
be in the experimental group and the students in the lower section to be in the control group.
Obviously, the students in the higher section will perform better.

 In an experimental study, a threat to validity occurs when the elements or subjects selected
for the experimental group is very different from those selected for the control group.

 Example:

 In an experiment conducted to determine if using games and puzzles as instructional aids can
improve performance of college freshmen in Basic Math, the teacher used games and puzzles
in the experimental group, but did not use them in the control group. After the experiment, it
was found that the experimental group got significantly better grades in the subject than the
control group. It was discovered, however, that most of the students in the experimental
group had very good grades in high school math, while most of those in the control group had
average grades only. Attributing the better performance of the experimental group to the use
of games and puzzles can be questioned.

2. Maturation. This happens when the experiment is conducted beyond a longer period of time
during which most of the subjects undergo physical emotional and/ or psychological changes.
For example, a researcher implemented an experiment with Grade 10 students as his subjects.
 The researcher, however, became busy and was unable to follow up the results of the
experiment. When he was able to resume his study two years later, the subjects had already
matured and were in Grade 12.

 People and things change over time. In other words they become more mature, and this
change can threaten the validity of conclusions. Research subjects can get tired, hungry, or
bored during the duration of the project. If the effect of the project is measured with a test,
their tiredness or boredom can result in scores lower than their ‘true’ scores.

 On the other hand, the subjects may become more experienced, more knowledgeable as they
grow older and as a result they may get higher scores than they did in the pretest. In this
regard the change can not be attributed to the intervention.

3. History. threat to internal validity which happens during the conduct of the study when an
unusual event affects the result of an experiment. For example, while a research on the
effectiveness of a method in stopping smoking was ongoing, news broke out about students
who were diagnosed with lung cancer because of smoking. The subjects who heard the news
were frightened and decided to stop smoking not because of the intervention but because of
the news.

 Sometimes there are events in the life of a research project, but which are not part of the
project, that can increase or decrease the expected project outcomes.

 These events are not expected, they just happen and they produce effects that can invalidate
study results.

 Example:
‘effect of anti-smoking campaign on cigarette consumption among young adults in city a’

 An intensive information campaign against smoking was launched in order to discourage

smoking among young adults. Anti-smoking messages were disseminated on radio, television,
and newspapers daily for one month. In the course of the campaign, a cigarette company also
launched a product promotion, offering a free trip to Europe for the customer and dealer who
could collect and submit the most number of empty packs of the cigarette brand being
promoted.

 A month after the launching of the anti-smoking campaign, an evaluation was conducted, and
the results showed an increase in cigarette consumption in the study area. The researcher
might conclude that the campaign was a failure. The conclusion here would be invalid
because of the high possibility that the cigarette promotion (historical event) may have
contributed to the increase in cigarette consumption.

4. Instrumentation change. For example, if a research uses an open-minded questionnaire

during the initial period of his data gathering, then replaces the research instrument with a
close-ended survey from later, this change in research instrument will have an effect on the
data gathered. As such, the validity and reliability of the data will be put into question.

 When a research instrument, such as a questionnaire or a measuring device, like a weighing

scale or a thermometer is changed during the study period or between the pretest and the
posttest, the change could result in an effect that is independent of the intervention and yet,
may be attributed to it.
  example #1.

* In a survey study, an instrumentation effect may be caused by an interviewer who after

conducting the pretest interview becomes more experienced in interviewing. The interviewer’s
experience will enable him/her to generate better and/or more complete information during the
posttest than what was collected during the pretest.

 example #2.

 In a biomedical study, the use of an unreliable device, like a scale that badly needs calibration,
a contaminated syringe, or a very old litmus paper may also threaten the validity of test
results.

5. Mortality. when one or more subjects die, drop out, or transfer as in the case of a student
who has not completed his/her participation in the experiment.

 In studies that take a long time to finish, say, one year or more, like cohort studies, where the
subjects (the same people) are followed up over time, some cases may drop out, thus
resulting in a loss of cases. Some cases may have transferred residence and are difficult to
locate during the follow-up interview. Cases which cannot be contacted cannot be
followed-up. This loss, called mortality, may distort findings and conclusions, if substantial
and if it has introduced a bias to the sample.

 The loss could result in a big difference between the pretest and the posttest results. This
change may be wrongly attributed to the intervention, thus, threaten the validity of the
conclusions.

6. Testing. may occur in a study when a pretest is given to subjects who have knowledge of
baseline data. Testing bias is the influence of the pretest or knowledge of baseline data on the
posttest scores. Subjects may remember the answers they put on the pretest and will put the
same answers on the posttest.

