TECNIA INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES

CONTEMPORARY
INDIA:AN OVERVIEW
CLASS NOTES: UNIT 1 (BAJMC103)

MR BAL KRISHNA MISHRA

6/9/2020

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 1. Socio-cultural Configuration of
Contemporary India: Unity, Diversity,
Multi-Culturalism

This Unit describes Indian History and Culture, and contains sub-sections i.e. Socio-
cultural Configuration of Contemporary India: Unity, Diversity, Multi-Culturalism; Art
and Culture; Scientific Temper; and Indian Freedom Movement (1857-1947)
Landmarks. India has a varied climate and further India is regionally, religiously and
caste-wise diversified. Indian society further consist number of castes and sub-casts.
Each section of region, religion and castes has their own culture and lifestyle. Thus,
Socio-culturally, India has its own unique combination and known as unity in
diversity.

This lesson discusses on socio-cultural configuration of contemporary India. Social

life is a basic need of human being. Without society human can’t survive for a
moment. And culture is directly relates to the society. Culture depicts the identical
lifestyle of the society and each society has its own culture and identity.

1.1 Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to:
● Understand the concept and meaning of culture; and identify its elements,
distinctive features and uniqueness.
● The factors which contributed to the making of our culture
● Explain the unity in diversity and elements of multi-cultural system in India.

1.2 Introduction
In this lesson we will discuss on socio-cultural fundamentals. The English
word ‘Culture’ is derived from the Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning the
cultivating. Therefore, ‘Culture’ represents a set of shared attitudes, values,
goals and practices. Culture and creativity manifest themselves in almost all
economic, social and other activities. A country as diverse as India is
symbolized by the plurality of its culture.

This is practically the same as ‘Sanskriti’ of the Sanskrit language. The term
‘Sanskriti’ has been derived from the root ‘Kri (to do) of Sanskrit language.
Three words came from this root word ‘Kri (to do) are Prakriti’ (basic matter or
condition), ‘Sanskriti’ (refined matter or condition) and ‘Vikriti’ (modified or
 decayed matter or condition). When ‘prakriti’ or a raw material is refined it
becomes ‘Sanskriti’ and when broken or damaged it becomes ‘vikriti’.

1.3 Concept and Meaning of Culture

1.2.1 Concept of Culture

Culture is a way of life. The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language
you speak in, the lifestyle practice in your routine life, the beliefs you follow
and the God you worship all are aspects of culture. In very simple terms, we
can say that culture is the picture of the way in which we think and do things.
It is also the things that we have inherited as members of society.

All the achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be

called culture. Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy,
religion and science can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also
includes the customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living and one’s outlook on
various issues of life.

Culture thus refers to a human-made environment which includes all the

material and nonmaterial products of group life that are transmitted from one
generation to the next. There is a general agreement among social scientists
that culture consists of explicit and implicit patterns of behaviour acquired by
human beings. These may be transmitted through symbols, constituting the
distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment as
artifacts.

The essential core of culture thus lies in those finer ideas which are
transmitted within a group-both historically derived as well as selected with
their attached value. More recently, culture denotes historically transmitted
patterns of meanings embodied in symbols, by means of which people
communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about and express
their attitudes toward life. Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes
of living and thinking. It may be seen in our literature, in religious practices, in
recreation and enjoyment.

Culture has two distinctive components, namely, material and non-material.

Material culture consists of objects that are related to the material aspect of
our life such as our dress, food, and household goods. Non-material culture
refers to ideas, ideals, thoughts and belief.

Culture varies from community to community, place to place, and country to

country. Its development is based on the historical process operating in a
local, regional or national context. For example, we differ in our ways of
greeting
others, our clothing, food habits, social and religious customs and practices
from the West. In other words, the people of any country are characterized by
their distinctive cultural traditions.

1.2.2 Culture and Civilization

The word ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ are often used synonymously. However,
they have clearly defined meanings differentiating them. ‘Civilization’ means
having better ways of living and sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their
needs. It also includes organizing societies into politically well-defined groups
working collectively for improved conditions of life in matters of food, dress,
communication, and so on. Thus some groups consider themselves as
civilized and look down upon others.

When we think of culture, we have to understand that it is different from

civilization. As we have seen, culture is the ‘higher levels of inner refinement’
of a human being. Humans are not merely physical beings. They live and act
at three levels: physical, mental and spiritual. While better ways of living
socially and politically and better utilization of nature around us may be
termed as civilization. This is not enough to be cultured. Only when the
deeper levels of a person’s intellect and consciousness are brought into
expression can we call him/her ‘cultured’.

1.2.3 Culture and Heritage

Cultural development is a historical process. Our ancestors learnt many things

from their predecessors. With the passage of time they also added to it from
their own experience and gave up those which they did not consider useful.
We in turn have learnt many things from our ancestors. As time goes we
continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent and
sometimes we give up some which we don’t consider useful any more. This is
how culture is transmitted and carried forward from generation to next
generation.

The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called our cultural heritage.
This heritage exists at various levels. Humanity as a whole has inherited a
culture which may be called human heritage. A nation also inherits a culture
which may be termed as national cultural heritage. Cultural heritage includes
all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to human beings by their
ancestors from generation to generation.

They are cherished, protected and maintained by them with unbroken

continuity and they feel proud of it. A few examples would be helpful in
clarifying the concept of heritage. The Taj Mahal of Agra, Red Fort of Agra and
Delhi’s, Qutub Minar of Delhi, Mysore Palace of Mysore, Jain Temple of
Dilwara (Rajasthan), Nizamuddin Aulia’s Dargah of Delhi, Golden Temple of
Amritsar, Gurudwara
Shishganj of Delhi, Sanchi Stupa. Christian Church in Goa, India Gate in Delhi
etc., are all important places of our heritage and are to be protected by all
means.

Besides the architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the

intellectual achievements, philosophy, treasures of knowledge, scientific
inventions and discoveries are also the part of heritage. In Indian context the
contributions of Baudhayan, Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya in the field of
Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; Kanad and Varahmihir in the field of
Physics; Nagarjuna in the field of Chemistry, Susruta and Charak in the field
of Medicines and Patanjali in the field of Yoga are profound treasures of
Indian Cultural heritage.

Culture is liable to change, but heritage does not. Individuals, belonging to a

culture or a particular group, may acquire or borrow certain cultural traits of
other communities/cultures, but belongingness to Indian cultural heritage will
remain unchanged. Indian cultural heritage bind societies together e.g. Indian
literature and scriptures namely Vedas, Upanishads Gita and Yoga System
etc. have contributed a lot by way of providing right knowledge, right action,
behavior and practices as complementary to the development of civilization.

1.2.4 Characteristics of Culture

Some general characteristics, which are common to different cultures

throughout the world, are:

1. Culture is learned and acquired: There are certain behaviors which are
acquired through heredity. Individuals inherit certain qualities from their
parents but socio-cultural patterns are not inherited. These are learnt from
family members, from the group and the society in which they live. It is
thus apparent that the culture of human beings is influenced by the
physical and social environment through which they operate.

2. Culture is shared by a group of people: A thought or action may be

called culture if it is shared and believed or practiced by a group of people.

3. Culture is cumulative: Different knowledge embodied in culture can be

passed from one generation to another generation. More and more
knowledge is added in the particular culture as the time passes by. Each
may work out solution to problems in life that passes from one generation
to another. This cycle remains as the particular culture goes with time.

4. Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost

as new cultural traits are added. There are possibilities of cultural changes
within the particular culture as time passes.
5. Culture is dynamic: No culture remains on the permanent state. Culture
is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as
time passes modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristics
of culture that stems from the culture’s cumulative quality.

6. Culture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns: It involves

how an activity should be conducted, how an individual should act
appropriately.

7. Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent

parts. Although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with one
another forming culture as whole.

8. Culture is ideational: Often it lays down an ideal pattern of behavior that

are expected to be followed by individuals so as to gain social acceptance
from the people with the same culture.

1.2.5 What Constitutes Culture?

There are three broad levels, with a certain overlapping, at which the meaning
of the term culture can be understood:

i) The general process of intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic (visual)

development.
ii) A particular way of life, whether of a people, period, or a group.
iii) The works of intellectual and artistic endeavour expressed through
music, literature, art, film etc.

The word ‘culture’ is often used interchangeably with civilization, and both
have a history in what they have meant at different points of time and in
different societies. Both referred originally to a process, and in some sense
this meaning is still inherent in the ways these two words are used.

The term civilization is now generally used to describe an achieved state or

condition of organized social life as well as the process whereby it has been
arrived at. Through comparative studies we today also come across terms
such as western civilization, modern civilization, industrial civilization, etc.
which are descriptive.

Culture as a concept is more complicated than civilization. The word is used in

various ways denoting values of general human development which today are
not easily questionable, for example, freedom, democracy, equality,
secularism: etc. The particularities of different communities which constitute
their rights and expression also are included within the meaning of culture.
Heritage is a similarly broad concept of culture. Whatever we inherit from our
past can be called our heritage. In terms of contents it includes our craft
traditions, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art forms, traditions
of production and technology, different systems of therapies, our environment
with all its bio-diversity, our systems of philosophy etc.

Cultural heritage has a strong secular - popular content and is pluralistic in

character. But it also contains many elements which inhibit development; a
nation like caste system, superstitions, discriminations against women and
deprived peoples. We, therefore, have to be conscious about what aspects of
our culture we should conserve and emulate and what elements we must
discard.

1.2.6 Determinants of Culture

Culture is determined and shaped historically and socially. It, in its turn,
influences the social, economic and political development of people or nation.
Various factors which has influenced culture over thousands of years are:

1. Culture, Society and History

The culture of a particular society or age cannot be separated from its

historical context. The continuity, change or transformation in cultural
traditions is influenced by the social, economic and political developments at
any given time, and vice-versa.

To give a few examples, the growth and changes in agricultural production are
inseparably linked with the emergence, development and changes within the
Vedic civilization in India.

The Vedic civilization which gave birth to the Varna system and in
continuation, the caste system has exerted great influence on Indian culture.
The caste system an inescapable aspect of our society through history, has
assumed changes, modifications, and flexibility to suit the changing needs of
the various ruling groups in India.

The flowering of art and literature as well as the Buddhist monuments of the
Maurya and Gupta period would not have been possible without the prosperity
and increase Indian Culture and in commerce during that period. The same
can be said for the Chola temples or the Vijaynagar structures.

The Bhakti movement had as its basis the growth of trade and commerce, and
the consequent growth of towns in the 14th and 15th centuries. The preaching
of Bhakti saints in the peoples' languages and their compilation made possible
the growth of Braj, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Marathi, Panjabi, Kashmiri
and other regional literatures.
The enormous expenditure involved in the magnificent architecture of the
Mughals was possible only because of the significantly increased state share
in the surplus production during Mughal rule. Development of new musical
forms and their popularization in the courts, translation of important texts of
the world, as well as growth of new techniques in production were immensely
helped by the Court patronage generated by this increased surplus.

The concepts of equality as part of anti-caste and peasant economic

struggles, the movement for women's education and emancipation, a scientific
temper, secularism, a democratic culture and the culture of democracy took
shape in the context of modernity that came with the development of
capitalism in India, as a result of the impact of British conquest.

2. Political Structures and their impact on Culture

Political structures have also had an impact on culture throughout its history.
For example, the periods of political decentralization, as after the
disintegration of the Gupta Empire and, later, the Mughal Empire, resulted in
the growth of regional cultures. Similarly, the periods of centralization, such as
the Mughal and the modern periods, helped in the development of a
composite, syncretic tradition that has the semblance of a national culture.

The religion professed by a ruler can inspire the development of art forms
bearing those religious expressions. It does not, however, mean that other
forms were suppressed. Similarly a more liberal, democratic and secular rule
may witness the growth of non-religious art forms as seen in modern and
contemporary India. An oppressive rule can also stimulate cultural
expressions of protest as seen during the colonial rule.

3. Outside Influences and Culture

No society has existed in isolation, or remained uninfluenced by the other

societies it came in contact with. This is as true of our country as any other,
and we have had contact with the outside world since the earliest times. We
have taken much from it, and given much to it. Our entire scientific and
technological heritage is a shared heritage.

Repeated new influences as a result of trade contacts, conquests followed by

settlements and adoption or intermixing with the native population by different
tribes and races through India's history have enriched Indian culture.

The Aryans brought with them forms of agricultural products, new gods and
beliefs. With Turkish conquest came gunpowder, cavalry (horse regiments)
and new techniques. Stitched cloth, domes, arches, paper, glass-making
techniques, and water-wheel are some of the elements of civilization which
came from outside. Persian influences after the Mughal conquest brought into
being new melodies, musical forms, musical instruments, dastan and ghazals
as forms of literary expression, miniature painting etc. The composite,
syncretic culture, and flowering of different regional cultures came from the
interaction that shared life gave to India.

4. Cultural Awareness and History

Even cultural awareness has a connection with history. For example, a

scientific temper is possible only in the context of modernity, as are secularism
and an attitude of pluralism. We cannot search for an awareness and
consciousness of these values in our ancient past. The past may contain
many things of great importance. The past and present both must be critically
examined and then the positive things be assimilated and the negative things
can be discarded.

1.2.7 Indian Culture: Historical Influence

Indian culture is unique in several ways. It has an uninterrupted history of

evolution dating back in the past to nearly five thousand years. During all this
period it has enriched itself by assimilating diverse kinds of influences and
impacts. This has given Indian culture a certain vibrancy and has saved it
from a monotonous uniformity. In fact the pulsating mosaic of this culture is
most vividly displayed across the length and width of India. Spirit of unity
underlies this enormous diversity. Thus, when we talk of Indian culture we
actually speak of a rich plurality of cultural traditions and not a monolithic
entity. This plurality in some cases is the consequence of a common origin (as
in the case of the majority of Indian languages); in other cases of shared
heritage (such as our music, architecture, many popular religious cults etc.);
and in still others due to a common struggle against the colonial rule. Equally
important is the fact that we also perceive ourselves as part of a common
culture cutting across national boundaries. This common cultural heritage is
the legacy of a complex interaction of various cultures through centuries of
shared existence.

Historical Influence

Historically, Indian culture can be seen from stone ages or Neolithic period.
We can see that many cave paintings depict such art forms that demonstrate
the culture of those periods. But from the Harappan period Indian culture was
characteristically developed.

1. The Harappan Period

As per evidences found from many archeological excavations done during late
19th century to 20th century, Harappan period is the ancient most civilization
of India and contemporary to Mesopotamian (ancient Iraq) and Egyptian
civilization.
It was a five thousand year old civilization and represented an advanced level
of cultural development during an epoch when iron was still not discovered
and bronze was used for making tools, implements and arms. Mahenjodaro,
Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal etc. were some of the major cities of the period.
There was a certain unity of conception among the various cities. A Harappan
city was divided into two parts - the one settled on a raised platform for the
rulers and the lower city meant for the common people. The houses were
built, in some cases, of baked bricks and in other cases of mud bricks. These
bricks were of standard size which showed that the brick making was
organized on a large scale.

Similar to the town-planning, the potteries made by the Harappans were found
in large areas and showed a uniform pattern. In fact, their tradition of pottery
making can, with many changes, be found even today.

Art works in terracotta and sculptures in bronze and stone are other important
remains from the Harappan period. The Harappan potteries and seals contain
Figures of bull, ram, pipal tree, fish scales etc. The Harappans also seemed to
worship pipal tree and the phallus (an image of Shiva) which remain important
religious symbols in today's India.

2. The Vedic Civilization

The Vedic Civilization, associated with the coming of the Aryans to India, is
said to have begun about 1500 B.C and lasted about 600 B.C. It was an
agricultural civilization. During this period many features associate with what
has come to be called as Hinduism originated and took shape.

It has left its imprint on our culture today in the form of settled agriculture,
cattle breeding, centrality of cow (and bullocks) in our economy and religious
beliefs, the horse, the chariot, the use of iron, domestication of animals such
as elephants, kinship and patriarchy as basis of social organizations, the
development of kingdom and large empires.

