MEDIA RESEARCH

NOTES UNIT 3
CONTENT INDEX
1. Research design: Meaning and different types, Hypotheses\Research Questions
2. Research Method: Survey, Content Analysis and Case study
3. Sampling and selecting a sample, Types of sampling: Probability and non-Probability
4. Data collection tools: Primary and Secondary, Observation, Interview,
Questionnaire/Schedule, FGD

RESEARCH DESIGN
 Structure within which research is conducted
 Blue Print for data collection / measurement and analysis
 It is the Skeleton for the research project
 Decision regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means, concerning an inquiry or
a research study constitute a research design

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to
conduct a study. The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable for the
subject matter and set up their studies for success.

Research design refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out research by a researcher.

 It is a framework that includes the methods and procedures to collect, analyze, and interpret
data.
 A research design also called a research strategy, is a plan to answer a set of questions.

DEFINITION

A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation, to obtain answers to research
questions or problems. It includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the
hypotheses to the final analysis of data.

A traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed plan for how a research study is to be
Completed.

Hence the Research Design is:

 A Framework for the research plan of action.

 A master Plan that specifies the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the
needed information.
 A strategy for hot the data will be collected.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

 Neutrality
 Reliability
 Validity
 Generalization

NEUTRALITY:
When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you expect to
collect. The results projected in the research should be free from bias and neutral. Understand
opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple individuals and
consider those who agree with the results.

RELIABILITY:
With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results every time. You’ll
only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable. Your plan should indicate
how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results.

VALIDITY:
There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring tools are
those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the research.
The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.

GENERALIZATION:
The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a restricted sample. A
generalized method implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a population with
similar accuracy.

NEED OF RESEARCH DESIGN

According to P.V. Young, a research design should be able to provide answer to the following
queries:
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10.In what style will the report be prepared?

Main parts of a Research Report

 Abstract (cover page)

 Introduction
 Literature review
 Research methodology
 Data analysis
 Results
 Conclusion
 Reference page

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

 Descriptive design
 Experimental design
 Correlational design
 Diagnostic design
 Explanatory design

DESCRIPTIVE
In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case
under their research study. It is a theory-based design method created by gathering, analyzing,
and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how
of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the
problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The experimental design aims to look at a problem scientifically; that’s why it tries to establish
a clear cause and effect of any event occurring in the research realm. Moreover, the research
design tries to understand the impact of the independent variable on the dependable variable. As
a result, this research is used to solve issues that try to analyze independent variables and their
effect on dependable variables or vice-versa.

CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
Correlation research design establishes a relationship between two related variables. Over time,
the researcher observes the variables and then draws conclusions based on them. As a result,
this type of research design requires two types of variables to function to draw favorable results.

 It is a non-experimental research technique.

DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH
In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a specific
topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors that create
troublesome situations.
This design has three parts of the research:
 Inception of the issue
 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue
EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to further explore their
theories. The study explains unexplored aspects of a subject and details the research questions’
what, how, and why.
Some other types of research design

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

In Quantitative Research Design, a researcher examines the various variables while including
numbers as well as statistics in a project to analyze its findings. The use of graphics, figures, pie
charts is the main form of data collection measurement and meta-analysis (it is information
about the data by the data).

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

This type of research is quite contrary to quantitative research design. It is explanatory in nature
and always seeks answers to “What’s” and “How’s”. It mainly focuses on why a specific theory
exists and what would be the respondent’s answer to it. This allows a researcher to draw a
conclusion with proper findings. Case studies are mainly used in Qualitative Research Design in
order to understand various social complexities.

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Focuses on putting ideas and hypotheses to Concentrate on generating ideas and developing a
the test. theory or hypothesis.

Math and statistical analysis were used to Summarizing, classifying, and analyzing data
examine the situation. were used to conduct the analysis.

Numbers, graphs, and tables are the most Mostly represented with words
common forms of expression.

It necessitates the participation of a large Only a few people are required to answer.
number of people.

Closed questions (multiple choice) Open-ended inquiries

Key terms: testing, measurement, Key terms: understanding, context, complexity,
objectivity, replicability subjectivity
RESEARCH QUESTION

A research question is a question that a study or research project aims to answer. This question
often addresses an issue or a problem, which, through analysis and interpretation of data, is
answered in the study's conclusion.

A research question is an inquiry that the research attempts to answer. It is the heart of the
systematic investigation. Research questions are the most important step in any research project.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH QUESTION

Regardless of whether it is a qualitative research or quantitative research project, research

questions provide writers and their audience with a way to navigate the writing and research
process. Writers can avoid "all-about" papers by asking straightforward and specific research
questions that help them focus on their research and support a specific thesis.