 Whenever a pretest is given, it may make the examinees ‘test wise,’ and this can therefore
affect the posttest results. Research subjects who have been given a pretest may remember
some of the test items/questions for which they may search answers and get these correct
when they take the posttest. Better performance in the posttest might be due to the effect of
the pretest and not necessarily to the intervention or treatment.

THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

1. Experimenter effect. appears when the characteristics of the researcher affect the behavior
of the subjects or respondents. For example, a known personality like Ms. Karen Davila
conducting the interview or survey may cause the subjects to be startstruck and give answers
which they believe will please the interview.
2. Hawthorne effect. This occurs when the respondents or subjects respond artificially to the
treatment because they know they are being observed as a part of research study.
3. Measurement effect. It is also called the reactive effects of the pretest. It occurs when
subject have been exposed to be treatment through taking the pretest. If there is a prior
announcement of the conduct of the study, the subjects might prepare and this will give a
superficial result.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

 - subjects are randomly assigned to the experimental group and the control group to achieve
pre-intervention/treatment equality of the two groups. With well-defined and properly selected
experimental and control groups, validity threats are avoided.

1. True experimental design. criteria: the researcher manipulates the experimental variables,
the researcher has control over the independent variables, as well as the treatment and the
subjects; there must be one experimental group and one comparison or control group; and
the subjects are randomly assigned either to the comparison or experimental group. The
control group is a group that does not receive the treatment.

a. Pretest-posttest controlled group design

1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. A pretest is given to both groups.
3. The experimental group receives the treatment while the control group does not.
4. A posttest is given to both groups.

The procedure is summarized below:

R O 1 X O2 (experimental group)
R O1 O2 (control group)
where: R stands for random selection
O1 stands for pretest
stands for posttest
X stands for intervention

- In the pretest-posttest control group design, the experimental group is exposed to or covered by
an intervention or treatment (X), for example, training or a new strategy, while the control group is
left alone or given another kind of treatment. Before the intervention/treatment is introduced to the
experimental group, a survey/observation/testing is conducted for both experimental group (O¹) and
control group (O²) using the same device/instrument.

 The pre-intervention survey/observation/test serves as pretest and the data collected serve as
baseline data. After the introduction of the intervention in the experimental group or area, an
evaluation survey/observation/testing is conducted in both experimental group/area (O³) and
the control group/area (O⁴), using the same instrument used in both during the pretest. The
results serve as the posttest/endline data.

 The baseline (pretest) and endline (posttest) data are compared. If the change in the
‘impact/effect indicator/s’ or dependent variable/s is significantly better in the experimental
area/group than the change in the control group area/group, then the intervention is
considered effective. If not, then the intervention is said to have had no effect.
 b. Posttest only controlled group design
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. The experimental group receives the treatment whilt the control group does not
receive the treatment.
3. A posttest is given to both groups.

The procedure is summarized below:

R X O2 (experimental group)
R O2 (control group)
where: R stands for random selection
stands for posttest
X stands for intervention

- it is used to determine the effect of an intervention or treatment introduced to a group of

subjects (people/objects). At least two groups or areas (e.g. women groups, communities, provinces)
with virtually the same characteristics are chosen and randomly assigned (RA) to the control and
experimental group.

 The experimental group or area is exposed to or covered by an intervention/treatment, while

the control group is left alone. No pretest/pre-intervention study is conducted. The
experimental and the control groups are assumed to have similar characteristics at the start of
the study.

 After the introduction of an intervention in the experimental group or area, an evaluation

survey/observation/testing is conducted in both experimental and the control groups or areas,
using the same ‘fair’ instrument.

 The data gathered from the experimental and control groups are compared. If the
experimental group or area shows significantly better results than the control area/group with
respect to the ‘impact/effect indicator/s’ or dependent variable/s, the intervention or
treatment is considered effective. If not, then, the intervention is not effective.

c. Solomon four-group design. It is considered as the most reliable and suitable

experimental design. It minimizes threats to both internal and external validity.
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to one or four groups.
2. Two of the groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1) are pretested.
3. The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control group 2) receive the
routine treatment is given to all four groups.
4. A posttest is given to all four groups.
 The procedure is summarized below:
R O 1 X O2 (experimental group)
R O1 O2 (control group)
R X O2 (experimental group)
R O2 (control group)

2. Pre-experimental design. This experimental design is considered very weak because the
researcher has little control over the research.

a. One-shot case study. A single group is exposed to an experimental treatment and

observed after the treatment.
The procedure is summarized below:

XO

b. One-group pretest-posttest design. It provides a comparative description of a

group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment

The procedure is summarized below:

01 02

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Quasi-experimental design. A design in which either there is no control group or the subjects are
not randomly assigned to groups.