We still have with us the Vedic hymns composed almost 3500 years ago
whish even today are used in many Hindu rituals, the sacredness of fire as
intermediary between god and man, the worship of gods associated with
natural phenomena, the doctrine of transmigration, animal sacrifice etc. In
terms of literature and philosophical thought it has given us the Vedas, the
Upanishads, Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit languages and literature etc.

3. The Buddhist Epoch

During the 6th century B C. Mahavir Swamy and Gautam Buddha were the
two great religious leaders of this period. By the strength of their ideas they
can be said to be among the greatest in the world. The Jain and Buddha
religions
emerged as a result of teachings of Mahavir and Gautam Buddha
respectively. Buddhism spread far and wide and, at one point of time, almost
the whole of Asia, which represented the apex of civilization, became
influenced by Buddhism. In lndia also, Buddhism held influence for almost one
thousand years and greatly influenced Indian culture and society. Many
concepts and values of this period are among our most cherished cultural
heritage today.

Jainism and Buddhism represented a revolt against the concept of social

inequality and the hierarchal Varnashram system preached by the Brahmins.
These regions opened their gates to members of all castes and groups in the
society. Nonviolence, humanism and stress on moral life were the hallmarks
of these new religious orders.

One of the tools of the Brahminical domination was the stress on the language
of the Vedas, that is, Sanskrit. The new religions put more emphasis on the
popular languages like Prakrit, Pali and Ardha Magadhi. Buddhist and Jain
texts were written in these languages and nobody was debarred from reading
or interpreting them.

This period also witnessed the rise of architecture and sculpture to new
heights. The temples at Jhandial (Takshashila), Nagari (Rajasthan), Besnagar
(Madhya Pradesh) and Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh) are some of the
structures found in excavations.

The Buddhist Stupas, in which the mortal remains of important personalities

are to be found, are distributed in Bodh Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut
(Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati and Nagarjunkonda (Andhra Pradesh) and
Takshashila (now in Pakistan).

Cave architecture and cave paintings reached new heights and the Mathura,
Gandhara and Amaravati schools of art produced figures of great beauty
during this period. All these places, monuments and figures are of great
touristic interests even today and every year thousands of pilgrims or tourists
visit these sites.

During this period South India witnessed the rise of Satavahanas, one of the
greatest Indian rulers, in the 1st century B.C. They held sway in most of the
Deccan and on their collapse, other powers like the Cholas, Pandyas,
Keralaputras etc. arose. The celebrated sangam poetry in Tamil was collected
and classified by an academy of scholars.

4. The Gupta Period

Established by Chandra Gupta I in 319-20 A.D., the Gupta power reached its
peak during the reign of Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II. Gupta period
is often described as representing the highest forms of Indian culture. So far
as
the literary and philosophical achievements are concerned, there is truth in
this statement. The sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, though
composed in earlier times, are said to be collected during this period. The
Hindu thinkers developed a cyclic theory of time according to which the Kalpa
was divided into 4 ages (Satyug, Tretayug, Dwaparyug and Kaliyug) and at
the end of which the Universe is recreated.

This period also witnessed the composition of six great systems of Hindu
philosophy - Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa and Vedanta. The
Puranas (the Hindu religious texts and historical sources) were also
composed in this period.

Great developments took place in the fields of Indian astronomy, astrology

and mathematics. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were some of the great
astronomers of the period. Kalidas, the greatest of the Indian literary figures,
composed his poetic and dramatic works during this period. His epic poems,
Kumarsambhava and Raghuvamsha, the lyrical poem Meghaduta and the
great drama Shakuntala are considered among the greatest of the world
literature. Later on Shudrak (Mrichchha Katika) and Banabhatta (Harsha
Charita) contributed to this great literary tradition. The fables of Panchatantra
were collected and scripted. Vatsayayan's Kamasutra, the world - famous text
on sexual enjoyment was also written during this period. In terms of
architectural or sculptural developments also the Gupta period was significant.

5. The Early Medieval Period

In early 16th century, we find the following developments in the cultural spheres:

The period saw the decline of Buddhism and rise of Hinduism led by the great
South Indian religious figure, Shankaracharya (788-820 A.D.). He was born in
Kerala and developed the philosophy of Advaita (Monism) which, many
scholars say, assimilated many features of Buddhism. He travelled extensively
in the country and established four seats or mathas in Badrinath in the north,
Shringeri in the South, Puri in the East and Dwarka in the West to uphold his
teachings.

While Shankaracharya upheld the orthodoxy in Hinduism, there were many

streams emerging which preached a child-like devotion to God. This came to
be called as Bhakti movement and had its origins in South India. The
Nayanars and Alvars, considered to be the first Bhakti saints, were already
spreading their movement in the 8th and 9th centuries at the same time when
Shankaracharya was evolving his monistic philosophy.

In Maharashtra, the Bhakti movement started with Jnanesvara and Namdev

(1270 - 1350). Eknath (1533-99), Tukaram (1598 - 1650) and Ramdas (1608 -
81) carried forward this tradition and built a strong popular base for the Bhakti
tradition.

From the Chaitanya tradition developed the baul movement with following
both among the Hindus and muslims of the region. In North India, particularly
in the Hindi land, the Bhakti tradition was inspired by Ramanand. He was
probably born and brought up in South India and was among the followers of
Ramanuja's sect. Later he travelled all over India spreading his teachings.
Kabir and Raidas were famous among his disciples.

Kabir Das, considered as one of the greatest reformers and poets in the Hindi
area. Bhakti movement not only transcended its caste boundaries but also the
religious boundaries. His verses collected in Adi Granth, Kabir
Granthawali-and Bijak are among the priceless jewels of our anti-orthodox
and syncretic traditions.

Introducing Indian Culture Raidas, Nanak and Dadu were part of the tradition
which Kabir represented. After them, however, it was channelised into Saguna
and non-critical streams of Mirabai, Nand Das and Surdas and culminated
with Tulsidas (1532 - 1623) whose Ramcharitmanas became the most popular
text of the Hindus in north India.

The Bhakti movement also gave rise to important regional literary

development. Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali, Oriya, Maithili, Bhojpuri,
Awadhi and Braj were some of the Indian languages in which Bhakti literature
was composed and written. These regional languages made the Bhakti
movement even more popular and provided a vehicle to the saints to reach
the masses.

During this period India came in touch with Arabs. From the 7th-8th century,
Arabs had established their principality in Sindh. The urban population knew
both Arabic and Sanskrit. The Quran was translated into Sindhi, while the
Sanskrit works on astronomy, medicine, ethics and administration were
translated into Arabic.

After the victory of Mohammed Gauri on Prithviraj in 1192 and later conquests
by his generals that the Turkish rule was established in India. With
headquarter in Delhi, the Turkish chieftains spread in various parts of India
under the suzerainty of Qutbuddin Aibak and later lltutmish (1210-36). Slowly
by the 14th century the Turks reached most parts of India and forced the local
rulers to accept their suzerainty. They coopted many local Hindu chieftains in
the ruling hierarchy and recruited Hindus in their armies. One of the great
religious movements within Islam, Sufism, came to India during this period.
Even before the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate some Sufi saints had
come to India. There were three chief orders (silsila) of Sufis in India: a) Chisti
which was more
popular in and around Delhi and western V.P.; b) Suhrawardi, which was
popular in Sindh and c) Firdausi, with followers in Bihar.

The Sufis opposed the Islamic orthodoxy and kept themselves aloof from the
seats of power. They respected the original Islamic doctrine of equality of all
followers. The Chisti Sufis and the Nathpanthi Yogis were intermixing during
the sultanate period. In fact both Sufism and the Bhakti movement represent
the popular face of religions in India. The shrines of the Sufi saints like
Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi are revered by people
of all religions.

Between 10th and 13th centuries the tradition of Hindu architecture and
sculpture as witnessed in temple-budding reached its climax. The Kandariya
Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho (around 1002 A.D.), the Rajarajeshwara
Temple at Tanjore (around 1012 A.D.), the Udayeshvara Temple at Udaipur,
Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneshwara (around 1060 A.D.), Jagannath Temple at
Puri (1135 A.D.) and the Sun Temple at Konark (1250 A.D.) represent the best
that any civilization can have.

This period also witnessed the synthesis in art forms that the sultanate period
brought about. The style of architecture that evolved is termed as Indo-Islamic
and is shown in Alai Darwaza (built in 1325) at the Qutub complex and the
Jamat Khana Masjid (built in 1325) at Nizamuddin.

Similarly in music, the popular qawwali was introduced for the first time;
khayal was developed; ragas like zilaph, sazgiri, sarparda etc. were created;
and a new musical instrument sitar was developed by combining the old
Indian Veena and the Iranian tambura. Other important monuments from this
period are Qutub Minar, Quwwatul Mosque, lltutrnish Tomb, Balban's Tomb,
Khirki Masjid etc. in Delhi.

This period was, therefore, extremely important for the development of

composite cultural forms, achievement in architecture and sculpture, evolution
of popular religious movements and growth of regional literatures.

6. Late Medieval Period

During this period, the culture and heritage of India came in contact with the
new arrivals. The Mughals brought with them different political, socio-cultural
and economic traditions and institutions. The contact and interaction between
the two cultures contributed significantly to Indian Heritage and enriched the
culture.

As political masters the Mughals created a centralized and uniform political

structure. It was for the first time that such large parts of India followed a
uniform political and administrative system in far off regions.
In the cultural sphere, new styles of architecture, painting, literature &
languages, and music & dance forms were developed which are still with us
today. The same is true of our food habits and dress, social customs and
religious beliefs, marriage rituals, amusements and ways of thinking.

Literatures and languages developed in various parts of the country during

this period reflect a diverse yet unified consciousness. Translation was an
important field for literary activity. Translations of important texts, religious and
secular, created a composite consciousness among the elite. Ramayana,
Mahabharata and the Vedas and Upanishads were translated into Persian
and into regional languages. Tutirlama was translated from Persian to Turki,
Babarnama from Turki to Persian, Rajtarangini into Persian. Works on music
and dance, as well as various scientific treaties of ancient India and of the
Arabs were also translated.

This period also saw the growth of regional languages with the Bhakti
movement. There emerged a rich literature in Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Punjabi,
Rajasthani, Gujarati, Braj, Awadhi, and a new language Urdu was born. New
genres were created in literary activity such as Kafi and Kissas (romance and
development of the novel form) in regional languages. Poetry developed on
religious as well as secular themes. There was inter-religious and inter-
regional integration in terms of subject matter and language of literature.
Keshav, Bihari, Rahim, etc. were some of the significant Hindi poets. Rahim
and Tansen composed their lyrics around Krishna Leela.

In the South, Malayalam, Telugu, Tamil and Kannada, the older languages
produced a new kind of literature linked to Bhakti, and in the new context of
medieval social changes. There also emerged a kind of Dakhni literature
centered in Gujarat, Bijapur, Golconda, Aurangabad and Bidar. Some of the
important names in various languages, cutting across communities and based
in their regions are well known. In Hindi we have Malik Mohammad Jaisi's,
Padmavat, Tulsidas' Ramcharitmanas, Surdas, Mirabai, Raskhan, Rahim. In
Bengali Chandidasa, Jayadeva, Manikdatta. In Assamese Hema Saraswati,
Sankardeva, Mahadeva. In Gujarati Narsimha Mehta, Bhalana, Akho,
Premananda. In Marathi Jnandeva, Eknatha, Tukaram, Ramadasa. In Sindhi
Shah Abdul Latif. In Urdu Gesu Daraz, Mohammad Quli Indian Culture and
Shah, Wali Dakhani. In 18th century, the tradition was followed by Mir, Sauda
and Nazir Akberabadi. In Puniabi Sheikh Farid, Bulhe Shah, Waris Shah. In
Persian Abul Fazal, Faizi, Utbi and Naziri. Prince Dara Shikoh was a great
patron of classical Indian literature and got it translated from Sanskrit to
Persian. Moreover, contrary to popular belief the medieval period was rich in
the production of Sanskrit literature in the North, South and East.

Raghunath Nayak, Nilanatha Dikshit and Chakra kavi contributed significantly

to Sanskrit literature. We have detailed historical accounts and also some
important travel writings, memoirs, and political treatises: all of which are
important historical sources, as well as of literary value. Also works on
astronomy, music and statecraft were written.

Another significant features of medieval period was rise of important religious

thoughts. The most important of these was Sikhism. The foundation of
Sikhism rests on the teaching and philosophy of Guru Nakak. Nanak
attempted to establish a true religion which could lead to salvation. This
philosophy comprised of three basic elements: a leading charismatic
personality (the Guru): ideology (Shabad) and organisation (Sangat). After
Guru Nanak his preachings were carried on by his disciples. A total of 10
Gurus are recognised by Sikhism. The last one was Guru Gobind Singh.
Sikhism enriched Indian society's plurality and today occupies a prominent
place in Indian culture.

During the Mughal period, the elements of the various temple styles together
with the true domes and the arches which came with the Turks reached all
parts of India with new improvements. The best examples are Gujarat,
Bengal, Kashmir, Kerala and other parts of South India. In the process new
forms with distinct regional flavour emerged. Under the Mughals, the
architecture reached new heights Humayun's Tomb (Delhi), Fatehpur Sikri,
Akbar's tomb at Sikandara (Agra), Red Fort, Jama Masjid (Delhi) and Taj
Mahal (Agra) are finest examples of style, technique and craftsmanship.

Persian and Central Asian influence can be seen in the form of glazed tiles
used for decoration in most medieval architecture, the motifs on them being
the designs, the flora and fauna of this country. The entire medieval Rajput
architecture - its forts and palaces - is a blend of the pre-medieval and Persian
elements. Architecture of public use such as sarais, step-wells, bridges,
canals and roads showed the adoption of new building techniques and had
great implication in terms of possibilities of shared cultures.

Building technology advanced rapidly during this period. Painting was a well-
developed art in ancient India as is evident from the frescoes in the Ajanta-
Ellora caves, but this was soon lost. With the Moghuls we are introduced to 3
dimensional painting. Portrait painting became widespread. The paintings
done at the Mughal courts represented folk tales, stories from Ramayana,
Krishnalila, and the festivals, animals and landscapes of this country
combined with the new 3 dimensional, miniature form of painting.

The Rajasthani and Pahari paintings combined the themes and earlier
traditions of their areas with Moghul forms and styles. Illustrations in
manuscripts and calligraphy were significant areas of art production.
Illustrated manuscripts Babarnama, Akbarnama and Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri contain
beautiful illustrations of the flora and fauna, tools and techniques of the period,
as well as lives of the people.
In music and dance too, the medieval period has given us much that
constitutes our cultural heritage today. Hindustani music as we know it today
is a fusion of Persian and folk forms of music. New ragas were composed,
new forms like the Khayal, thumari and dadra and ghazal evolved; the singers
belonged to all communities; the theme-words were diverse, and audiences
were not always limited to the elite. New instruments like the sitar and sarod
were invented and became part of the classical and folk repertoire. Kathak as
a dance form is also a mix of folk form adapted to court culture. In fact it is in
dance and music that the older popular traditions interact very closely to
create our well known genres of classical dance and music today.

The contribution of the Bhakti and Sufi preachers has a big role in this as they
come from among the people. Carnatic music was similarly transformed,
although it remained distinct from, Hindustani classical music.

7. Modern Period

The impact of the British rule released new, contradictory social and cultural
forces, impressed with the general nationalist awakening and the all-India
communicational network and market. At an intellectual level it resulted in
movements for social and religious reform among all the communities, as well
as a revivalism based on a search for and pride in the country's cultural roots.
Movements for women's education and equality was a significant aspect of
national awakening and an Indian cultural identity i.e. a national identity based
on cultural diversity.

The construction of cultural heritage from the 18th century onwards took the
form of introducing modern values into our ancient and medieval heritage.
These modern values are now part of our cultural roots. Rather than artistic
endeavor, the efforts of the Indian people were geared towards re-thinking
their own society, redefining their heritage, their collective personality, and the
place of every section of Indian society in the collective life. In the 19th
century this took the form of social reform expressed through campaigns
aimed at creating a critical consciousness.