The FINER criteria to find out whether you have good research question or not
(Characteristic)

F-Feasible
A good research question is feasible, which means that the question is well within the
researcher’s ability to investigate. Researchers should be realistic about the scale of their
research as well as their ability to collect data and complete the research with their skills and the
resources available to them. It’s also wise to have a contingency plan in place in case problems
arise.

I-Interesting
The ideal research question is interesting not only to the researcher but also to their peers and
community. This interest boosts the researcher’s motivation to see the question answered. For
instance, you can do research on student housing trends if it is right up your alley, as they do
change often.
N-Novel
Your research question should be developed to bring new insights to the field of study you are
investigating. The question may confirm or extend previous findings on the topic you are
researching, for instance.

E-Ethical
This is one of the more important considerations of making a research question. Your research
question and your subsequent study must be something that review boards and the appropriate
authorities will approve.

R-Relevant
Aside from being interesting and novel, the research question should be relevant to the
scientific community and people involved in your area of study. If possible, your research
question should also be relevant to the public’s interest.

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

There are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:

Descriptive
When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists.

Relational
When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables.

Causal
When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e.g., a program or
treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables.

HOW TO CREATE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

HYPOTHESE
Hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition about a factor or phenomenon that is of
interest to the researcher. It is a specific statement of prediction.

It describes in concrete or definite terms what you expect will happen in your study rather than
theoretical. It consists either a suggested explanation for a phenomenon or of a reasoned
proposal suggesting a possible correlation between multiple phenomenon. For example,
Automobile A is performing better than Automobile B.

Research hypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by scientific methods that
relates an independent variable to some dependent variable.

Types of Hypothesis

a) Null Hypothesis:

A null hypothesis is always the hypothesis that is tested. It is a statement of the status quo, one
of no difference or no effects. It should always be specific hypothesis. (Not approximately). For
example, if we are to compare “A” method with “B” method about its superiority and if it is
proved on the assumption that both these methods are equally good, then this assumption is
called null hypothesis.

b) Alternative Hypothesis:

This is the one in which some difference or effect is expected. It is opposite of null hypothesis.

For example, if we assume that method A is better than method B. in research, the null
hypothesis is formulated in such a way that its rejection leads to the acceptance of Alternative
hypothesis.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

 It should be clear and precise.

 It should be capable of being tested.

 It should be limited in scope.

 It should be specific.

 It should be consistent with most known facts i.e. it must be consistent with a substantial body
of established facts.

 It should explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.

SURVEY
same as in unit 2 notes
continue

TYPES OF SURVEY

Surveys are classified according to their focus and scope (census and sample surveys) or
according to the time frame for data collection (longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys).

A survey that covers the entire population of interest is referred to as a census. In research,
however the population is used to refer to the entire group of individuals to whom the findings
of a study apply. The researcher defines the specific population of interest.
Classifying surveys on the basis of their scope and their focus gives four categories:

1) A census of tangibles: One seeks information about a small population, such as a single
school, and when the variables are concrete, there is little challenge in finding the required
answers.

2) A census of intangibles: One seeks information about constructs that aren’t directly
observable but must be inferred from indirect measures. Such constructs may include pupil
achievement or aspirations, teacher morale, parents‟ attitudes toward school, or the
achievement testing program carried out by most schools.

3) A sample survey of tangibles: One seeks information about large groups. Sampling
techniques are used and the information collected from the sample is used to make inferences
about the population as a whole.

4) A sample survey of intangibles: One seeks information about constructs that aren’t directly
observable but must be inferred from responses made by the subjects to questionnaires or
interviews. For example, how someone is going to vote is intangible, but what is marked on a
ballot is tangible.

Surveys Classified According to the Time Dimension

1) Longitudinal Surveys: gather information at different points of time in order to study

changes over extended periods of time.

2) Panel Study: the same subjects are surveyed at different times over an extended period.
Because the same subjects are studied over time, researchers can see the changes in the
individuals‟ behavior and investigate the reasons for the changes.

3) Trend Study: different people from the same population are surveyed at different times.

4) Cohort Study: a specific population whose members changed over the duration of the study
is followed over a length of time.

5) Cross-sectional Surveys: study a cross section (sample) of a population at a single point of

time.
CONTENT ANALYSIS

Earl Babbie defines Content Analysis as "the study of recorded human communications, such as
books, websites, paintings and laws”. Content analysis is considered a scholarly methodology in
the humanities by which texts are studied as to authorship, authenticity, or meaning. Content
Analysis is sometimes also referred to as textual analysis. It majorly deals in analyzing the
published content which may assist the researcher in developing the content for research
purpose. Ole Holsti offers a broad definition of Content Analysis as "any technique for making
inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages".
In 1931, Alfred R. Lindesmith developed a methodology to refute existing hypotheses, which
became known as a content analysis technique.