 - quasi experimental design is alternatively used because it is very difficult to meet the random
assignment criterion of a true experimental design.

 It is nearly the same as the true experimental designs, except it does not have restrictions of
random assignment.

 Two most commonly used quasi-experimental designs:

 1. non-equivalent control group design

 2. time series design

a. Non-equivalent controlled group design. This design is similar to the

pretest-posttest control group design except that there is no random assignment of
subjects to the experimental and control groups.

The procedure is summarized below:

 O 1 X O2 (experimental group)
O1 O2 (control group)

- In field research, it is possible to compare an experimental group with a similar, but not necessary
equivalent group. The two groups need only to have “collective similarity,” which means that they
should have more or less the same characteristics in terms of aspects which are relevant to the study.

 Ex.

if one wants to determine the impact of an educational campaign on school attendance of

children, the experimental and the control areas should have more or less the same socioeconomic
characteristics, because these factors may also affect school attendance.

 As in the pretest-posttest control group design, the intervention or treatment is introduced to

the experimental group, but withheld from the control group. Before the introduction of the
intervention, a survey/observation/testing is conducted in both the experimental group (O¹)
and the control group (O²). After the introduction of the intervention to the experimental
group, another observation/testing (posttest) is conducted to both groups (O³ and O⁴). The
pretest can be used to determine whether the two groups have truly ‘collective similarity’ at
the start of the experiment .

 The results of the two posttests (O³ and O⁴) will also be compared. The intervention is
effective if the change in the impact/effect indicators in the experimental group (O³ minus O¹)
is significantly higher/better than the change in the impact/effect indicators in the control
group (O⁴ minus O³). If not, then the intervention/treatment cannot be considered
effective.

 This design is a good one for evaluating training programs, and other community
interventions.

b. Time-series design. The researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects.

01 02 03 04 05 06
where:
01, 02, 03 stand for pretest (multiple observations)
04, 05, 06 stand for posttest (multiple observations)
- Similar to the non-experimental pretest-posttest design except that, it has repeated
observations/measurements before and after the intervention (X). Before the introduction of
the intervention/treatment, a measurement/observation with respect to the impact/effect indicators
will be conducted several times at a regular interval, say, every 30 days; (O¹, O², O³), and then
after the intervention, another series of measurement/observation will be conducted (O⁴, O⁵, O⁶),
also at the same interval as the first. The same measuring instrument/device should be used at all
times.

The result or pattern of the observations or testing in the first series of measurements will be
compared with that in the series of measurements after the intervention. If the post-intervention
result or pattern is better than that of the pre-intervention series, then the intervention can be
considered effective. However, if the pre-intervention and post intervention results or patterns are
the same, or the post intervention result is not significantly better than that of the pre-intervention,
then the intervention, cannot be considered effective.

 example

 One wants to evaluate the effect of a feeding program which is intended to improve the
nutritional status of pre-school children in a barangay. Before the introduction of the feeding
program, the children (program beneficiaries) will be weighed (measured) several times at
regular interval, say, every 30 days; (O¹, O², O³), and then after the feeding program,
another series of weighing (measurement) will be conducted (O⁴, O⁵, O⁶), also at the same
interval as the first series (every 30 days).

 In order for the feeding program to be considered effective in improving the nutritional status
of the children, the children’s weights should improve after the feeding program. Since the
children are also growing, increase in weight may also be observed during the series of
pre-intervention measurements, however, it is expected that post-intervention changes must
be significantly better than the pre-intervention changes. If not, the feeding program could
not be considered as having effectively improved the nutritional status of the children.

 Selecting a study Design

 in selecting a study design it is important to consider ethical issues and the balancing of
technical issues against practical and administrative issues.

 Ethical Issues. The researcher must make sure that the use of a particular design does not
endanger the respondent’s life, will not result in the violation of people’s rights and dignity or
in a denial of services that otherwise would be available. It is important that informed consent
is secured from the respondents or subjects before they are involved in a study.

TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

- appropriate for collecting descriptive information about a population or subjects of the study.

- they are appropriate for descriptive studies, like profile studies, exploratory studies, and for
doing small case studies.

- also ideal for diagnostic studies or situation analysis.

- NOT recommended for evaluation studies intended to determine the effect or impact of a
certain intervention or treatment.

- comes in three types:

a. Posttest Only Design or After-Only Survey

b. Pretest- Posttest Design or Before-After Survey

c. Static Group Comparison

Posttest Only Design or After-Only Survey

- it is called as one shot survey because the data are collected only once (O).

- used when the study objective is to describe a situation/condition of a study population as it

exists, or to determine/describe the characteristics of a pop’n/respondents. There is no baseline
data.