The important organizations and movements through which these were

expressed was the Bengal Renaissance, Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj,
Derozians, the Aligarh movement and several organizations all over the
country.

A major transformation took place with the growth of mass politics. Social
equality, women's equality, religious tolerance, scientific temper, rational
thought and democracy became issues of general concern. These values
found expression in anti-caste movements, popular struggles against colonial
and feudal interests, against untouchability, for protection of traditional rights
over
resources. The important movements were the self-respect movement in
Tamilnadu and Andhra, the non-Brahman movements in Karnataka and
Maharashtra which challenged the traditional social order, and projected a
new collective identity for lower castes.

In formal cultural expression this took the form of growth of nationalist

literatures in various languages, the standardization of the regional languages,
the emergence of new genres and a new context expressing anti-imperialist
sentiments. Bankimchandra, Bharatendu, Govardhanram Tripathi are
pioneering novelists, whose work exposed the detrimental effects of British
rule in India and inspired patriotism.

A really secular democratic literature comes with Premchand, whose works

are not only anti-imperialist in sentiment, but also project great sympathy for
the rights of the peasantry and the working people in general against feudal,
vested interest within the country. Issues like poverty and exploitation formed
the content of 20th century nationalist literature inspired as it was by the
Russian Revolution and the left movements of the world. Other significant
writers include Tagore, Saratchandra and Subramaniyan Bharti etc. The
formation of mass fronts of students, youth, peasants and workers realized
consciousness. The Indian Peoples Theatre Association and Progressive
Writers' Association became the cultural expression for sentiment of freedom
and popular rights.

The modern values and cultural awakening found an expression in various art
forms during this period. Besides, literature the trend is visible in cinema,
theatre, painting, sculpture etc. The values and cultural expressions of
modern period which developed during freedom struggle provided a solid
base to Indian culture in contemporary India.

8. Contemporary Period

Democracy, secularism and a struggle for a scientific temper became

expressions of attempts to foster a modern culture. It was reflected within the
Bengal Renaissance, the women's movement, the social and religious reform
movements, literature, the forging of a struggle between regional and national
identity, the arena of education and family, and in the class struggles.

The central role of the popular struggles in our national movement gave a
qualitatively new basis to nationhood; culturally it implied not simply a territory,
one country and one civilization, but the right of the people to collectively
decide their own destiny. It becomes necessary to define the nation in terms
of its millions, who began their journey from being subjects (of various rulers
through history) to citizenship. This culture of citizenship is a valuable heritage
of the modern period in our collective cultural personality.
Independent India adopted all the modern values and accepted equality of all
citizens through the establishment of a democratic sovereign republic of India.
Secularism, equality before law, freedom of thought and expression,
protection to minorities and deprived sections of society were the salient
features of independent India.

A voluntary acceptance of diversity and the right of all people to free and
equal expression in all spheres of life becomes a cardinal, consciously
expressed principle of the nationhood.

The search for civilizational roots assumed the expression of regional cultural/
religious forms. National plans for development noted regional inequalities
and planned on the basis of diversity of resources.

New definition of pluralism made religious tolerance a value in itself, the

separation of religion and politics a necessity, and caste and degradation of
women is a curse. They have given to us the culture of democracy and
democratic rights as values, mass debates and definition of identities. They
made possible an all India platform for the articulation of diversity as
collective- life and unity, and are as much a part of our heritage as the cultural
components of our tradition created in the ancient and medieval periods.

The early independent India found significant expression of social

consciousness through literature, theatre, film and such art forms which
gained enormous popularity, acceptance and empathy from the Indian people.
Unfortunately this momentum has been lost, without the corresponding
political momentum that inspires progressive cultural expression. The
contemporary India faces serious threat from caste, communal and ethnic
conflicts, discrimination against women, unequal economic development.
These affect the cultural tradition and heritage and need to be tackled within a
democratic secular framework of Indian society and polity.

1.2.8 Features of Indian Cultural Heritage

1. Assimilation

The quality for assimilation is a very strong element in Indian culture. This is
evident not only in the adoption of new cultural forms and symbols through
history, but also in food habits, particularly in North India, and dresses,
building styles, marriage customs, gods and goddesses, rituals etc. Tea and
coffee have become staple drinks of north and south India respectively.
Potato, chilies, pineapple, tobacco and many other agricultural products have
come from foreign lands and become part of Indian food. Bread, Chinese
chow-mien and tandoori food are quite popular. Salvar-kameez, pants and
shirts are now Indian dresses. New melodies which came from Persia with the
Muslims became part
of the repertoire of Hindustani classical music. There are countless other
examples, apart from the assimilation of techniques and inventions.

Older customs, rituals and cults were also not altogether destroyed. In fact,
many of them were taken over, adapted or transformed during later periods of
the country's history. Assimilation has cut across regions, religious
communities, and rules and regulations of specific castes. Indian Muslims and
Hindus have so many customs and rituals and cultural practices of everyday
life in common today that it is difficult to tell who took what from whom. The
growth of capitalism and the process of 'sanskritization' have led to adoption
and transformation of a lot of cultural practices of the tribal people and the
lower castes as well as of the upper castes. Popular religion has created its
own groundwork for assimilation of many popular cults into the religious
practices of organised religion and vice versa.

2. Syncretic Tradition

Composite culture has been the hallmark of the Indian tradition. Starting with
the Aryan migrations to India, the fusion of cultures has constantly taken place
giving rise to new cultural forms both at the elite and the popular levels.
Examples of this are to be found in the Indo-Greek styles in architecture,
sculpture and painting in ancient India, Indo-Islamic architectural styles in
medieval India as witnessed in many tombs and mosques erected during this
period. In music, this tradition found expression in Qawwali, Tabla, Sitar,
Khayal etc.

At the level of language, Urdu developed as a medium of literature and state-

craft. This language today represents one of the finest expressions of our
syncretic tradition. At the popular level, we have Bhakti and sufi movements.
Both these movements had followers from all castes and communities,
although the Bhakti movement had more following among the Hindus and
sufism among the Muslims. Some of the Bhakti saints like Kabir and Dadu
had almost equal following among the adherents of both the religions. Even
today we witness people of all communities going to the urs, melas,
celebrated in the memories of the sufi saints. The sufi dargahs at Ajmer and
Delhi and other places are visited by members of all castes and communities.
In fact, the compositeness of our culture has reached such heights that the
most undesirable feature of our cultural heritage - caste system - is almost
equally prevalent among the followers of all religions in India.

3. Religious Tolerance

Religious Tolerance is an important characteristic of our culture. Since ancient

times, this spirit has prevailed and the religious issues were sorted out more
by debate than by violence.
The earlier theory that the Aryans destroyed the civilization and culture of the
Harappans is now discarded. In fact, the Aryans and the Harappans existed
together as their specific remains have been found from the same period. The
Aryans took many features from the Harappan mode of worship. The images
of phallus (shiva), bull (cow) and pipal are used by the Hindu religion. In fact
the Vedic religion, particularly in the later period seemed to have incorporated
many features of the Harappan mode of worship.

Jainism and Buddhism were, in any case, non-violent religions. Throughout its
thousand year old history in the sub-continent Buddhism existed side by side
with Hinduism. The Hindus were present in the courts of the Buddhist rulers
and the opposite was also true.

During the early years of Indian contacts with the Islam, we do find some
instances of either forced conversion or destruction of the temples and the
idols. Mahmud of Gazani was perhaps the most notorious figure in this regard.
But he was more interested in plunder than religion, although he used the
religious symbol of jihad to carry out his plunder. Mahmud of Ghazani,
however, was never interested in ruling India.

Some of the Turkish invaders also indulged in some activities of religious

intolerance but these instances are not many. Once they got settled in India
and established their rule, they became extremely tolerant and sensitive to
Hindu and other Indian views and sensibilities.

The Mughals, particularly Akbar, consciously set new parameters of religious

co-existence and cooperation. His Din-i-Ilahi professes the worship of the
supreme God without religious sectarianism.

In the modern period, if we put aside some instances of the Portuguese rule in
some pockets, neither the French nor the British engaged in forced
conversions. In fact, after the revolt of 1857, the British greatly restricted even
the private missionary activities in India.

In the entire course of the Indian history, most of the religious conversions
occurred by consent rather than by force. The discrimination against the lower
castes and strict religious practices of Hinduism forced many to convert to
other religions. There were, of course, some exceptions to this rule. But they
were extremely rare.

4. The Cultural Traditions of the Elite and the Masses

The Indian culture has been enriched by the contributions of both the elite and
the masses. The poetry of Kalidas and the Grammer of Panini, alongwith the
verses of Kabir and ecstatic dances of the artiste are parts of our cultural
heritage. But there has been a tendency either to ignore the contribution of the
popular culture to our national cultural heritage or to subordinate it to the elite
tradition. In fact, the popular cultural tradition has contributed more towards
the unity and upliftment of the country. The Bhakti and sufi movements
illustrate this point amply. It is important to remember that Kathakali,
Madhubani paintings, Pandavani, Nautanki, Kaliyeri - pattu, dandi dance, the
folk music of Rajasthan, Khurja pottery, paper-machie, bandhini work, patta
chitra, traditional toys, are as much creations of beauty and pleasure as
cultural expressions of the elite. In fact, they also contribute much to our
national wealth. We should not forget either that the impressive architectural
heritage of our country is the gift of the work and sweat of our labouring
people, or that the cultural expressions of the elite stand on the edifice of the
extraction of surplus labour of the poor. Well known Indian festivals have their
origins in the agricultural cycles of the peasantry.

1.2.9 Characteristics of Indian Culture

Indian culture is multifaceted and includes intellectual and social aspects of

any human being. It also takes account of the aesthetic instinct as well as the
spiritual impulses of human being. It has also, in effect, an appeal to the
subconscious as a force making for the formation of character.

India is a vast country with a lot of diversity in her physical and social
environment. We see people around us speaking different languages, having
different religions and practicing different rituals. We can also see these
diversities in their food habits and dress patterns. Besides, look at the myriad
forms of dance and music in our country.

But within all these diversities there is an underlying unity which acts as a
cementing force. The intermingling of people has been steadily taking place in
India over centuries. A number of people of different racial stock, ethnic
backgrounds and religious beliefs have settled down here. Let us not forget
that the composite and dynamic character of Indian culture is a result of the
rich contributions of all these diverse cultural groups over a long period of
time. The distinctive features of Indian culture and its uniqueness are the
precious possession of all Indians.

Continuity and Change Many great cultures had developed in different

countries and regions of the world. Many of them have perished or have been
replaced by other cultures. However Indian culture has had an enduring
character. Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads of
continuity can be traced throughout the course of Indian history right up to the
present day.

Archaeologists have found evidences to show that cultures existed here even
before the matured phase of the Harappan civilization. This tells us that we
have a very long history behind us. And yet what is amazing is that even
today the pattern of a house in an Indian village is not very different from that
of a Harappan house.

Some aspects of Harappan culture are still practiced, such as, the
worshipping of Mother Goddess and Pashupati. Similarly, Vedic, Buddhist,
Jain and many other traditions continue to be followed even today. At the
same time one should not lose sight of the changes as are evident in the
multistoried buildings in the metropolitan cities like Mumbai and Delhi, quite
unlike the Harappan houses that had only one storey. The point to be noted
here is that continuity and change in our civilization has gone hand in hand.

In fact, a remarkable feature of Indian culture is that along with continuity it

has kept on changing, whereas the basic spirit of our culture continued. It has
kept on discarding what was becoming irrelevant in the modern age. In our
long history, there have been periods of ups and downs. As a result,
movements have grown and reforms brought about. The reform movements in
the Vedic religion brought about by Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century BC
and the religious and social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries in modern India are a few examples when revolutionary changes
were brought about in Indian thought and practices.

Yet the thread of basic philosophy of Indian culture continued and still
persists. Thus a process of continuity and change has always been a feature
of Indian culture. This shows the dynamic character of our culture.

1. Unity in Diversity

Our cultural profile today bears testimony to the diversity and secular basis of
culture forged by popular cultural expression through history. It underlines the
central role of the common people in determining the nature of cultural unity
as well. A great deal of information about this has come out in the form of a
survey by Anthropological survey of India, envisaged in approximately 20-30
volumes of data.

According to the conclusions of this massive survey we are one of the most
diverse peoples in the world. There are 4635 communities in this country
differentiated among themselves in terms of biological traits, dress,
languages, and forms of worship, occupation, food habits and kinship (similar)
patterns. It is all these communities who, in their essential ways of life,
express our national popular life.

Nobody is a 'foreigner' in this country and there is no pure Aryan. Most Indian
communities have a mixed ancestry, and it is today impossible to separate our
roots. Genetic and morphological traits within religious communities vary more
than those between communities. Homogeneity is along lines of region, not
caste or religion, and it has been scientifically disproved that upper and lower
castes have a different racial ancestry. For example Tamil Brahmins have little
similarity of racial traits with Brahmins in the North. The Brahmins and people
of the lowest caste in the same region almost everywhere show remarkable
homogeneity in this respect.

There are few communities which do not consider themselves as migrants or

'outsiders'. Every community recalls its migration in its folklore, history, and
collective memory, and all have, with time, accepted the regional ethics of the
area they settled in, contributing to its local traditions. Even invaders become
migrants eventually, and it needs to be emphasized that Indian culture has
benefited from migrations. Many settlers professing Islam and Christianity
actually settled here earlier than many of those professing Hinduism. Many
segments of the Muslim population, in fact, do not show any characteristic that
can be called migratory, having descended mainly from the local population.

In terms of their identification 85% of the communities are rooted in their

resources. Experts say that "rootedness in the eco-cultural zone is an
outstanding characteristic of our communities, no matter what religious labels
are attached to them". In fact, it is not possible to separate the lives and
livelihood, the occupations, food habits and dress patterns, the songs and the
hut settlements of the different communities from their landscape, climate and
occupations deriving from their resources and environment.

India is the home of many forms of dance and music which we normally use
for festivals and social functions like marriages or the birth of a child. All over
India celebrates after a rich harvest of crops in the varied name of Bhangra
dance in Punjab, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Bihu dance in Assam, Holi and
Deepawali in most part of India.

A large number of languages and dialects are spoken in our country which
has led to the growth of a great variety of literature. People belonging to eight
great religions of the world co-exist here in a harmonious manner.

India is home to many religions of the world like Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism
and off-course Hinduism. Numerous styles of architecture, sculpture and
painting have developed here. Different styles of music and dance, both folk
and classical, exist in the country. So also are numerous festivals and
customs. This wide variety has led to the making of Indian culture both
composite one and rich and beautiful at the same time.

The vastness of the country and variation in its physical and climatic features
is an obvious reason for the variety of culture. The second important reason
for the variety in our culture is the intermingling among various ethnic groups.
Since time immemorial, people from far and near have been coming and
settling here.

Along with contacts with outside cultures, cultural exchange between different
regions of India has also continued. The Chikan-work of Lucknow, Phulkari
embroidery of Punjab, Kantha embroidery of Bengal, Patola of Orissa shows a
distinct regional flavor.

Although the centers in the South, North, East and West of India have their
characteristic cultures, yet these did not develop in absolute isolation. In-spite
of physical barriers, Indians used to travel from one part of the country to
another for trade or pilgrimage. Some regions were joined together through
conquests or by alliance. As a result, people transmitted cultural habits and
thoughts from one part of the country to the other.

Military campaigns too took people from one place to another. This helped in
exchanging ideas. Such contacts have led to the development of
commonness in Indian culture, which has been maintained throughout our
history. Another unifying factor is climate. Despite geographical diversity and
climatic variations India experiences an inherent unity. The system of
monsoons is the most important component of the Indian climatic pattern and
this gives unity to the whole country. The coming of the monsoon has ensured
that agriculture remains the main occupation of the people of India.

On the other hand the differences in physical features have affected the food
habits, dress, houses and economic activities of people leading to the
formation of social, economic and political institutions. These factors in turn
influenced the thinking and philosophy of the people. The variety in physical
features and climate of India has thus led to the development of a variety of
cultures in different regions. The typical features of different regions have
given some identity to these cultures.