The method of content analysis enables the researcher to include large amounts of textual
information and systematically identify its properties, such as the frequencies of most used
keywords by locating the more important structures of its communication content. Such
amounts of textual information must be categorized to provide a meaningful reading of content
under scrutiny. Since the 1980s, content analysis has become an increasingly important tool in
the measurement of success in public relations (notably media relations) programmes and the
assessment of media profiles.

In these circumstances, content analysis is an element of media evaluation or media analysis.

Content Analysis is “a research technique for making inferences by systematically and
objectively identifying specified characteristics within a text” – Stone, Dunphy, Smith &
Ogilvy, 1966. Content Analysis is one of the most dominant methodologies employed in public
communication, journalism and mass media research.

Uses of Content Analysis

 Content Analysis is used to make inferences about the antecedents of a communication.

 Content Analysis is used to describe and make inferences about characteristics of a

communication.
 Content Analysis is also used to generate inferences about the effects of a communication
strategy.

 Content Analysis is also used in the context of basic communication paradigm.

 Content Analysis is a valuable tool for applied researchers and communication practitioners.

CASE STUDY METHOD

Sometimes the researcher has limited time and money. In such circumstances, the researcher
uses secondary data collection techniques like case studies. Secondary data is easily available
and saves a lot of money and time.

It is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation
of a social unit,(a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or entire community).It is a
method of study in depth rather than breadth.

Case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration.
The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the behavior–
patterns of the given unit as an integrated society.

It is an exhaustive study of a person or group. Burgess has used the words “the social
microscope” for the case study method. Pauline V. Young describes it as “a comprehensive
study of a social unit be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a
community.”

Advantages of Case Study Method

 Enables to understand fully the behavior pattern of the concerned units.

 Useful in obtaining a real and enlightened record of personal experiences which would reveal
man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive him to action along with the forces
that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behavior.
 Trace out history.
 Intensive study
 Helpful in constructing questionnaire, document, study reports etc.
 Also called “mode of organizing data”
 Emphasis of historical analysis.
 Enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn increases his analyzing ability and
skill.
 It makes possible the study of social change.

Disadvantages of Case Study Method

 Case situations are seldom and information collected is often not comparable.
 „Read Bain‟ does not consider the case data as significant data since they do not provide
knowledge of the „impersonal, universal, non – ethical, nonpractical, repetitive aspects of
phenomenon.‟ Subjectivity of the researcher does enter in the collection of information.
 Danger of false generalizations (no rules are followed in collecting data).
 Time consuming and expensive.
 Assumptions may not be very realistic at times; therefore, usefulness of data is always subject
to doubt.
 Can be used in a limited sphere. Sampling is also not possible under a case study.
 Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the Case Study Method. He often
thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and he can answer about it.

SAMPLING AND SELECTING A SAMPLE

It is an act, process or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for the
purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population. Population is the
aggregate of all the elements that share some common set of characteristics and that comprise
the universe for the purpose of research problem. Census: a census is a complete enumeration of
the elements of a problem.
Sample: A sample is a sub group of the element of the population selected for the participation
in the study. Sample characteristics, called statistics are then used to make inferences about the
population parameter.
Sample Design: a sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given
population. It refers to the technique or the procedure that the researcher would adopt in
selecting items for the sample.
Criterion of selecting a sampling procedure
Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis:
 The cost of collecting the data
 The cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.
The two causes of incorrect inferences are systematic bias and sampling error.
Systematic bias results from errors in sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible for these errors can be
detected and corrected. Usually, a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following
reasons:
 Inappropriate sampling frame: if the representation of the universe is biased, it will result in a
systematic bias.
 Defective measuring device: if the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in
systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the
interviewer is biased.
 Non-respondents: if we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the
sample, then there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation like this
there is likelihood of establishing a contact or receiving a response from an individual which is
often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.
 Indeterminacy principle: sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under
observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situation. For example – workers of a
factory.
 Natural bias in the reporting of data: natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is
often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. Downward bias in the income tax
collected by government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income
data collected by some social organization. For tax purposes, people do not reveal their true
income but if people are asked about their social status or their affluence, they quote more.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
 Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available.
 Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
 Sample design should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general,
for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence
Types of Sampling Broadly there are two types of sampling:
(A)Non- Probability Sampling and
(B)Probability Sampling

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this method, all the
eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole sample space. This
method is more time consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The
benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the
representative of the population.