- this design is cheap and easy to conduct, but results cannot be conclusive in terms of causality
or effect of an intervention. It is not, however, recommended for evaluation studies that intend to
measure the effect of a program intervention, like training.

Pretest- Posttest Design or Before-After Survey

 - it used when the study wants to know the change in characteristics (e.g. knowledge, attitude,
practices, etc.) of the study population (students, nurses, managers, clients, etc.) in a given area.

- a survey, observation, or testing is conducted before an intervention is introduced (O¹). After a

period of time the survey, observation, or testing is repeated (O²) and the results of the pretest
(before) and the posttest (after) are compared to determine change/s.

 Example:

 If a researcher wants to know if an information campaign against drug/substance abuse in a

certain city has reduced drug use in the area after the campaign, a survey before and after the
cammpaign can be conducted. No ‘control’ area (area where no campaign is conducted),
however, is surveyed. With the absence of a control area, this design cannot be considered
an experimental design. Any reduction in drug use overtime, cannot be solely/conclusively
attributed to the intervention (campaign).

Static Group Comparison

- there are two groups involved, a experimental group and a control group. The
experimental group receives or is exposed to the intervention/treatment (X). This is followed by a
measurement (0¹), the result of which is compared to the result of the measurement/observation
from a control group (0²) that did not receive the intervention.

 The random process however was not used in the assignment of subjects to the experimental
and control groups (indicated by a broken line).

 The problem with this design is the validity threat of selection and mortality. It is possible
that the two groups differ greatly on the basis of the main variables of the study (selection) or
some subjects in the experimental group may drop out and be lost to follow-up or second
observation/testing (mortality).

NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH STUDIES

1. Survey Studies. The investigations are conducted through self-report. Surveys generally
ask respondents to report on their attitudes, opinions, perceptions, or behaviors. Thus,
survey studies aim at describing characteristics, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors as they
currently exist in a population. (Wilson, 1990).

Surveys can be categorized according to:

1.1 whom the data is collected from

 a. Sample – a representative of the total population
b. Group – can be smaller than a mass
c. Mass – larger than a group
1.2 methods used to collect the data
a. telephone
b. text messages
c. snail mail
d. e-mail or other social media modalities like twitter, facebook, etc.
e. face-to-face interaction – This is still the best method of survey due to its high rate of
retrieval. It also allows immediate clarification of issues and offers practical
advantages which are not provided by the other methods.
1.3 Time orientation
a. Retrospective. The dependent variable is identified in the present and an attempt
is made to determine the independent variable that occurred in the past.

b. Cross-sectional. The data are collected at a single point in time. The design
requires subjects who are at different points, phrases, or stages of an experience.
The subjects are assumed to represent data collected from different time periods.

For example, if the researcher wants to determine the psychological experience of

students in different grade levels, he/she will gather data from a specific number of
subjects from each grade level.
c. Longitudinal. Unlike in the cross-sectional survey, the researcher collects data
from the same people at different times. In the same study determining the
psychological experience of students in the different grade levels, the researcher will
have enough number of subjects in the first grade level and they will be observed as
they pass through the different stages. Compared to the cross-sectional survey, this
study is conducted over a longer period of time.

1.4 Purpose or objectives

a. Descriptive. This design is utilized for the purpose of accurately portraying a
population that has been chosen because of some specific characteristics. It is also
used to determine the extent or direction of attitudes and behaviors. This design
aims to gather more information on certain characteristics within a particular field of
study. The purpose is to provide a picture of a situation as it naturally happens. It
may be used to develop theories, identify problems with a current practice, justify
current practices, ad in making professional judgments, or determine what other
practitioners in similar situations are doing. No manipulation of variables is involved
in a descriptive design.

b. Comparative. This design is used to compare and contrast representative samples

from two or more groups of subjects in relation to certain designated variables that
occur in normal conditions. The results obtained from these analyses are frequently
not generalized in a population.

c. Correlational. The design is used to investigate the direction and magnitude of

relationships among variables in a particular population. Likewise, it is designed to
study the changes in one characteristic or phenomenon which correspond to the
changes in another or with one another. A wide range of variable scores is necessary
to determine the existence of relationships. Thus, the sample should reflect the full
range of scores, if possible, on the variables being measured.
 d. Evaluative. This design involves making a judgment of worth or value. It allows the
researcher to delineate, obtain, and provide information that is used for judging
decision alternatives when conducting a program or service. It can be formative
(process) or summative (outcome).

Practical and Administrative Issues. Every research requires sufficient funds, competent
personnel and adequate facilities, but these may not always be available. Most often funds are limited,
time is inadequate, and qualified personnel are few. These issues often attract the choice of a good
design. Limited resources often result in the adoption of a less ideal design.