The composite nature of our culture is reflected in our music, dance forms,
drama and art forms like paintings, sculpture and architecture as well. Our
literature in different languages also reflects this composite nature.

Unity in diversity is reflected in our political forms as well. During the early
Vedic period, society was pastoral, that is, people used to move from place to
place in search of pastures. But, as these people started practicing
agriculture, they settled down. This settled life led to community development
and growth of towns which needed rules and regulations.

Thus, emerged a political organization, this included the sabhas and samitis
which were political bodies through which people participated in governance.
In course of time, the concept of rashtra emerged and possession of territory
became the new measure of power. In some places, republics came up. The
period from sixth to fourth century BC is known as the age of maha-janapadas
in India. In these kingdoms kings had more powers. Subsequently large
empires were also established with emperors exercising absolute powers.

You may be aware of ancient rulers such as Ashoka, Samudragupta and

Harshavardhana, Rajputs etc. The Mughals also established a vast empire in
India. The British established themselves in India and in l858 India became a
part of the British Empire. However in 1947, we were able to gain our freedom
after a long struggle. Today we are a sovereign, socialist, secular and
democratic republic and a uniform system of government prevails over the
length and breadth of the country.

2. Multi-Culturalism

The secular character of Indian culture is a result of the intermingling of

people belonging to diverse cultural groups over a long period of time. There
have been instances of occasional conflicts here and there, but by and large,
people have lived together peacefully for centuries. The popular cultural
traditions of India are the best examples of such cultural synthesis in which a
large number of people belonging to different religious groups come together.
You are aware that there is a great variety of thoughts and habits in our
country.

Amongst a variety of cultural system, dominance of one particular thought is

not possible. You will recall that Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs,
Buddhists, Jains, Parsees and Jews live in India. The constitution declares
India to be a secular country. Everyone is free to profess, practice and
propagate any religion of his/her own choice. The state has no religion of its
own and all religions are treated equally by the state. No one is to be
discriminated on the basis of religion. The people have, to a large extent,
developed a broad outlook and they believe in the concept of live and let
others live. Right to freedom of religion ensures secular nature of our polity. In
the Western context development of secularism meant complete separation of
the church and the state. In India secularism is taken as a more positive
concept to cope with the complex social structure in the country with a view to
protecting the interests of all, particularly the minorities.

The concept of coexistence has not been confined to the geographical and
political boundaries of the country only. India has a universal outlook and it
has been promoting the message of peace and harmony to the entire world.
India has been raising a strong voice against racialism and colonialism. It has
protested against the formation of power blocks in the world. In fact India
became one of the founder members of the non-aligned movement. India is
committed to the development of other underdeveloped nations. In this
manner,
 India has been discharging her responsibilities as a part of the world fraternity
and has been contributing to the progress of the world.

1.4 Summing Up

Culture is a way of life. The food, the clothes, the language, the lifestyle, the
beliefs all are aspects of culture. Indian culture is diverse, because India is
diversified with varied climate, region, religion, castes and sub-casts. Every
segment of these has its own identical culture. Cultural development is a
historical process. Culture is transmitted and carried forward from generation
to next generation. At passing times culture is liable to change, but our
heritage does not. Indian cultural heritage binds us together in form of
monuments, language, literature, arts, music, lifestyle, beliefs etc.

General characteristics of Indian culture are – culture is learned and acquired;

culture is shared by a group of people; culture is cumulative; at passing times
culture changes; culture is dynamic; culture is diverse, culture gives us
behavior patterns, etc. Multi-culturism and Unity and Diversity is a unique
identity of India.

1.5 Assignments
Class Assignment: Write short note on Unity and Diversity.
Home Assignment: Write in brief on determinants of culture.

1.6 Self-check questions

1. A is the unique identity of Indian culture.
2. Ministry of implements a number of schemes and programs
aimed at providing financial support to individuals, groups and cultural
organizations.

1.7 Terminal Questions

Describe the concept and characteristics of Culture.

1.8 Possible answers of self-check questions

1. Unity in diversity
2. Ministry of Culture
 2. Art and Culture: Contemporary
Issues and Debates
In the last session we had studied the Lesson 1: Socio-Cultural Configuration of
Contemporary India. In which had discussed about basics of Indian Socio-cultural
configuration and uniqueness of unity in diversity and multi-cultural setup in India.

In the present session we will study the Lesson 2 Art and Culture: Contemporary
Issues and Debates. India has a great heritage including its art, culture, music,
dance, architecture, literature, diverse languages, colourful fairs and festivals.

2.1 Objectives

After going through this lesson you should be able to:

● Describe rich art and cultural heritage of India
● Describe India's language, fairs and festivals

2.2 Introduction

Culture plays an important role in the development of any nation. It represents a set
of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices. Culture and creativity manifest
themselves in almost all economic, social and other activities. A country as diverse
as India is symbolized by the plurality of its culture.

India has one of the world’s largest collections of architect, cosines, songs, music,
dance, theatre, traditions, performing arts, rites and rituals, paintings, literature,
languages, and writings etc. that are known as the ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage’
(ICH) of humanity. In order to preserve these elements, the Ministry of Culture
implements a number of schemes and programs aimed at providing financial support
to individuals, groups and cultural organizations engaged in performing, visual and
literary arts etc.

2.3 Art

2.2.1 Concept of Art

Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or

performing artworks, expressing the author's imaginative or technical skill,
intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power. In their most
general form these activities include the production of art work, the criticism of
art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art.
Art referred to any skill or mastery. Art is a creative way of expression,
communication of emotions or other qualities. Art can be seen as "a special
faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science”. The
general description of Art can be a mentioning an idea of imaginative or
technical skill stemming from human being and creation. The nature of art,
and related concepts such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a
branch of philosophy known as aesthetics.

2.2.2 Indian Art

The vast scope of the art of India intertwines with the cultural history, religions
and philosophies which place art production and patronage in social and
cultural contexts.

The Indian period is unique in its art, literature and architecture. Indian art is
constantly challenged as it rises to the peak of achieving the ideals of one
philosophy in a visual form, then begins anew for another.

Each religion and philosophical system provided its own nuances, vast
metaphors and similes, rich associations, wild imaginations, humanization of
gods and celestial beings, characterization of people, the single purpose and
ideal of life to be interpreted in art.

2.2.3 Glimpses of Indian art

2.2.3.1 Rock-Cut Art

The Sun Temple in Konark: The earliest Indian religion to inspire major artistic
monuments was Buddhism. Though there may have been earlier structures in
wood that have been transformed into stone structures. Obscurity shrouds the
period between the decline of the Harappans and the definite historic period
starting with the Mauryas. Soon after the Buddhists initiated the rock-cut
caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami, Aihole, Ellora,
Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mamallapuram. Indian rock art has
continuously evolved, since the first rock cut caves, to suit different purposes,
social and religious contexts, and regional differences.

2.2.3.2 Fresco

Chola Fresco of dancing girls: Brihadisvara Temple c. 1100 C.E. The Chola
fresco paintings were discovered in 1931 within the circumambulatory
passage of the Brihadisvara Temple in India and are the first Chola specimens
discovered. A smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones,
which took two to three days to set. Within that short span, such large
paintings were painted with natural organic pigments.
During the Nayak period the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola
frescoes lying underneath have an ardent spirit of Shaivism is expressed in
them. They probably synchronized with the completion of the temple by
Rajaraja Cholan the Great. Kerala has well preserved fresco or mural or wall
painting in temple walls in Pundarikapuram, Ettumanoor, and Aymanam

2.2.3.3 Tribal Folk and Art

Tribal folk and art in India takes on different manifestations through varied
medium such as pottery, painting, metalwork, paper-art, weaving and
designing of objects such as jewellery and toys.

Often pauranic gods and legends are transformed into contemporary forms
and familiar images. Fairs, festivals, and local deities play a vital role in these
arts. It is an art where life and creativity are inseparable. The tribal arts have a
unique sensitivity, as the tribal people possess an intense awareness very
different from the settled and urbanized people. Their minds are supple and
intense with myth, legends, snippets from epic, multitudinous gods born out of
dream and fantasy. Their art is an expression of their life and holds their
passion and mystery.

Folk art also includes the visual expressions of the wandering nomads. This is
the art of people who are exposed to changing landscapes as they travel over
the valleys and highlands of India. They carry with them the experiences and
memories of different spaces and their art consists of the transient and
dynamic pattern of life. The rural, tribal and arts of the nomads constitute the
matrix of folk expression.

The folk spirit has a tremendous role to play in the development of art and in
the overall consciousness of indigenous cultures. The Taj Mahal, the Ajanta
and Ellora caves have become world famous. The Taj Mahal is one of the
New Seven Wonders of the World.

2.2.3.4 Visual Art

British colonial rule had a great impact on Indian art. Rabindranath Tagore,
referred as the father of Modern Indian art had introduced Asian styles and
Avant garde western styles into Indian Art. Many other artists like Jamini Roy
and later S.H. Raza had taken inspiration from folk traditions.

In 1947 India became independent of British rule. A group of six artists - K. H.

Ara, S. K. Bakre, H. A. Gade, M.F. Husain, S.H. Raza and Francis Newton
Souza - founded the Progressive Artist's Group, to establish new ways of
expressing India in the post-colonial era. Almost all India's major artists in the
1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well-known
today are Bal Chabda, V. S. Gaitonde, Krishen Khanna, Ram Kumar, Tyeb
 Mehta, and Akbar Padamsee. Present-day Indian art is varied as it had been
never before. Among the best-known artists of the newer generation include
Sanjay Bhattacharya, Bose Krishnamachari, Geeta Vadhera, Devajyoti Ray,
Vagaram Choudhary, Satish Gupta, and Bikash Bhattacharya

2.2.3.5 Contemporary Art

From the 1990s onwards, Indian artists began to increase the forms they used
in their work. Painting and sculpture remained important, though in the work of
leading artists such as Subodh Gupta, jitish kallat, Jagannath Panda, Atul
Dodiya, Bharti Kher and Thukral and Tagra, they often found radical new
directions.

Crucially, however, in a complex time when the number of currents affecting

Indian society seemed to multiply, many artists sought out new, more
polyvocal and immersive forms of expression. Ranbir Kaleka, Raqs Media
Collective has produced compelling contemporary works using such
assortments of media forms including video and internet. This development
coincided with the emergence of new galleries interested in promoting a wider
range of art forms, such as Nature Morte in Delhi and its partner gallery Bose
Pacia Gallery (New York and Kolkata) and Sakshi Gallery. Contemporary
Indian art takes influence from all over the world. With many Indian artists
immigrating to the west, art for some artists has been a form of expression
merging their past with their current in western culture

. 2.2.3.6 Music

The music of India includes multiples varieties of religious, folk, popular, pop,
and classical music. The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the
melodies of the Samaveda that are still sung in certain Vedic Śrauta
sacrifices. India's classical music tradition is heavily influenced by Hindu texts.
It includes two distinct styles: Carnatic and Hindustani music. It is noted for
the use of several Ragas, melodic modes. It has a history spanning millennia
and it was developed over several eras. It remains instrumental to the
religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment.

The music of India includes multiple varieties of popular and classical music.
Indian music can be divided as - Classical music including Carnatic and
Hindustani music. These music are based on 7 Surs and number of ragas;
popular music as religious music (bhajans and kirtan etc.) and folk music
developed over several eras, remains fundamental to the lives of Indians.
India is made up of several dozen ethnic groups, speaking their own
languages and dialects. Alongside distinctly sub continental forms there are
major influences from Persian, Arabic and music. Indian genres like Indian
film music.
2.2.3.7 Dance

Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known
folk dances are the Bhangra of the Punjab, the Bihu of Assam, the Chhau of
Jharkhand and Orissa, the Ghoomar of Rajasthan, the Dandiya and Garba of
Gujarat, the Yakshagana of Karnataka and Lavani of Maharashtra and
Dekhini of Goa. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and
mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's
National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: Bharatanatyam of
Tamil Nadu, Kathak of Uttar Pradesh, Kathakali and Mohiniattam of Kerala,
Kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, Manipuri of Manipur, Odissi of the state Orissa
and the Sattriya of Assam.

2.2.3.8 Drama and Theater

Indian drama and theater has a long history alongside its music and dance.
Kalidasa's plays like Shakuntala and Meghadoota are some of the older plays,
following those of Bhasa. One of the oldest surviving theatre traditions of the
world is the 2000 year old Kutiyattam of Kerala. It strictly follows the Natya
Shastra the dramas of Bhasa are very popular in this art form. Natyacharya
(late) Padma Shri Mani Madhava Chakyar- the unrivaled maestro of this art
form and Abhinaya, revived the age old drama tradition from extinction. He
was known for mastery of Rasa Abhinaya. He started to perform the
Kalidasa’s plays like Abhijnanasakuntala, Vikramorvaśīya and
Mālavikāgnimitra ; Bhasa's Swapnavāsavadatta and Pancharatra; Harsha's
Nagananda in Kutiyattam form. Ram Leela, Shri Krishna Ras Leela, Nautanki
etc. are some popular plays in northern India.

The tradition of folk theater is popular in most linguistic regions of India. In

addition, there is a rich tradition of Puppet Theater in rural India, going back to
at least the second century BCE. (It is mentioned in Patanjali's commentary
on Panini). Group Theater is also thriving in the cities, initiated by the likes of
Gubbi Veeranna, Utpal Dutt, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, K. V. Subbanna and still
maintained by groups like Nandikar, Ninasam and Prithvi Theatre.

2.2.3.9 Paintings

The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of pre-historic times, the
petroglyphs as found in places like Bhimbetka, some of which go back to the
Stone Age. Ancient texts suggesting that it was common for households to
paint their doorways or indoor rooms where guests resided.

Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple
paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is
Hindu,
Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured flour design (Rangoli) is still a
common sight outside the doorstep of many Indian homes.

Mughal painting represented a fusion of the Persian miniature with older

Indian traditions, and from the 17th century its style was diffused across
Indian princely courts of all religions, each developing a local style. Company
paintings were made for British clients under the British raj, which from the
19th century also introduced art schools along Western lines, leading to
modern Indian painting, which is increasingly returning to its Indian roots.

Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting,

Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Raja Ravi
Varma, Nandalal Bose, Vadhera, Jamini and B.Venkatappa are some modern
painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamachari,
Devajyoti Ray and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where
global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These
recent artists have acquired international recognition. Devajyoti Ray's
paintings have been acquired by the National Fine Arts Museum in Cuba and
so have been the works of some of the new generation artists.Jehangir Art
Gallery, Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display several good Indian paintings.

2.2.3.10 Architecture

Some of its earliest production is found in the Indus Valley Civilization (2600-
1900 BCE) which is characterized by well-planned cities and houses. Religion
and kingship do not seem to have played an important role in the planning
and layout of these towns.

During the period of the Maurya and Gupta empires and their successors,
several Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta and
Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Later on, South India
produced several Hindu temples like Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the
Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at
Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur, the Sun Temple, Konark,
Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Buddha stupa (China
Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu. Angkor Wat,
Borobudur and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian
influence on South East Asian architecture, as they are built in styles almost
identical to traditional Indian religious buildings.

With the advent of Islamic influence from the west, Indian architecture was
adapted to allow the traditions of the new religion. Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal,
Gol Gumbaz, Qutub Minar, Red Fort of Delhi are creations of this era, and are
often used as the stereotypical symbols of India.
The colonial rule of the British Empire saw the development of Indo-Saracenic
style, and mixing of several other styles, such as European Gothic. The
Victoria Memorial or the Victoria Terminus are notable examples. Recent
creations such as the Lotus Temple, and the various modern urban
development of India, are notable.

The traditional system of Vastu Shastra serves as India's version of Feng

Shui, influencing town planning, architecture, and ergonomics. It is unclear
which system is older, but they contain certain similarities. Feng Shui is more
commonly used throughout the world. Though Vastu is conceptually similar to
Feng Shui in that it also tries to harmonize the flow of energy, (also called life-
force or Prana in Sanskrit and Chi/ Ki in Chinese/Japanese), through the
house, it differs in the details, such as the exact directions in which various
objects, rooms, materials, etc. are to be placed.