Probability Sampling Types

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Let us discuss the
different types of probability sampling methods along with illustrative examples here in detail.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and likely
chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the chance,
this method is known as “Method of chance Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the
item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representative Sampling”.

Example:
Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we can
assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random number
generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population by
selecting the random selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed sample
interval. It is calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired population size.

Example:
Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. To
select a sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by
randomly selecting a starting number, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th
person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some students.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING
In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to complete
the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few characteristics in the
population. After separating the population into a smaller group, the statisticians randomly
select the sample.

For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls,
bag B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each
bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.
CLUSTERED SAMPLING
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the population
set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an equal chance of
being a part of the sample. This method uses simple random sampling for the cluster of
population.

Example:
An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the number of
students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we can’t travel to
every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or
four branches as clusters.

All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the figure given
below. The figure contains various examples of how samples will be taken from the population
using different techniques.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample
based on subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the
members of the population have a chance to participate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, snowball
sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in detail.

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population directly
because they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and
the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire population.

Example:

In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few customers to
complete a survey on the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data.
Still, as we only surveyed customers taking the same product. At the same time, the sample is
not representative of all the customers in that area.

QUOTA SAMPLING
In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to
represent the population based on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample
subsets that bring the useful collection of data that generalizes the entire population.

PURPOSIVE OR JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As
their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining
highly accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental
sampling or authoritative sampling.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the
samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is asked
to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the same targeted
population.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING VS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

The below table shows a few differences between probability sampling methods and non-
probability sampling methods.

Probability Sampling Methods Non-probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling Non-probability sampling method is a

technique in which samples taken from a technique in which the researcher chooses
larger population are chosen based on samples based on subjective judgment,
probability theory. preferably random selection.

These are also known as Random sampling These are also called non-random
methods. sampling methods.

These are used for research which is These are used for research which is
conclusive. exploratory.

These are easy ways to collect the data

These involve a long time to get the data.
quickly.

There is an underlying hypothesis in

The hypothesis is derived later by
probability sampling before the study
conducting the research study in the case
starts. Also, the objective of this method is
of non-probability sampling.
to validate the defined hypothesis.
DATA COLLECTION TOOL
Data collection is one of the most important steps in research process. Every researcher has to
collect data to analyze it and test the hypothesis. Data is the raw material collected, which once
processed becomes information. The primary difference between data and information is that
data is raw, unprocessed whereas information is processed data.
Data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design is chalked
out. Data is of two type viz. Primary Data and Secondary Data.
Primary Data
Primary data is the first time collected data by the researcher. It is the first hand data collected
for research purpose. It involves field work by the researcher. It is a tedious task and very time
consuming. Though it is difficult to collect primary data, it is the most authentic data collected
by the researcher. Primary data is fresh and updated. It is believed to be most accurate. The
researcher may use several tools and techniques to collect primary data like interview,
observation, questionnaire and survey. Collecting primary data is also expensive. It may also
involve huge cost in training representatives of the researcher.

Characteristics of Primary Data

1. It is freshly collected data by the researcher which means it is the first- hand data collected
2. It is expensive
3. It requires the researcher to personally collect Data through various tools of Data Collection.
4. It is time consuming
5. It is the most accurate
6. It is not easily available

Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary Data

S. No. Parameter Primary Data

1. Cost Expensive

2. Availability Not Easily Available

3. Accuracy Most Accurate

 4. Time Time Consuming

5. Usability Easily usable

6. Tools Questionnaire, Survey, Schedule, Interview,

Observation

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

Commonly used tool for collecting Primary Data, is the Questionnaire tool. Questionnaire is a
set of questions prepared by the researcher to be filled in by the respondents with the objective
of finding solutions to the problem listed by the researcher.
Another common tool of collecting Primary Data is the Interview method. It is a method which
involves presentation of oral- verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral–verbal responses. This
method can be used through personal interviews and also through telephone and e–mails.

SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data on the other hand is the data which is already available. The researcher uses
books, internet, case studies, journals, periodicals which are already available to do the research
work. In comparison to primary data, collecting secondary data is less tedious and less time
consuming. Secondary data is also not very credible. It may also be old. Depending upon
secondary data is not always a good idea.

Characteristics of Secondary Data

1. Readily available
2. Less Tedious
3. Less Time Consuming
4. Less Expensive
5. Risky

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

S. No. Parameter Primary Data

1. Cost Less Expensive

2. Availability Easily Available

3. Accuracy May or May not be Accurate

4. Time Less Time Consuming

5. Usability Little Complicated

6. Tools Case Studies, Content Analysis, Reviews