Technical Issues. The use of appropriate or ideal design helps minimize possible errors. It is
important therefore, that technical aspects be given serious consideration. Whenever possible, the
following should be done:

a. Experimental and control groups should be randomly assigned.

b. When random assignment is not possible, try to find a comparison group that is nearly
equivalent to the experimental group.

c. When neither randomly assigned control group nor a similar comparison group is available, try
using time series design that can provide information on trends before and after a program
intervention.

d. If time series cannot be used, try to obtain baseline information that can be compared against
post program information (pretest-posttest).

e. Always keep in mind the issue of validity. Are your measurements true?

f. Do they measure what they intend to measure?

Research Design Example

This study is quantitative in nature since the questions posed will be answered by numerical
data. Specifically, this investigation utilized a true experimental design or a pre-post test design
(Cristobal, 2009). In a pre-post design a pretest was given to students of Algebra. Then, after the
pretest, an intervention method was conducted. Polynomials were taught using a computer program.
After 10 hours of teaching, a posttest was given to students.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1. The chapter on Research Methodology discusses how the research will answer the questions
posed in Chapter 1. It discusses the research design; the respondents, sample, and sampling
methods; instruments used; and the statistical treatment.

2. Experimental research is concerned with studying the relationship between independent

variables and dependent variables, and how the effect of a variable on a certain situation can
be assessed.

3. Validity is the ability of a certain tool to measure what it is intended to measure and to ensure
the accuracy of the results of the study.
 4. Threats to internal validity include selection bias, maturation, history, instrumentation
change, mortality, and testing. Meanwhile, threats to external validity include the
experimenter effect, Hawthorne effect, and measurement effect.

5. The types of experimental research design include true experimental design,

quasi-experimental design, and pre-experimental design.

6. Non-experimental research designs include survey studies which can be classified as

retrospective, cross-sectional, longitudinal, descriptive, comparative, correlational, or
evaluative research.

Key Points:

Quantitative Research:

▪ Has its main purpose in quantification of data (to describe variables).

▪ To examine relationships among variables.
▪ To determine cause-and- effect interactions between variables.
▪ Allows generalizations of results from a sample to an entire population of interest.
▪ Measurement of the incidence of various views and opinions in a given sample.

Part 2: Qualitative Research

What is qualitative research?

 describes in detail all of what goes on in a particular activity or situation rather than on comparing
the effects of a particular treatment (as in experimental research), say, or on describing the
attitudes or behaviors of people (as in survey research) (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun, 2012).

 qualitative research connotes the use of words rather than numbers (Bryman, 2008).

 a form of social inquiry that tends to adopt a flexible and data-driven research design, to use
relatively unstructured data, to emphasize the essential role of subjectivity in the research
process, to study a number of naturally occurring cases in detail, and to use verbal rather than
statistical forms of approach (Hammersley, 2013).

 General Characteristics of Qualitative Research (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun, 2012).

1. The natural setting is the direct source of data, and the researcher is the key instrument in
qualitative research . Qualitative researchers go directly to the particular setting of interest to observe
and collect their data. They spend a considerable amount of time actually being in the research site.

2. Qualitative data are collected in the form of words or pictures rather than numbers. The kinds of
data collected in qualitative research include interview transcripts, fi eld notes, photographs, audio
recordings, videotapes, diaries, personal comments, memos, offi cial records, textbook passages, and
anything else that can convey the actual words or actions of people.

3. Qualitative researchers are concerned with process as well as product. Qualitative researchers are
especially interested in how things occur.
4. Qualitative researchers tend to analyze their data inductively. Qualitative researchers do not,
usually, formulate a hypothesis beforehand and then seek to test it out.

5. How people make sense out of their lives is a major concern to qualitative researchers. A special
interest of qualitative researchers lies in the perspectives of the subjects of a study. Qualitative
researchers want to know what the participants in a study are thinking and why they think what they
do.

Ethnography

Ethnography arose primarily out of the cultural and social anthropological fields, which studied
both how culture affected behavior and how cultural processes evolved over time. Ethnographers are
interested in an entire group of people who share a common culture and have the goal of describing
a culture in depth from an insider’s perspective or reality.

Salient Features of Ethnograpic Studies (Schreiber, J. & Asner-Self, K. (2011) and Fraenkel, J, Wallen,
N., & Hyun, H. (2012).

 The focus for the researcher is the everyday occurrences and interactions of the individuals from
the group.
 Ethnograpy requires observations of a group in the natural setting for an extremely long time
(e.g., months or years) with an open mind and an understanding of their own schemas of how
they believe the world works.