Indian architecture has influenced eastern and southeastern Asia, due to the
spread of Buddhism. A number of Indian architectural features such as the
temple mound or stupa, temple spire or sikhara, temple tower or pagoda and
temple gate or torana, have become famous symbols of Asian culture, used
extensively in East Asia and South East Asia. The central spire is also
sometimes called a vimanam. The southern temple gate, or gopuram is noted
for its intricacy and majesty.

Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of

the country. Apart from these natural and obvious evolutions from the
pre-historic and historic periods, evolution of Indian architecture was generally
affected by many great and important historic developments. External
influences have also shaped the nature of Indian architecture and so has the
influence of different regions of the country. Indian art can be seen as under:

Harappan Period Architecture: The excavations at Harappa and

Mohenjodaro and several other sites of the Indus Valley Civilization revealed
the existence of a very modern urban civilization with expert town planning
and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well-
planned roads and houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved
culture existed in India before the coming of the Aryans.

The most important features of Harrapan architecture are their superior town
planning skills and cities that have been built on a clear geometric pattern or
grid layout. Roads cut each other at right angles and were very well laid out.
As the Indus Valley settlements were located on the banks of the river, they
were often destroyed by major floods. In spite of this calamity, the Indus Valley
people built fresh settlements on the same sites. Thus, layers upon layers of
settlements and buildings were found during the excavations. The decline and
final destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization, sometime around the second
millennium BC remains a mystery to this day.

Cave Architecture: The development of cave architecture is another unique

feature and marks an important phase in the history of Indian architecture.
More than thousand caves have been excavated between second century BC
and tenth century AD. Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of
Maharashtra, and Udaygiri cave of Orissa. These caves hold Buddhist
viharas, chaityas as well as mandapas and pillared temples of Hindu gods
and goddesses. Rock-cut temples Temples were hewn out of huge rocks.

Mauryan Period Architecture: An important phase of Indian architecture

began with the Mauryan period. The material prosperity of the Mauryans and
a new religious consciousness led to achievements in all fields. Megasthenes,
the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan court
described Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural
achievement. It was a large palace carved out of wood.

In the Mauryan period (322-182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture

saw a great advancement. Mauryan art and architecture depicted the
influence of Persians and Greeks. During the reign of Ashoka many monolithic
stone pillars were erected on which teachings of ‘Dhamma’ were inscribed.
The highly polished pillars with animal figures adorning the top (capitals) are
unique and remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been
accepted as the emblem of the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about 50
tonnes and is about 50 ft high.

Mughals Architecture: The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in

architecture. The synthesis of style which began earlier reached its zenith
during this time. The architecture of Mughal style started during Akbar’s rule.
The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent
building red stone was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in
the midst of a garden. Many consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal. Akbar
built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Bulund Darwaza reflects the
grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire. This building was made following
Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is about 41 m
high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of
Salim Chishti, Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other
buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.
During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra
near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built
entirely of marble. Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals.

Architecture in Indian Tamples: Kailash temple at Ellora built by the

Rashtrakutas and the Ratha temples of Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas
are other examples of rock-cut temples. Most probably the stability and
permanence of rocks attracted the patrons of art and builders who decorated
these temples with beautiful sculptures. Free-standing temples building
activities that began during the Gupta rule continued to flourish in later
periods. In southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later
the rulers of the Vijaynagar kingdom were great builders of temples.

The Pallava rulers built the shore temple at Mahabalipuram. Pallavas also
built other structural temples like Kailashnath temple and Vaikuntha Perumal
temples at Kanchipuram. The Cholas built many temples most famous being
the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore. The Cholas developed a typical style of
temple architecture of South India called the Dravida style, complete with
vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram.
Magnificent temples were built at Belur, Halebid where the stone engravings
reached even greater heights. In north and eastern India magnificent temples
were also constructed and the style followed by them is referred to as the
Nagara style.

Most of them consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha

(sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall). Orissa has some of the most
beautiful temples such as the Lingaraja temple built by the Ganga rulers and
the Mukteshwara temple at Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannath temple at Puri.
The sun temple at Konark was built in thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga
ruler Narshimha DevaI. The temple is dedicated to Surya (the sun god) and
has been designed as a twelve-wheeled chariot. The temple complex at
Khajuraho was built by Chandella rulers between the tenth and eleventh
centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Most important
among them is the Kandariya Mahadev temple. Mount Abu in Rajasthan is
known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain tirthankaras. These were built
in pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture. These were built
under the patronage of Solanki rulers.

Somnath temple at Gujarat, Vishwanath temple at Banaras, Govinda temple

at Mathura, Kamakhya temple at Guwahati, Shankaracharya temple at
Kashmir and the Kali temple at Kalighat of Kolkata are some other important
temples which bear testimony to temple building activity of the Indian
subcontinent.

2.2.3.11 Sculpture

The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilization, where
stone and bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Jainism developed further, India produced some extremely
intricate bronzes as well as temple carvings. Some huge shrines, such as the
one at Ellora were not constructed by using blocks but carved out of solid
rock.
Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very
strong blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or possibly even
Greco-Roman influence. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved
almost simultaneously. During the Gupta period (4th to 6th century) sculpture
reached a very high standard in execution and delicacy in modeling. These
styles and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to classical Indian art
that contributed to Buddhist and Hindu sculpture throughout Southeast
Central and East Asia.

Sculpture was the favored medium of artistic expression on the Indian

subcontinent. Indian buildings were profusely adorned with it and indeed are
often inseparable from it. The subject matter of Indian sculpture was almost
invariably abstracted human forms that were used to instruct people in the
truths of the Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain religions. There is an almost complete
suppression of individuality in Indian sculpture; this is because the figures are
conceived of as shapes that are more perfect and final than anything to be
found in the merely transitory appearance of human models. The multiple
heads and arms of sculptured Hindu divinities were thought necessary to
display the manifold attributes of these gods’ power.

The tradition of Indian sculpture extends from the Indus valley civilization of
2500 to 1800 bc, during which time small terra-cotta figurines were produced.
The great circular stone pillars and carved lions of the Mauryan period (3rd
century bce) gave way to mature Indian figurative sculpture in the 2nd and 1st
century bce, in which Hindu and Buddhist themes were already well-
established. A wide range of styles and traditions subsequently flourished in
different parts of India over the succeeding centuries, but by the 9th–10th
centuries ce Indian sculpture had reached a form that has lasted with little
change up to the present day. This sculpture is distinguished not by a sense
of plastic volume and fullness but rather by its linear character; the figure is
conceived from the standpoint of its outline, and the figure itself is graceful,
slender, and has supple limbs. From the 10th century this sculpture was used
mainly as a part of architectural decoration, with vast numbers of relatively
small figures of mediocre quality being produced for this purpose.

2.2.3.12 Literature

Though majority of the literary works which have survived from the ancient
Indian literature are religious text, but it is not right to define ancient Indian
literature only based on religion. Indian literature includes everything that can
be included under “literature” broadly - religious and routine life, epic and
lyrics, dramatic and didactic poetry, narrative and scientific prose along with
oral poetry and song.

The earliest works of Indian literature were orally transmitted. Sanskrit

literature begins with the Rig Veda which is a collection of 1028 sacred hymns
written in
Vedic Sanskrit dating to the period 1500–1200 BCE. Rig Veda deals with
religious songs or poems of praise to God. Rig Veda was followed by Yajur
Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. Yajur Veda deals with directions for
performance of the Yajnas (sacrifice, devotion, worship); Sama Veda deals
with prescribed tunes for recitation of the hymns; and Atharva Veda deals with
prescribing rites and rituals.

Some other ancient literatures depicting Indian philosophy are Purans and
Upnishads. They helped in development of early Vedic religion towards
Hinduism. They were written to illustrate the truth of Vedas to the people.
These explain the philosophical and religious truths through popular legends
and mythological stories. Puranas consist of many stories and anecdotes of
religious, social and cultural history of India.

There are other works after Vedas known as Brahmanas and Aryankas
followed by philosophical doctrines of Upanishads. These form the part of
Shruti literature. Brahmanas contains detailed explanation about Vedic
literature and instructions; Aryankas are a treatise of forest which explain the
rituals while dwelling into the philosophical discussions of the Brahmanas.
Upanishads deals with concepts about origin of universe, death and birth,
material and spiritual world, which are written in poetry and prose, as
expressions of philosophical concepts.

Another type of work that emerged in early period was Vedangas which
contains astronomy, grammar, and phonetics. For example, Ashtadhyayi
written by Panini is work on Sanskrit grammar.

Shastras contain work of philosophy and science they covers areas like art,
mathematics and other sciences like Arthashastra is a work on science of
governance. Smritis deal with the performance of duties, customs and laws
that are prescribed in accordance with Dharma. Manusmriti is the most
important example, known as laws of Manu.

There are two epics from Ancient Indian Literature, Ramayana and
Mahabharata. These have developed to their present form over centuries;
hence, they represent the ethnic memory of the Indian people. They were
transmitted orally over the time by singers and story-tellers and were probably
put to their written from around 2nd century BC.

Ramayana is composed of 24000 verses which are spread across seven

Khandas. It is written in form of poetry which entertains while it instructs. It is
the story of Rama, and tells how to achieve the fourfold objectives of human
life (Purushartha), namely, Dharma (righteous behavior or religion), Artha
(achievement of worldly wealth and prosperity), Kama (fulfillment of desires)
and Moksha (ultimate liberation). The Ramayana presents a picture of an
ideal
society. Originally it was written by Adi Kavi Maharishi Balmiki and later one
which is more popular as Ramcharit Manas was written by Goswami Tulsidas.

The other epic, the Mahabharata, dealing with victory was written by Ved
Vyas. Mahabharata consists of one lakh verses which are spread across ten
Adhyays. Hence, it is the longest poem in the world. It contains narrative,
descriptive and didactic material, relating to conflict between the Pandavas
and the Kauravas with multiple stories interwoven together to form an epic.

The Mahabharata also contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the
essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel. In the Bhagvad Gita,
Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates
on different philosophies with examples and analogies. Bhagvad Gita
enshrines an integrated view of Dharma (performance of righteous duty in
selfless way of Nishkama Karma). Bhagavad-Gita teaches the Indians that
survival can only be in terms of quality of life. It provides a framework of
values to make the Indian culture well-groomed. The Bhagvad Gita spoke of
positiveness in human actions. It also spoke of duty towards God and human
beings alike forgetting. This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy
and a parochial, self- contained guide to life.

In Southern India, the ancient Indian writings were written in four Dravidian
languages which developed their own script and literature, these are, Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam. Among these, Tamil is the oldest with literature
dating back to early centuries of Christian era. This developed during the
three Sangams (assemblies of poets and writers) held during different times.
The Sangam literature covers themes of war, love and politics to a great
extent. Tolkappiyam and Ettutogai, Pattuppattu are important works of these
times. Thiruvalluvar is the most famous author of these times who wrote
Kural, which deals with many aspects of life and religion.

In the medieval period, literature in Kannada and Telugu appeared in the 9th
and 11th centuries respectively. Later, literature in Marathi, Odia, Bengali,
various dialects of Hindi, Persian and Urdu began to appear as well. Early in
the 20th century, Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore became India's first Nobel
laureate.

India has strong traditions of poetry ever since the Rig-Veda, as well as prose
compositions. Poetry is often closely related to musical traditions, and much of
poetry can be attributed to religious movements. Writers and philosophers
were often also skilled poets. In modern times, poetry has served as an
important non-violent tool of nationalism during the Indian freedom movement.
A famous modern example of this tradition can be found in such figures as
Rabindranath Tagore and K. S. Narasimhaswamy in modern times and poets
such as Basava (vachanas); Kabir, Surdas, Mira Bai, Rahim, Raskhan and
Purandaradasa
(padas and devaranamas) in medieval times, as well as the epics of ancient
times. Two examples of poetry from Tagore's Gitanjali serve as the national
anthems of both India and Bangladesh.

In addition, there are five epics in the classical Tamil language - they being
Silappadhikaram, Manimegalai, Seevaga-chintamani, Valayaapathi,
Kundalakesi. Other regional variations of them as well as unrelated epics
include the Tamil Kamba Ramayanam, in Kannada, the Pampa Bharata by
Adikavi Pampa, Torave Ramayana by Kumara Valmiki and Karnata Bharata
KathaManjari by Kumaravyasa, Hindi Ramacharitamanasa, Malayalam
Adhyathmaramayanam.

2.2.3.13 Language

The languages of India belong to several major linguistic families, the two
largest being the Indo-Aryan (spoken by 70% of Indians)—and the Dravidian
languages (spoken by 22% of Indians). Other languages spoken in India
come mainly from the Indo-European languages, Austro-Asiatic and
Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Individual mother tongues in India number
several hundred.

Linguists generally distinguish the terms "language" and "dialects" on the

basis of 'mutual comprehension'. The Indian census uses two specific
classifications in its own unique way: (1) 'language' and (2) 'mother tongue'.
The 'mother tongues' are grouped within each 'language'. Many 'mother
tongues' so defined would be considered a language rather than a dialect by
linguistic standards. This is especially so for many 'mother tongues' with tens
of millions of speakers that is officially grouped under the 'language' Hindi.

Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages. The Vedas, Upanishads,

Puranas and Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit. Sanskrit is the most
ancient language of our country. It is one of the twenty-two languages listed in
the Indian Constitution.

It was Sanskrit that gave impetus to the study of linguistics scientifically during
the eighteenth century. The great grammarian Panini, analysed Sanskrit and
its word formation in his unrivalled descriptive grammar Ashtadhyayi.

Sanskrit is perhaps the only language that transcended the barriers of regions
and boundaries. From the north to the south and the east to the west there is
no part of India that has not contributed to or been affected by this language.
Kalhan’s Rajatarangini gives a detailed account of the kings of Kashmir
whereas with Jonaraja we share the glory of Prithviraj. The writings of
Kalidasa have added beauty to the storehouse of Sanskrit writings.

Article 343 of the Indian Constitution recognizes Hindi in Devanagari script as

the official language of the union; the Constitution also allows for the
 continuation of use of the English language for official purposes. According to
their historical value Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu are declared as
classical languages by Govt. of India.

Article 345 provides constitutional recognition to “regional languages” of the

union to include any language adopted by a State Legislature as the official
language of that state. Individual states, whose borders are mostly drawn on
sociolinguistic lines, are free to decide their own language for internal
administration and education.

The Constitution of India recognizes 22 “national languages”, spoken

throughout the country, namely Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati,
Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi,
Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.
English is the co-official language of the Indian Union.

2.2.3.14 Handicrafts and Folk Arts

Handicrafts can be defined as objects made by the skill of the hand. It can
range from the simple clay-lamps to jewelry items. Handicrafts consist of
objects created by skilled people for religious rituals, like wedding and
celebrations and for personal use.

Folk crafts done by the rural population especially women are a good
example. There are craftsmen who are specialized in creating textiles or
jewelry which meet the criteria set up by a particular group of people. They
have their own distinctive designs and styles.

Religious crafts are developed around religious centers and themes. These
craft items are connected with religious institutions and relevant ceremonies.
Various religious places in India are specialized in particular craft items.

"Folk art" is mostly utilitarian or decorative art created by peasants, artisans

and trades people who live in rural areas of civilized but not highly
industrialized societies; it also encompasses nomadic groups like gypsies. A
few such places can still be found in areas of Central and Eastern Europe,
and doubtless in areas on other continents, although their number is
shrinking. The term "folk art" may also encompass art produced by ethnic
minorities in more developed societies, who have succeeded in preserving
their beliefs and customs by living in separate communities apart from the
mainstream.

2.3 Culture and Heritage

Culture is the art of living. It refers to the intellectual development evolved out
of the physical and mental training acquired in the course of the ages in a
country. India's great diversity of cultural practices, languages, customs, and
traditions are examples over the past five millennium of the unique
co-mingling. The various religions and traditions of India that were created by
these amalgamations have influenced other parts of the world too. Indian
culture can be best expressed as comprising the following:

Humanity - The mildness of the Indians has continued till date, despite the
aggressiveness of the Muslim conquerors and the reforming zeal of the
British, the Portuguese and the Dutch. The Indians are noted for their
humanness and calm nature without any harshness in their principles and
ideals.