 The major design component of ethnography is fieldwork. The first step is to gain access to the
site and the people you are interested in.

 Data collection techniques (e.g., interviews) and equipment (e.g., audiotapes), artifacts, and
records are all common in ethnography.

 When ethnographers prepare the final report of their research, they engage in what is known as
thick description . In essence, this involves describing what they have seen and heard—their
work in the fi eld—in great detail, frequently using extensive quotations from the participants in
their study. The intent is, as mentioned earlier, to “paint a portrait” of the culture they have
studied, to make it “come alive” for those who read the report.

 Ethnographic research is particularly suitable for topics such as the following:

- Those that by their very nature defy simple quantification (for example, the interaction of
students and teachers in classroom discussions).
- Those that can best be understood in a natural setting (for example, the behavior of students at
a school event).
- Those that involve the study of individual or group activities over time (such as the changes that
occur in the attitudes of at-risk students as they participate in a specially designed, year-long,
reading program).
- Those involving the study of the roles that educators play, and the behaviors associated with
those roles (for example, the behavior of classroom teachers, students, counselors,
administrators, coaches, staff, and other school personnel as they fulfi ll their various roles
and how such behavior changes over time).
- Those that involve the study of the activities and behavior of groups as a unit (such as
classes, athletic teams, subject matter departments, administrative units, work teams, etc.).
- Those involving the study of formal organizations in their totality (for example, schools, school
districts, and so forth).
Phenomenology

This is the empirical approach to the study of the immediate lived experience before one has had time
to reflect on the experience. The reflective is the study of the meaning of something, such as friend.
Phenomenological methodology answers research questions aimed at describing the essence of a
phenomenon. Phenomena are considered observable events that a person experiences rather than
intuits. The essence of the phenomena refers to the ‘‘individual, real, or ultimate nature of a thing’’
(Merriam-Webster, 2007).

Salient Features of Phenomenology (Schreiber, J. & Asner-Self, K. (2011) and Fraenkel, J, Wallen, N.,
& Hyun, H. (2012)

 A researcher undertaking a phenomenological study investigates various reactions to, or

perceptions of, a particular phenomenon (e.g., the experience of teachers in an inner-city high
school).

 The researcher hopes to gain some insight into the world of his or her participants and to
describe their perceptions and reactions (e.g., what it is like to teach in an inner-city high school).

 Data are usually collected through in-depth interviewing. The researcher then attempts to
identify and describe aspects of each individual’s perceptions and reactions to his or her
experience in some detail.

 Phenomenologists generally assume that there is some commonality to how human beings
perceive and interpret similar experiences; they seek to identify, understand, and describe these
commonalities. This commonality of perception is referred to as the essence —the essential
characteristic(s)—of the experience.

 The researcher studies multiple perceptions of the phenomenon as experienced by different

people, and by then tries to determine what is common to these perceptions and reactions. This
searching for the essence of an experience is the the defining characteristic of phenomenological
research.

 Examples of topics for phenomenological studies:

- The experiences of teachers teaching in inclusive education classrooms
- The experiences of novice teachers in far-flung areas

Grounded Theory

The primary purpose of grounded theory is focusing on situations or incidents and generating
core concepts that help to explain people’s behaviors (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Grounded theory, as a
qualitative research method, was introduced by two sociologists, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss,
in their book The Discovery of Grounded Theory (1967). Grounded theory is not intended to be
descriptive; rather its primary purpose is to focus on situations or incidents and generating core
concepts that explain people’s behaviors (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Salient Features of Grounded Theory (Schreiber, J. & Asner-Self, K. (2011), Fraenkel, J, Wallen, N., &
Hyun, H. (2012), and https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-15636-7_4)
 Grounded theory is a research method in which the theory is developed from the data, rather
than the other way around. That makes this is an inductive approach, meaning that it moves from
the specific to the more general.

 In grounded theory,the researcher collects data and develops or forms what are called concepts.
The data are constantly and continually compared, analyzed, and categorized. As the data
collection and analysis continue, insight increases. As a result of increased insight and
understanding, the concepts are adjusted and new ones are generated.
 When new data do not generate new concepts or aid in the modification of established concepts,
the researcher goes to the literature to determine how that literature fits the generated concepts.
A grounded theory is developed and findings are reported professionally. Grounded theory, then,
is fundamentally a process designed to aid in the development of a specific theory that describes
human interactions and informs practice (Broussard, 2006).

 The overarching goal of grounded theory is to develop a theory. Therefore, grounded theory
studies may be carried out related to research phenomena or objects, which lack a sufficient
theoretical foundation.

 The researcher remains integral to the interview, writing down his or her memory of the content
in field notes. Relevant data may also be collected through the popular press, seminars, informal
discussions, professional conferences, and oneself.