Tolerance - Gandhiji’s satyagraha principle or Ahimsa - freedom without

taking a drop of blood, worked wonders and gave credit to India in the
international arena. Swami Vivekananda in his famous Chicago Speech on
the 11th of September, 1893 spoke of this.

Unity - India is a conglomeration of men and women of various castes and

creed. It is a fusion of old traditional values and the modern principles, thus
satisfying all the three generations in the present India. The Elite businessman
and the common vendor on the road share the same news and worship the
same deity.

Secularism - India is a secular country as stated in its Constitution. There is

freedom of worship throughout the length and breadth of India without any
breeches or violations of any other’s religious beliefs. The Hindus, The
Muslims, The Christians, and The Sikhs in times of calamity and during
festivities come openly together to share their thoughts despite their religious
affinities.

Closely knit Social system - The Indian Social System is mostly based on
the Joint family System, but for some of the recently cropped nuclear families.
The families are closely knit with Grandfathers, fathers, sons and grandsons
sharing the same spirit, tradition and property.

2.3.1 Components of Indian Culture

2.3.1.1 Cultural Heritage

India’s one billion people have descended from a variety of races. The oldest
ones are the Negroid aboriginals called the Adivasis or First settlers. Then
there are the Dravidians, the Aryans, the Mongols, the Semites and
innumerable inter-mixtures of one with other.

At passing time, religions became an important part in the culture and places
of worship became community centers. The innovations in religious thinking
brought two popular beliefs in India, namely Buddhism by the Buddha and
Jainism by the Saint Mahavir. Then there was a socio-religious shift or
orientation in the Indian culture.
In the 17th to 19th century westernization of Indian culture began, but it was
stemmed by the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayananda Saraswathi,
Swami Vivekananda, Narayana Guru, Maharisi, Aurobindo, etc. Then there
took place a Renaissance that emphasized the need to recognize the
country’s own culture while ushering in an age of modernity.

If India’s culture tended to become tolerant, accommodating, open-minded,

deeply but not ostensibly spiritual and concerned with the common human
welfare, then it is due to the great and relentless efforts of our great ancestors
and leaders. Thanks to them our country has achieved a common culture,
despite a staggering pluralistic society.

2.3.1.2 Religion

Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third- and fourth-largest
religions respectively, with around 1.4 billion followers’ altogether. India is one
of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with some of the most
deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion still plays a central and
definitive role in the life of most of its people. The religion of more than 80.4%
of the people is Hinduism. Islam is practiced by around 13.4% of all Indians.
Sikhism, Jainism and especially Buddhism are influential not only in India but
across the world. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism are also influential
but their numbers are smaller. Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life,
atheism and agnostics also have visible influence.

Hinduism has developed numerous practices that generally involve seeking

awareness of God and blessings from Devas. Hindus often create a shrine
with icons dedicated to their chosen forms of God. Majority of Hindus engage
in religious rituals on a daily basis. Occasions like birth, marriage, and death
involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. Char Dham;
Kumbh Melas; Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts; Major Temple cities;
Shakti Peethas etc. pilgrimage sites are most famous amongst Hindu
devotees.

India has a positive Kaleidoscope of religions. There is probably more

diversity of religions than any were on the earth. Apart from having
representations from almost all the religions of the world, India is also the
birthplace of various religions of the world, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism and Sikhism.

2.3.1.3 Society

The traditional Indian culture is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy.

From an early age, children are reminded of their roles and places in society.
This is the fact that many believe gods. Several differences such as religion
divide culture. However, far more powerful division is the traditional Hindu
bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting occupations. Strict social taboos
have governed
these groups for thousands of years. In recent years, particularly in cities,
some of these lines have blurred and sometimes even disappeared. Important
family relations extend to as far as gotra, the mainly patrilinear lineage or clan
assigned to a Hindu at birth. In rural areas it is common that three or four
generations of the family live under the same roof. Patriarch often resolves
family issues. Among developing countries, India has low levels of
occupational and geographic mobility. People choose same occupations as
their parents and rarely move geographically in the society.

2.3.1.4 Family System

India had a prevailing tradition of the joint family system. It’s a system under
which even extended members of a family like one’s parents, children, the
children’s spouses and their offspring, etc. live together. The elder-most,
usually the male member is the head in the joint Indian family system makes
all important decisions and rules, whereas other family members abide by it.

Arranged marriages have the tradition in Indian society for centuries. Even
today, overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their
parents and other respected family-members, with the consent of the bride
and groom. Arranged matches were made after taking into account factors
such as age, height, personal values and tastes, the backgrounds of their
families (wealth, social standing) and their castes and the astrological
compatibility of the couples' horoscopes.

Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is continued to be practiced

in some rural parts of India. Indian are based on a variety of systems and
naming conventions, which vary from region to region. Names are also
influenced by religion and caste and may come from religion or epics. India's
population speaks a wide variety of languages.

Woman's role in the society is often to perform household works. In most

Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do
not get a share of parental property.

2.3.1.5 Customs

Namaste, Namaskar or Namaskaram is a common spoken greeting or

salutation in the Indian subcontinent. Namaskar is considered a slightly more
formal version than Namaste but both express deep respect. It is commonly
used in India and Nepal by Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, and many continue
to use this outside the Indian subcontinent. In Indian and Nepali culture, the
word is spoken at the beginning of written or verbal communication. However,
the same hands folded gesture is made wordlessly upon departure. In yoga,
Namaste is said to mean "The light in me honors the light in you," as spoken
by
both the yoga instructor and yoga students. Taken literally, it means "I bow to
you". The word is derived from Sanskrit (namas) to bow, obeisance,
reverential salutation, and respect and (te): "to you".

2.3.1.6 Festivals

Indian Festivals, celebrated by varied cultures and through their special

rituals, add to the colours of the Indian Heritage. Some festivals welcome the
seasons of the year, the harvest, the rains, or the full moon. Others celebrate
religious occasions, the birthdays of divine beings, saints, and gurus (revered
teachers), or the advent of the New Year. A number of these festivals are
common to most parts of India. However, they may be called by different
names in various parts of the country or may be celebrated in a different
fashion. Many festivals celebrate the various harvests; commemorate great
historical figures and events, while many express devotion to the deities of
different religions.

Every celebration is centered to the rituals of prayer, seeking blessings,

exchanging goodwill, decorating houses, wearing new clothes, music, dances
and feasting.

In India every region and every religion has something to celebrate. The
festivals reflect the vigour and life-style of its people. Vibrant colours, music
and festivity make the country come alive throughout the year. The emphasis
laid on the different festivals differs in different parts of the country. For
instance, Navaratri is celebrated with maximum fervour in West Bengal as
compared to that in other parts of the country. Holi is celebrated with gusto in
the north, and although it is also observed in the western and eastern parts of
India, in the south it is almost unknown. There are also a few regional festivals
like Pongal in Tamil Nadu; Onam in Kerala and the various other temple
festivals devoted to the specific patron Gods and Goddesses of the temples,
which are celebrated exclusively in those areas, which may be limited to one
or a few villages. This galaxy of festivals that exist do contribute in
inter-spicing Indian life with gaiety and color as also in giving the country the
distinction of having the maximum number of holidays.

India is a rich land which has attracted invaders from Central Europe and Asia
who left their imprint on this land, its religions and its lifestyles over 40
centuries. As a result, today, Indian celebrates more festivals than any other
country. Nonetheless, Indians are known to celebrate all the festivals with
great fanfare and importance. Festivals in India are determined by the Solar &
Lunar positions & they may fall in a different month as specified here.

There are said to be more number of festivals in India, than there are days in
a year. The religious and national ones are celebrated with great gaiety. The
cultural ones attract many great artists from all over India. Hardly a day
passes without a festival taking place somewhere in India.

It is well known that no other country holds so many festivals of antiquity as

does India. Each festival brings an episode of some remote past back to the
memory. Owing to its religious and regional variations, India has a number of
festivals.

Hindu festivals follow the lunar calendar and hence the exact date of the
festivals varies from year to year according to the waxing and the waning of
the moon. Only a few of the festivals take place on a particular solar calendar
date.

India, being a multi-cultural and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays

and festivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the
Independence Day, the Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated
with zeal and enthusiasm across India.

In addition, many states and regions have local festivals depending on

prevalent religious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals
include the Hindu festivals of Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga puja, Holi,
Rakshabandhan and Dussehra. Several harvest festivals, such as Sankranthi,
Pongal and Onam, are also fairly popular. Certain festivals in India are
celebrated by multiple religions. Notable examples include Diwali which
celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs and Jains and Buddh Purnima which is
celebrated by Buddhists and Hindus.

Each and every festival is celebrated uniquely in different ways according to

the rituals, beliefs and its significant history behind. Each festival has its own
history, legend and significance of celebration. Indian origin people in the
abroad also celebrate their cultural festival with the immense passion.

Introduction to some most popular Festivals of India:

Diwali - The festival begins with Dhanteras, a day set aside to worship the
goddess of prosperity, Goddess Lakshmi. Mostly people associate the
celebration with the legend of Lord Ram returning to his kingdom of Ayodhya
after fourteen years of exile and defeating Ravana.

Diwali festival is the one Hindu festival that unites the whole of India. The
exchange of sweets and the explosion of fireworks customarily accompany
the celebration of the festival. Diwali is an occasion for cheerfulness and
togetherness. This is that time of the year when people of all age and all class
take part in its celebration.

Navratri: Festival is dedicated to the worship of Mother Goddess or Shakti

and her nine forms. The festival of Navratri acquires quite a fascinating and
colorful
dimension in the region of Gujarat, and in some parts of Rajasthan and
Maharashtra. The highlights of the festival are the extremely colorful dances
of Garbha and Dandiya-Rasa where men and women of all sects perform.

Dusshera - The day after Navratri the festival of Dussehra is celebrated. In

the south, Dusshera is very popular while in the east, the seventh to the tenth
days of Durga Puja are celebrated with much vigor and enthusiasm. The most
popular events on the auspicious occasions of Navratri are Ramlila of
Varanasi, Dussehra of Mysore and Durga Puja of Bengal.

All these celebrations have a special significance according to their region.

The rituals are based according to the culture and traditions of that particular
region.

Holi - the festival of colors is one of the most popular festivals of the country.
It is celebrated during the spring season and embodies all the festivity,
liveliness and exuberance of the season. Holi is the festival of young hearts.
Spraying colors, dancing on traditional Holi songs, rhythmic drum beats and
wild processions are the common scenes that one comes across during this
festival. The festival is associated with various legends but the most popular
among them is the tale of Hollika. Bonfires are lit on the night before Holi in
memory of the event and burning of the evil Holika. It symbolizes the victory of
Good over evil. It is actually the great festival of Hindus, where farmers and
rural people can celebrate the prosperity and abundance in life that comes
with the harvest season.

Ganesh Chathurthi: On this day, a beautiful idol of Lord Ganesh is made of

clay or some metals like silver and it displaced in a high pedestal. This is a
special function day and the grandest festival of the state of Maharastra.
Almost each locality of every town has its own image of Ganesh, specially
made for this occasion. It was Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak who made the
ritual worship of Ganesh in Maharastra almost a national festival. The festival
is fondly called "Ganesh-Utsav".

Onam: The festival of Onam portrays the rich cultural heritage of Kerala, its
golden past, rich traditions and prosperous present. High-spirited people of
Kerala celebrate Onam with gaiety and fervor. The festival is celebrated for a
period of ten days, starting from the first day Atham and continuing till tenth
and the biggest day called Thiru Onam. It is the most famous festival of South
India. Onam is also a harvest festival. It is celebrated at a time when
everything appears so nice and good.

Pongal: is regarded as a harvest festival of South India. It is one of the most

important and popular Hindu festivals. The four-day long harvest festival of
Tamil Nadu, Pongal is all about thanksgiving to nature and takes its name
from the Tamil word meaning "to boil" and is held in the month of Thai
(January-
February) it is celebrated from January 13 to 16 every year. The festival marks
a period of plenty, peace and happiness. While each of its days has a special
religious significance, most urban people celebrate second day as the main
festival. The festival of Pongal is held dear particularly by the farming
community as it marks the end of harvesting season. Pongal is the only
festival of Hindu that follows a solar calendar.

Rakhi: Raksha Bandhan has a special significance in hearts of brothers and

sisters. The silken thread of Rakhi symbolizes the love between siblings. The
Rakhi Festival symbolizes all aspects of protection of the good from evil
forces. Rakhi is meant to sweeten the ties of brother and sister. Rakhi is
celebrated with great joy and excitement all around India. Known as Raksha
Bandhan in other parts of the country, Rakhi festival showcases the love,
affection and feeling of brotherhood.

Muslim Festival: All the people of Muslim religion enthusiastically celebrate

their all the Islamic festivals all over the world. There are many religious
festivals which they celebrate with great passion and dedication by following
the date of their Islamic calendar. Islamic festivals, such as Eid-ul-Fitr,
Eid-al-Adha, Ramzan, Id-e-Milad, Muharram, are celebrated by Muslims
across India. Adding colours to the culture of India,

Some of the very important Islam festivals are Ramzan (Ramadan), Bakr-Id
and etc which they celebrate in special ways by offering prayers in the
mosques, feasting, fasting and wishing to each other.

Sikh Festivals: People of Sikh religion have lots of unique and ritual festivals
which they celebrate with full courage and enjoyment. They commemorate the
lives of their 10 Sikh gurus including their teachings. Some Hindu festivals are
also celebrated by the people of Sikh religion having different reasons of
celebration.

All the worship at the festival in Sikhism is directed towards the holy book
called “the Guru Granth Sahib” which was first compiled by the Sikh guru,
Guru Nanak and later edited by the Sikh Guru, Arjan. The Guru Granth of the
Sikh religion has the place of deity among people and taken out on a
palanquin in the public processions while celebrating any Sikh festival.

Jain Festivals: People from Jain religion have lots of rituals and religious
ceremonies to be celebrated as the festival. Their rituals belong to the idol
worships in various ways and festivals belong to the life events of Tirthankara
which involves the purification of the soul. Their rituals are divided in two parts
named Karya and Kriya. According to the Jain Svetambara there are six
obligatory duties called Six Avashyakas which are “Chaturvishnati-stava:
praising Tirthankaras, Kayotsarga: meditation, Pratikramana: expiation of past
sins, Pratyakhyana: renunciation of anything, Samyika: practising serenity and
meditation and Vandan: respecting teachers and ascetics”.

Christian Festivals: As India is a land of variety of cultures and ethnicity

because of celebrating lots of colorful festivals by the people of different
religions. People of the Christian religion celebrate their festivals like
Christmas, Easter, Good Friday and etc with big enthusiasm and fun filled
activities. People from other religions also become involve in the Christmas
celebrations which proves the unity in diversity of India.

Buddhist Festivals: People from Buddhist religion celebrate their festivals

well connected to their Lord Buddha and the Bodhisattvas. It is considered
that the Buddhist festivals were first started by the lord Buddha and He
advised his followers to be in touch with each other to strengthen their bond.
Buddhist has their own beliefs and rituals of celebrating historical festivals.
The do worship of the historical objects while celebrating their festivals.

Popular Festivals Month-wise:

● January: Makar Sankranti, Lohri, Pongal, Thai Pusam, Float Festival,

National Kite Festival, Bikaner Festival, Pattadakal Dance Festival,
Vasant Panchami
● February: Mahashivratri, Goa Carnival, Desert Festival, Nagaur Fair,
International Yoga Week, Elephant Festival, Deccan Festival, Taj
Mahotsav, Surajkund Crafts Mela, Chapchar Kut, Islands Tourism
Festival
● March: Holi, Gangaur, Jamshed-e-Navroz, Ramnavami, Mahavir
Jayanti, Khajuraho Dance Festival, Elephant Festival, Hoysala
Mahotsava, Ellora Festival
● April: Good Friday, Easter, Baisakhi, Gudi Padva or Ugadi, Pooram,
Maharram, Buddha Purnima, Mewa
● June: Ganga Dussehra, Hemis Festival
● July: Rathyatra, Guru Purnima
● August: Janmashtami, Onam, Nag Panchami, Rakshabandhan,
Ganesh Chaturthi
● September: Tarnetar Mela
● October: Navratri, Durga Puja, Dussehra, Marwar Festival
● November: Sharad Purnima, Diwali, Guru Parb, Ka Pomblang
Nongrem, Sonepur Fair, Pushkar Fair, Hampi Festival
● December: Christmas, Konark Dance Festival.