Case Studies

The case study, though dominantly a qualitative study design, is also prevalent in quantitative
research. A case could be an individual, a group, a community, an instance, an episode, an event, a
subgroup of a population, a town or a city. To be called a case study it is important to treat the total
study population as one entity. In a case study design the ‘case’ you select becomes the basis of a
thorough, holistic and indepth exploration of the aspect(s) that you want to find out about.

It is an approach ‘in which a particular instance or a few carefully selected cases are studied
intensively’ (Gilbert 2008). According to Burns (1997), ‘to qualify as a case study, it must be a
bounded system, an entity in itself. A case study should focus on a bounded subject/unit that is either
very representative or extremely atypical.’

A case comprises just one individual, classroom, school, or program. Examples of typical cases
are: a student who has trouble learning to read, a social studies classroom, a private school, or a
national curriculum project. A case is not just an individual or situation that can easily be identifi ed
(e.g., a particular individual, classroom, organization, or project); it may be an event (e.g., a campus
celebration), an activity (e.g., learning to use a computer), or an ongoing process (e.g., student
teaching) (Fraenkel, J, Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012).

Salient Features of Case Studies (Kumar, R. (2011)

 The case study design is based upon the assumption that the case being studied is atypicalor
uncommon of cases of a certain type and therefore a single case can provide insight into the
events and situations prevalent in a group from where the case has been drawn.

 It is a very useful design when exploring an area where little is known or where you want to have
a holistic understanding of the situation, phenomenon, episode, site, group or community.
 In this design your attempt is not to select a random sample but a case that can provide you with
as much information as possible to understand the case in its totality.

 You can use a single method but the use of multiple methods to collect data is an important
aspect of a case study, namely in-depth interviewing, obtaining information from secondary
records, gathering data through observations, collecting information through focus groups and
group interviews, etc.

Historical Research

Historical research is the systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain, and
thereby understand actions or events that occurred sometime in the past. Some of the purposes of
historical research are (Fraenkel, J, Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012):

- to make people aware of what has happened in the past so they may learn from past failures
and successes
- to make people aware of what has happened in the past so they may learn from past failures
and successes
- to make predictions

Salient Features of Historical Research (Schreiber, J. & Asner-Self, K. (2011) and Fraenkel, J,
Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012)

 A key component of historical research is the attainment of documented facts in relation to your
historical question.

 Historical research can include all types of data. Sources of date can be primary and secondary
sources. A primary source is the original document, picture, audio, video, and so on (example,
the diary of a person you are interested in researching is a primary source, whereas the summary
or book about the diary is a secondary source).

 In general historical source material can be grouped into four basic categories: documents (e.g.
annual reports, diplomas, legal records, magazines), numerical records (e.g. numerical data in
printed form: test scores, attendance figures, census reports, school budgets), oral statements
and records (e.g. statements people make orally- stories, myths, tales, legends, chants, songs),
and relics (a relic is any object whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some
information about the past, examples are furniture, artwork, clothing, buildings, monuments, or
equipment).

 Examples of research questions pursued through historical research:

- How were people educated during the Spanish occupation?
- What was instruction like in a typical fourth-grade classroom 100 years ago?

Narrative Inquiry

Narrative inquiry can be described as the act of storytelling. As Connelly and Clandinin (1990)
state, ‘‘Humans are storytelling organisms who, individually and collectively, lead storied lives. Thus,
the study of narrative is the study of the ways humans experience the world’’. As humans, we have a
purpose to tell each other our stories, the expected and unexpected, as we live our lives (Bruner,
2002).

Salient Features of Narrative Inquiry (Schreiber, J. & Asner-Self, K. (2011)

  Narrative researchers are focused on the lived life, the study of experience as story (Connelly &
Clandinin, 2006). This is the one main constant across narrative researchers (Clandinin, 2006).
When we try to make sense of our experiences and understand them, narratives provide a way
for people to record these experiences.
 In this method,researchers obtain stories and provide a representation of those stories for
readers. The data from the stories that are developed into narratives are the evidence of these
experiences.

 According to Connelly and Clandinin (2006), there are four key terms: living, telling, retelling,
reliving. Participants are asked to provide information on their lives, the living. These tellings
come in the form of data such as personal journals, stories, photographs, video, documents,
interviews, notes, and so forth. The data are then constructed into a narrative to retell their living.
The reliving after the retelling (writing out one’s life) may be the most difficult to complete
because one is now living out as a new person after the retelling (Connelly & Clandinin, 2006).