2.3.1.7 Fairs
Fairs have been a part of rural India. They fill a social and economic need.
Even today most rural communities still have their weekly fair. They are
colourful affairs where people from all the surrounding villages come to sell
their produce and buy what they require.

Introduction to most popular Fairs:

Pushkhar Fair: At the Pushkhar fair in Rajasthan, thousands of Bhil tribals

gather at the junction of the Som and Mahi rivers in remembrance of their
ancestors and take a holy dip. As most fairs, here also makeshift bazaars
spring up everywhere near the vicinity and lot of buying and selling takes
place.

Tarnetar Fair: At Tarnetar in Gujarat, a huge three-day fair is held during the
months of August- September. The Bharwads and Rabaris, the tribals of this
area celebrate this fair elaborately. This fair is mostly taken, as a marriage
mart where many betrothals take place and folk dances is also an important
feature of this fair. Young men and women turn out in their best traditional
dresses while the crowd gathers around the Shiva temple of Triniteshwar.

Kumbh Mela: Kumbha means a pitcher or a water pot. When the ocean was
churned and the nectar began to appear, there was a scramble for it between
the gods and the demons that the contents splashed and fell at four places.
These four places are Haridwar, Prayag, Ujjain and Nasik. Kumbh Parva or
Mela is held every 12 years at rotation at these places. It is called Purana
Kumbha and the ones held every 6 years in between the full ones is called
Ardha Kumbha or half Kumbha.

At Haridwar it lasts for about a month and half in Phalguna - Chaitra. At

Prayag, it is held in Magh. The Ujjain Mela is held In Karthik and the Nasik
one in Shravana month. The Kumbh Fair is the most magnificent bathing
festival ever held in the world. Millions of pilgrims including saints, sanyasis,
rishis, priests, naga sadhus, mahants and milling crowds participate in it.

The Eclipse: The time of eclipse is an occasion when the devotees take bath
in the Ganges and other holy waters. They offer libations to the souls of their
departed ancestors and offer water to the sun and the moon. At Kurushetra,
where the famous Mahabharata war took place, thousands take a dip in the
holy pool. A bath taken in the holy waters and charities done on this day purify
the mind and the soul of the aspirant. On the eclipse day, widows, sadhus
observe strict fast.

Mal-Maas (additional month): Mal-Maas is also called Adhikmas or

Purushottam-mas. It is inter-calculated 13th month. In this month the sun does
not move from one position to the other. It occurs after every 32 months, 15
days and 4 ghatis. During this religious ceremonies are prohibited. Fasts and
charities observed on this day are considered to wipe off ones' sins. During
Mal- maas, ghee, grains and jaggery are given in charity to the Brahmins.

Popular Indian Fairs - Month-wise

● January/February: Nagaur Cattle Fair (Rajasthan), Gangasagar Mela

(West Bengal), Beneshwar Fair (Rajasthan)
● April/ May: Urs Ajmer Sharif (Rajasthan), Sonepur Fair (Bihar)
● July / August: Gangaur Fair
● October / November: Pushkar Fair (Rajasthan)
● December: The Goa Carnival (Goa), Tarnetar Mela (Gujarat)

2.3.1.8 Cuisine

The multiple families of Indian cuisine are characterized by their sophisticated

and subtle use of many spices and herbs. Each family of this cuisine is
characterized by a wide assortment of dishes and cooking techniques.
Though a significant portion of Indian food is vegetarian, many traditional
Indian dishes also include chicken, goat, lamb, fish, and other meats.

Food is an important part of Indian culture, playing a role in everyday life as

well as in festivals. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the
varied demographics of the ethnically diverse subcontinent. Generally, Indian
cuisine can be split into five categories: North, South, East, West Indian and
North- eastern India. Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge.

Varied uses of spices are an integral part of food preparation, and are used to
enhance the flavor of a dish and create unique flavors and aromas. Cuisine
across India has also been influenced by various cultural groups that entered
India throughout history, such as the Persians, Mughal, and European
colonists. Though the tandoor originated in Central Asia, Indian tandoori
dishes, such as chicken tikka made with Indian ingredients, enjoy widespread
popularity. Indian cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe.

Most part of India are used to eat various dishes made up of wheat and rice.
And occasionally macca, bazar, jau, ragi etc. are also used by most part of
India. Usually Indian vegetarian ‘Thali’ contains roti (chapatti), rice, dal,
vegetables, curd, salad, achar, papad, chatni etc.

Dosa, Uttapam, Upama, Idali, Bada, Sambhar (south India), Makke ke Roti
aur Sarson ka saag, kari-chawal (Punjab & Haryana), Dal-Bati-Churma
(Rajasthan), Pudi-Kachauri-Sabzi (most parts of north India), Chokha-Bati
(Bihar-Jharkhand), Dhokala & Khandavi (Gujarat), Bhel-puri (Maharashtra)
and in sweet dishes Laddoo (most part of India), Rasgulla (Bengal & Orissa),
Ghevar (Rajasthan), Petha (Agra), are most popular dishes in India and
abroad.
 2.3.1.9 Dress

Traditional Indian dress for women is the saris and also Ghaghara Cholis
(Lehengas). For men, traditional clothes are the Dhoti, Kurta. Bombay, also
known as Mumbai, is one of India's fashion capitals. In some village parts of
India, traditional clothing mostly will be worn. Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai,
Ahmedabad, and Pune are all places for people who like to shop. In southern
India the men wear long, white sheets of cloth called dhoti in English and in
Tamil. Over the dhoti, men wear kurta or shirt. Most part of India, young ladies
and women wear a colourful sari and fancy blouse. Salwar Kurta also popular
in most females. Bindi is part of the women's make-up. Traditionally, the red
bindi (or sindhur) was worn only by the married Hindu women. Churidar
pajama, Dupatta, Gamchha, Kurta, Mundum Neriyathum, Sherwani, uttariya
are among other favorite clothes.

2.4 Summing Up

Indian Art and Culture depicts ancient India. Indian art and culture reflects
since its Harappan civilization. India has varied climate and rich natural
resources. Attracted to this invaders used to come India and stay. They also
bring their art and culture. Since beginning India accepted and adopted their
art and culture also. Therefore, India has varied art and culture.

The Indian period is unique in its art, literature and architecture. Indian art is
constantly challenged as it rises to the peak of achieving the ideals of one
philosophy in a visual form, then begins anew for another. Each religion and
philosophical system provided its own nuances, vast metaphors and similes.

India's great diversity of cultural practices, languages, customs, and traditions

are examples over the past five millennium of the unique co-mingling. The
various religions and traditions of India that were created by these
amalgamations have influenced other parts of the world too. Indian culture
can be best expressed as comprising the humanity, tolerance, unity,
secularism and closely knit social system.

2.5 Assignments
Class Assignment: Write a brief on various dance forms of India.
Home Assignment: Write short notes on any one of the following:
a) Indian fairs
b) Indian festivals
c) Indian literature
2.6 Self-check questions:

1. A of the Indian Constitution recognizes Hindi in

Devanagari script as the official language of the Union.

2. Ministry implements a number of schemes and programs

aimed at providing financial support to individuals, groups and cultural
organizations engaged in performing, visual and literary arts.

2.7 Terminal Questions

Describe on the great Indian heritage in terms of culture, mythology and

customs of India.

2.8 Possible answers of self-check questions

1. Article 343.
2. Ministry of Culture.
 3. Scientific Temper:
Concept, Relevance and Practice

In the last lesson we had discussed the Lesson 2: Art and Culture, the great heritage
of Indian Art and Culture including its rock-cut art, tribal folks and art, visual art,
contemporary art, architecture, sculpture, literature, music, dance, drama, theater,
paintings, handicrafts, diverse languages, fairs and festivals and more.

In this lesson we shall study scientific temper of India and its concept, relevance and
practices.

3.1 Objectives

After reading this lesson you will be able to:

● Identify the development of science in India;

● Recognize the various scientific fields in which Indians have made their
contributions and examine the various forces and factors that help in
developing science

● Draw linkages between modern Indian science and its rich scientific
heritage

3.2 Introduction

Section V of our Constitution, Article 51A on ‘Fundamental Duties’ begins by

saying: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India…” In the enumeration of
such duties, sub-clause (h) says: “To develop the scientific temper, humanism
and the spirit of inquiry and reform”.

3.3 Scientific Temper

It is said that ‘science has several rewards, but the greatest is that it is the
most interesting, difficult, pitiless and beautiful pursuit that mankind has
devised so far’. This must have come out of passionate scientists who have
enjoyed their profession as well as their practice. However it must be admitted
that science has a stimulus to those who profess in it and provides the
ultimate truth finding
path for humanity much like religion as it was considered in the past and
present.

Such passionate infections might have been one of the reasons for the initial
conflict between science and religion. The religious heads would have been
wondering why mankind is turning its attention away from religion towards
Science. In fact if one were to consider the best art produced in the last
century, it can be termed as ‘Science”.

Science education plays an important role in all round cultural and societal
development of human kind and for evolving a civilized society today. The
essence of scientific spirit is to think globally and act locally, since scientific
knowledge is universal in nature while the fruits of science have some site
specificity. This fact is most often misunderstood or misinterpreted. Science in
general untangles the threads that create the tapestry of our living world. It
tries to work out how the threads merge in the overall ecological networks
creating and maintaining the human kind and also contributes to the thought
process of human beings. Probably it can act as the spirit that can possibly
reverse the steady downward trend of our world’s health and wealth.

It is therefore necessary that one understands what one means by the term
scientific temper. Scientific temper is not like any other human emotions. It is a
combination of eagerness and unpolluted and non-corruptible enthusiasm to
seek the truth even though one is aware the real truth is farther away from his
reach. Scientific temper deals with what one sees, hears and feels in reality or
conceptually seeking the truth in real sense.

Education is the foundation for scientific and technological advancements and

personal training of human beings. In the midst of overall anxiety of the
modernization drive, education especially science education should
automatically receive a strategic priority.

3.2.1 Scientific Temper in India

The founding fathers of the Indian Republic gave a great importance to the
cultivation of scientific temper among the citizens of this country by suitably
incorporating it in our constitution. In spite of the fact that we borrowed as it is
usually termed the constitution from the western hemisphere of this world, we
have imbibed in our constitution our traditional knowledge system with the
enquiring mind.

This has to be contrasted with the views of the founding fathers of the
American Republic where the emphasis is mainly on the political freedom of
their country and individual freedom of their citizens. The European
constitutions have
mainly concentrated toward the threat to freedom in the name of the religion,
however.

This clearly reveals that Indians as a community have a great tradition of

scientific temper imbibed in them. But the invasion and dominance by others
over Indian culture for a number of centuries may have contributed to the
sharp decline of scientific temper, but it can never be removed from Indian
soil. Indian scholars, even if they were to be religious ancient or contemporary
had a questioning mind and reasoning attitude in the search of truth and
hence scientific temper is and will be part and parcel of Indian life. However, it
is natural that one may feel the sharpness in scientific temper has been
blunted, but it is only due to the economic and cultural turmoil India is facing
today. It is only a passing phase and hence it is not appropriate to think that
Indians do not possess scientific temper.

Probably, Indians have to learn from the background of the formulation of the
constitutions. Even though, the common Indian may feel that the European
Institutions and culture are alien to them, they have obviously recognized the
need for modern western institution of Science and Technology, if the country
were to achieve progress. This may be the reason why the concept of
“Scientific Temper” was built-in in our institutions that would foster such a
temper and lead to technical excellence in this country. Hence, it is only an
illusion that we doubt that our Schools/Colleges do not promote scientific
temper.

Though the country today can claim in various spheres liken atomic energy,
space, telecommunication, technological excellence it is a matter of regret that
the scientific temper among the general public, more so with the educated
public has not progressed to a further desirable degree. This could be partly
due to the imitation and uncritical acceptance of the alien culture by many
youth of this country.

This could also result from the fact that Indian thinkers continue to borrow,
probably continue to follow, the methodologies adopted by other cultures
without developing independent methodologies that can bring out solutions to
the problems facing this country in various spheres of activity.

3.2.2 Scientific Temper and National Policies

Science is mainly concerned with understanding of nature and probably

unraveling its laws and in this sense it is beyond the realms of political, social
and religious boundaries. Science is only the human activity which has built-in
self-corrective mechanism while all other activities of human race require
external force to bring about corrective mechanisms in their fold. This is amply
demonstrated in the recent years by the fact that many of the recent startling
scientific claims (for example cold fusion, memory effect at infinite dilution)
have
been automatically questioned and probably partially rejected for acceptance
by the scientific community in spite of other intrusions.

It should not be construed that science is the most harmless and highly
acceptable activity of human beings. In a sense it is so when it enhances
knowledge and produces useful applications. This places a condition that the
true scientific spirit should not only aim at enhancing knowledge and
producing useful applications but also recognizes and avoids misuse with
authority for political and social implications.

Our national science policy has been formulated with due care and concern
for our community. But in our anxiety to defer to European or western
authority in science (this is not true as it is generally perceived that the west
has authority over science) we seem to have cultivated a lack of critical spirit.
The original inquiring spirit of the Indians that were responsible for much
enlightenment towards the truth in the past appears to be slowly fading away.
Our forefathers could attain enlightenment since their inquiring mind was
totally free of other influences and hence could give rise to many path
breaking discoveries and revelations.

Today, this spirit has lost its significance and is mostly replaced by a diluted
spirit that lacks critical analysis and attempts to look for solutions from outside.
Scientific knowledge generated by such a spirit without self-critical analysis is
totally incomplete. It should be realized that our modern education system
especially our attempts to import the western formulation of educational
system without adopting them to our conditions and background has been
responsible for not generating this ‘critical spirit’ in the scientific temper of our
budding young potential scientists. This, in turn, will lead to disastrous
consequences in our scientific and technological temples of this country. It has
always been raised that in a country of 1.1 billion people, we have hardly any
reasonable number who pursue pure scientific research.

Indian civilization left to itself, has always revolved around great temples of
learning and knowledge like Nalanda and Kanchi. These institutions have
been attracting great minds from all over the world in the past and it must be
painfully admitted that in recent years, we have successfully reversed this
trend. Great minds of our land are forced to look for greener pastures
elsewhere than in the mother land. Unfortunately, we have been of late started
comparing ourselves in the sphere of scientific activity with others especially
with China. It is true that we must follow others’ activities, but it is not clear if
we have to race with them in a sphere of activity that does not fit to our
system. One of the reasons for this could be that the critical spirit in human
beings are subjected to agony when they find that the activities in knowledge
creation can also be advantageously used for furthering personal authority
and self-glory. An enquiring mind has to
be always selfless, if it were to be critical. This country could also produce a
Mahatma even in political sphere, which is rare in the whole of the world.

3.2.3 Imparting Scientific Temper

Scientific temper is an intrinsic quality. It has to be imbibed and not merely

imparted. But in our anxiety not to invest our best brains outside the country,
we seem to have resorted to imparting scientific temper in our education
curriculum and not inculcating this spirit in our young minds. This trend has
reversed; the teacher and the taught both have great roles and responsibility
in this endeavor. Scientific temper has to be an inherent quality in our young
minds and it should be cultivated in them as a matter of routine and the
curriculum-based attempts will not always be complete of which has to be a
societal responsibility as well. Critical analysis is a quality which has to be
cultivated and this quality is somehow missing in our education system due to
our anxiety to impart formal knowledge fully at an early stage of the students’
career without even considering whether assimilation and acquiring have
been accomplished. Great minds that our teachers are, they can contemplate
and devise methods to incorporate scientific temper in our young minds which
will go a long way in the technological progress of this country.