 The starting point for narrative inquiry is an individual’s experience (Clandinin & Rosiek, 2006),
but it also will explore the social, cultural, and institutional stories that affect the person’s life and
the people involved with that life (Clandinin, 2006).

 In narrative inquiry, a wide variety of data can be collected, such as photographs, field notes,
interviews, and other artifacts.

Part 3: Mixed-Methods Research

What is Mixed-Methods Research? (Fraenkel, J, Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012) and Cohen, L.,
Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018)

 Mixed-methods research (MMR) involves the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods in
a single study.

 Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2009) suggest that conducting MMR involves data collection (both
quantitative and qualitative), analysis and interpretation of studies that, singly or together,
address a particular phenomenon.

 MMR can provide a more complete picture of the phenomenon under study than would be yielded
by a single approach, thereby overcoming the weaknesses and biases of single approaches.

 Denscombe (2014) also suggests that MMR can increase the accuracy of data and reliability
through triangulation, reduce bias in the research, provide a ‘practical, problem-driven approach
to research’.

Three Types of Mixed-Methods Research Designs

1. Exploratory design
 - researchers first use a qualitative method to discover the important variables underlying a
phenomenon of interest and to inform a second, quantitative, method, then, they seek to discover the
relationships among these variables.

- This type of design is often used in the construction of questionnaires or rating scales designed to
measure various topics of interest.

- Results of the qualitative phase give direction to the quantitative method, and quantitative results
are used to validate or extend the qualitative findings.

- Qualitative data are usually collected first (typically with a small sample), with quantitative data from
a larger sample used to generalize the findings.

- Data analysis in the exploratory design is separate, corresponding to the fi rst, qualitative, phase of
the study and the second, quantitative, phase of the study.

2. Explanatory design

- In an explanatory design, quantitative data are usually collected first, followed by qualitative data to
follow up and explain the quantitative data. It is important for the researcher to identify which parts of
the quantitative data need to be explained and how they can be explained.

- The two types of data are analyzed separately, with the results of the qualitative analysis used by the
researcher to expand upon the results of the quantitative study.

3. Triangulation design

- In the triangulation design, the researcher uses both quantitative and qualitative methods to study
the same phenomenon to determine if the two converge upon a single understanding of the research
problem being investigated.

- Quantitative and qualitative methods are given equal priority, and all data are collected
simultaneously.

- The data may be analyzed together or separately. If analyzed together, data from the qualitative
study may have to be converted into quantitative data (e.g., assigning numerical codes in a process
that is called quantitizing ) or the quantitative data may have to be converted into qualitative data
(e.g., providing narratives in a process that is called qualitizing ). If the data are analyzed separately,
the convergence or divergence of the results would then be discussed.
Part 4: Action Research

What is action Research? (Kumar, R. (2011), Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). and Fraenkel,
J, Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012) )

 Action research comprises two components: action and research. Research is a means to action,
either to improve your practice or to take action to deal with a problem or an issue.

 There are two focuses of action research:

- An existing programme or intervention is studied in order to identify possible areas of improvement

in terms of enhanced efficacy and/or efficiency. The findings become the basis of bringing about
changes.

- A professional identifies an unattended problem or unexplained issue in the community or among a

client group and research evidence is gathered to justify the introduction of a new service or
intervention. Research techniques establish the prevalence of the problem or the importance of an
issue so that appropriate action can be taken to deal with it.

 Action research is conducted by one or more individuals or groups for the purpose of solving a
problem or obtaining information in order to inform local practice. Those involved in action
research generally want to solve some kind of day-to-day immediate problem, such as how to
decrease absenteeism or incidents of vandalism among the student body, motivate apathetic
students, figure out ways to use technology to improve the teaching of mathematics, or increase
funding.

 Types of action research:

1. Practical action research

It is intended to address a specific problem within a classroom, school, or other “community.” Its
primary purpose is to improve practice in the short term as well as to inform larger issues. It can be
carried out by individuals, teams, or even larger groups, provided the focus remains clear and specifi
c. To be maximally successful, practical action research should result in an action plan that, ideally,
will be implemented and further evaluated.
 2. Participatory action research.

Kemmis and McTaggart (2005) comment that participatory action research seeks to create
conditions for people to work together collaboratively in the search for valid, authentic and morally
correct and appropriate ways of understanding the world and participating in it.

Participatory action research, while sharing the focus on a specifi c local issue and on using the fi
ndings to implement action, differs in important ways from practical action research. The first
difference is that it has two additional purposes: to empower individuals and groups to improve their
lives and to bring about social change at some level—school, community, or society. Accordingly, it
deliberately involves a sizable group of people representing diverse experiences and viewpoints, all of
whom are focused on the same problem. The intent is to have intensive involvement of all these
stakeholders , who function as equal partners