3.2.4 Science and Technology through History

Even as growth of scientific knowledge and technology, scientific temper and

rational thought are part of our cultural heritage from antiquity to the frontiers
of scientific knowledge we are participants in a culture that constitutes the
common heritage of mankind. We have not only absorbed and transformed
the knowledge that has come to us, we have also transmitted the knowledge
that has been generated here.

There is an integral link between development and openness. Social

exchanges are central to the growth of scientific knowledge, new techniques
and processes. As in other aspects of culture 'outside' influences have given
us a great deal in scientific knowledge. With the Greeks came the Shears, the
scissors, the rotatory grain mill and the early mortar and pestle mill (200 BC)
Astronomy was in the earlier years influenced by Mesopotamia. Ayurveda
absorbed a great deal from the Greek system of medicine. Paper, gunpowder,
cannon, glass blowing, drawloom, the Persian wheel, new techniques of
metallurgy employed in brassware, bidriwork, rockets employed by Tipu
Sultan in the Carnatic wars against the British troops, domes and arches and
lime mortar all came from outside. All these were adopted by Indian craftsmen
and further improved.

India also had a great deal to give: it transformed knowledge in other

countries, and contributed to cultural advance of our civilization. The first
expression of
 scientific advance was the systematization of Sanskrit grammar in the 4th
century BC by Panini. By the 3rd century BC mathematics, astronomy and
medicine began to develop separately. The contributions of our country
include the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero - (2nd
century BC). There were important developments in algebra and geometry,
Aryabhatta (5th century AD) and Varamihira (6th century AD) contributed to
knowledge of the lunar and solar eclipse to the world. Charaka (2nd Century
AD) laid the foundations for Indian medicine. Ayurveda, a system of medicine
was developed in ancient period.

The medieval period saw great advance in textile technology - weaving,

dyeing and printing. European technology and scientific knowledge also
contributed in different fields. Scientific activity continued though not at the
pace it had come to acquire in Europe, as did applications of military
technology. It manifested itself mainly in the productive field of agriculture and
- textiles. It contributed to cultural expression in precisely these fields: each
region had its own design, style, and weave in textiles. During the medieval
period textiles and various other crafts - glassware, bidriwork, brassware,
carpet weaving, etc. become the soul of Indian people's cultural artifacts. A
shared heritage with the rest of mankind, produced a very specific cultural
expression, specific in relation to world civilization, diverse within itself every
region in India had its own face to show to the world in terms of craft
production.

3.4 Summing up

There is an integral link between development and scientific temper. Social

exchanges are central to the growth of scientific knowledge, new techniques
and processes. Outside influences have given us a great deal in scientific
knowledge. With the Greeks came the Shears, the scissors, the rotatory grain
mill and the early mortar and pestle mill, astronomy was in the earlier years
influenced by Mesopotamia. Ayurveda absorbed a great deal from the Greek
system of medicine. India also had a great deal to give: it transformed
knowledge in other countries. The first expression of scientific advance was
the systematization of Sanskrit grammar by Panini. Mathematics, astronomy
and medicine began to develop separately. The contributions of our country
include the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero.

But the invasion and dominance by others over Indian culture for a number of
centuries may have contributed to the sharp decline of scientific temper, but it
can never be removed from Indian soil. After independence, the founding
fathers of the Indian Republic gave a great importance to the cultivation of
scientific temper among the citizens of this country by suitably incorporating it
in our constitution.
3.5 Assignments

Class Assignment: List important contributions made by India in the field of

science.

Home Assignment: What were the main technological devices brought to

India from outside.

3.6 Self-check questions

1. In 4th century BC systematization of Sanskrit grammar by .

2. laid the foundations for Indian medicine in his Sanhita.

3.7 Terminal questions

Explain the scientific temper in India. How national policies affects the
scientific temper.

3.8 Possible answers for self-check questions

1. Panini 2. Charak
 4.Indian Freedom
Movement (1857 – 1947)
Landmarks

In the last lesson we had discussed the Lesson 3: Scientific Temper: Concept,
Relevance and Practice covering development of science in ancient India, discovery
of zero, astronomy, mathematics, medical science, metallurgy etc.

In the present lesson we shall study India's struggle for independence specially
focusing on its famous freedom fighters and Mahatma Gandhi's contribution to the
same

4.1 Objectives

After reading this lesson you will be able to:

● Describe Indian Freedom Movement;

● Describes Gandhiji’s contribution in Indian Independence.

4.2 Introduction

The term Indian Freedom movement incorporates various national and

regional campaigns, agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant
philosophy. The term encompasses a wide spectrum of political organizations,
philosophies, and movements which had the common aim of ending the
British Colonial Authority as well as other colonial administrations in South
Asia. The initial resistance to the movement can be traced back to the very
beginnings of Colonial Expansion in Karnataka by the Portuguese in the 16th
century and by the British East India Company in Bengal, in the middle and
late 1700s. By the beginning of the 19th Century, the Company regime was
firmly entrenched in India. Governor General, Wellesley's Forward Policy and
Subsidiary Alliances and Lord Dalhousie's Doctrine of Lapse and Annexations
and the introduction of greased Cartridges which hurt the sentiments of the
Hindu soldiers all precipitated into " The Great Mutiny of 1857 " called the First
War of Independence.
 The first organized militant movement was in Bengal, but it later took political
stage in the form of a mainstream movement in the then newly formed Indian
National Congress, with prominent moderate leaders seeking only their basic
rights to appear for civil services examinations and more rights, economic in
nature, for the people of the soil.

They used moderate methods of prayer, petition and protest (3p's). The
beginning of the early 1900s saw a more radical approach towards political
independence proposed by leaders such as the Lal Bal Pal and Sri
Aurobindo. Militant nationalism also emerged in the first decades, culminating
in the failed Indo-German Pact and Ghadar Conspiracy during the World War
I.

The end of the freedom struggle saw the Congress adopt the policies of
nonviolence led by Mohandas Gandhi. Other leaders, such as Subhash
Chandra Bose (called Netaji), later came to adopt a military approach to the
movement. Yet there were others like Swami Sahajan and Saraswati who
along with political freedom wanted economic freedom of peasants and toiling
masses of the country. The World War II period saw the peak of the
movements like INA movement led by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose from
East Asia and Quit India movement.

4.3 Background of Colonization of India

European traders came to Indian shores with the first to arrival of the
Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama in 1498 at the port of Calicut in search of
the lucrative spice trade and with a fanatical zeal for the Catholic religion he
established his fort in Cochin.

The Dutch put an end to the Portuguese colonization by capturing Fort Cochin
from them. The French continued the commercial career with Pondicherry on
the Coramandel coast as the centre. In course of time the English East India
Company chartered in 1600 established their settlements in Madras (1639),
Bombay (1668) and Calcutta (1698).

The French also established trading post in Pondicherry near Tamil Nadu and
the Portuguese in Goa, but they did not depart even after the British have left
India.

After the 1757 Battle of Plassey, during which the British army under Robert
Clive defeated the Nawab of Bengal, the British East India Company
established itself. This is widely seen as the beginning of the British Raj in
India. The Company gained administrative rights over Bengal, Bihar, and
Orissa in 1765 after the Battle of Buxar. They then annexed Punjab in 1849
after the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839 and the First Anglo-Sikh War
(1845–
46) and then the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49).
 The British parliament enacted a series of laws to handle the administration of
the newly-conquered provinces, including the Regulating Act of 1773, the
India Act of 1784, and the Charter Act of 1813; all enhanced the British
government's rule. In 1835 English was made the medium of instruction.
Western-educated Hindu elites sought to rid Hinduism of controversial social
practices, including the Varna (caste) system, child marriage, and sati. Literary
and debating societies initiated in Bombay and Madras became forums for
open political discourse. The educational attainment and skillful use of the
press by these early reformers created the growing possibility for effecting
broad reforms within colonial India, all without compromising larger Indian
social values and religious practices.

Even while these modernizing trends influenced Indian society, Indians

increasingly despised British rule. The memoirs of Henry Ouvry of the 9th
Lancers record many "a good thrashing" to careless servants. A spice
merchant, Frank Brown, wrote to his nephew that stories of maltreatment of
servants had not been exaggerated and that he knew people who kept
orderlies "purposely to thrash them". As the British increasingly dominated the
continent, they grew increasingly abusive of local customs by, for example,
staging parties in mosques, dancing to the music of regimental bands on the
terrace of the Taj Mahal, using whips to force their way through crowded
bazaars (as recounted by General Henry Blake), and mistreating sepoys. In
the years after the annexation of Punjab in 1849, several mutinies among
sepoys broke out; these were put down by force.

4.4 India’s Freedom Struggle (1857 – 1947)

The English East India Company chartered in 1600 established their

settlements in Madras (1639), Bombay (1668) and Calcutta (1698).

Introduction of Zamindari system by the British, where the peasants were

ruined through exorbitant charges made from them by the new class of
landlords. The craftsmen were destroyed by the influx of the British
manufactured goods. The religion and the caste system which formed the firm
foundation of the traditional Indian society were endangered by the British
administration. The Indian soldiers as well as people in administration could
not rise in hierarchy as the senior jobs were reserved for the Europeans.

After the battle of Plassey in 1757, the British achieved political power in India.
And their paramount was established during the tenure of Lord Dalhousie,
who became the Governor- General in 1848. He annexed Punjab, Peshawar
and the Pathan tribes in the north-west of India. By 1856, the British conquest
and its authority were firmly established. While the British power gained its
heights during the middle of the 19th century, the discontent of the local rulers,
the peasantry, the intellectuals, common masses as also of the soldiers who
became unemployed due to the disbanding of the armies of various states
that were annexed by the British, became widespread. This soon broke out
into a revolt which assumed the dimensions of the 1857 Mutiny.

4.3.1 The Mutiny (Rebellion) of 1857

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a period of uprising in the northern and
central India against British rule in 1857–58. The rebellion was the result of
decades of ethnic and cultural differences between Indian soldiers and their
British officers. The indifference of the British towards Indian rulers like the
Mughals and ex- Peshwas and the annexation of Oudh were political factors
triggering dissent amongst Indians. Dalhousie’s policy of annexation, the
doctrine of lapse or escheat, and the projected removal of the descendants of
the Great Mughal from their ancestral palace to the Qutub, near Delhi also
angered some people. The specific reason that triggered the rebellion was the
rumoured use of cow and pig fat in 557 calibre Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle
cartridges. Soldiers had to break the cartridges with their teeth before loading
them into their rifles. So if there was cow and pig fat, it would be offensive to
Hindu and Muslim soldiers, respectively. In February 1857, sepoys (Indian
soldiers in the British army) refused to use their new cartridges. The British
claimed to have replaced the cartridges with new ones and tried to make
sepoys make their own grease from beeswax and vegetable oils, but the
rumour persisted.

In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a soldier of the 34th Native Infantry in

Barrack pore, attacked his British sergeant and wounded an adjutant. General
Hearsay, who said Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy," ordered a
jemadar to arrest him but the jemadar refused. Mangal Pandey was hanged
on 7 April along with the jemadar. The Red Fort, the residence of the last
Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was attacked and captured by the
sepoys. They demanded that he reclaim his throne. He was reluctant at first,
but eventually agreed to the demands and became the leader of the rebellion.

Soon, the revolt spread throughout northern India. Revolts broke out in places
like Meerut, Jhansi, Kanpur, Lucknow etc. The British were slow to respond,
but eventually responded with brute force. British moved regiments from the
Crimean War and diverted European regiments headed for China to India.
The British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi in Badl-ke-Serai and
drove them back to Delhi before laying siege on the city. The siege of Delhi
lasted roughly from 1 July to 31 August. After a week of street fighting, the
British retook the city. The last significant battle was fought in Gwalior on 20
June 1858. It was during this battle that Rani Lakshmi Bai was killed. Sporadic
fighting continued until 1859 but most of the rebels were subdued. Some
notable leaders were Ahmed Ullah, an advisor of the ex-King of Oudh; Nana
Sahib; his nephew Rao Sahib and his retainers, Tantia Topi and Azimullah
Khan; the Rani of Jhansi; Kunwar Singh; the Rajput chief of Jagadishpur in
Bihar; Firuz Saha, a relative of the Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah and Pran
Sukh Yadav who along with Rao Tula Ram of Rewari fought with the British at
Nasibpur, Haryana.

Thus, there was all-round discontent and disgust against the British rule,
which burst out in a revolt by the 'soldier' at Meerut whose religious
sentiments were offended when they were given new cartridges greased with
cow and pig fat, whose covering had to be stripped out by biting with the
mouth before using them in rifles. The Hindu as well as the Muslim soldiers,
who refused to use such cartridges, were arrested which resulted in a revolt
by their fellow soldiers on May 9, 1857.

However, the Mutiny of 1857, which began with a revolt of the military soldiers
Mangal Pandey at Meerut, soon became widespread and posed a grave
challenge to the British rule. Even though the British succeeded in crushing it
within a year, it was certainly a popular revolt in which the Indian rulers, the
masses and the militia participated so enthusiastically that it came to be
regarded as the First War of Indian Independence.

The rebel forces soon captured Delhi and the revolt spread to a wider area
and there was uprising in almost all parts of the country. The most ferocious
battles were fought in Delhi, Awadh, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand, Allahabad,
Agra, Meerut and western Bihar. The rebellious forces under the commands
of Kanwar Singh in Bihar and Bakht Khan in Delhi gave a stunning blow to the
British. In Kanpur, Nana Sahib was proclaimed as the Peshwa and the brave
leader Tantya Tope led his troops. Rani Lakshmibai was proclaimed the ruler
of Jhansi who led her troops in the heroic battles with the British. The Hindus,
the Muslims, the Sikhs and all the other brave sons of India fought shoulder to
shoulder to throw out the British. The revolt was controlled by the British within
one year; it began from Meerut on 10 May 1857 and ended in Gwalior on 20
June 1858.

4.3.2 End of East India Company

The war of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India. The
British abolished the British East India Company and replaced it with direct
rule under the British crown. A Viceroy was appointed to represent the Crown.
In proclaiming the new direct-rule policy to "the Princes, Chiefs, and Peoples
of India," Queen Victoria promised equal treatment under British law, but
Indian mistrust of British rule had become a legacy of the 1857 rebellion.

The Governor General was given title of Viceroy, which meant the
representative of the Monarch. Queen Victoria assumed the title of the
Empress of India and thus gave the British Government unlimited powers to
intervene in the internal affair of the Indian states. In brief, the British
paramount over India,
including the Indian States, was firmly established. The British gave their
support to the loyal princes, zamindar and local chiefs but neglected the
educated people and the common masses. They also promoted the other
interests like those of the British merchants, industrialists, planters and civil
servants.

The British embarked on a program in India of reform and political

restructuring, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the
government. They stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and
admitted Indians into the civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates. They also
increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native ones and allowed
only British soldiers to handle artillery. Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon,
Burma where he died in 1862, finally bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end.
In 1877, Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India.'

The people of India, as such, did not have any say in running the government
or formulation of its policies. Consequently, people's disgust with the British
rule kept mounting, which gave rise to the birth of Indian National Movement.

Rise of Organized Movements

The decades following the Sepoys Rebellion were a period of growing political
awareness, manifestation of Indian public opinion and emergence of Indian
leadership at national and provincial levels. Dadabhai Naoroji formed East
India Association in 1867, and Surendranath Banerjee founded Indian
National Association in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O. Hume, a
retired British civil servant, seventy-three Indian delegates met in Mumbai in
1885 and founded the Indian National Congress. The influences of
socio-religious groups such as Arya Samaj (started by Swami Dayanand
Saraswati) and Brahmo Samaj (founded, amongst others, by Raja Ram
Mohan Roy) became evident in pioneering reform of Indian society. The
inculcation of religious reform and social pride was fundamental to the rise of
a public movement for complete nationhood. The work of men like Swami
Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya
Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath
Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji spread the passion for rejuvenation and
freedom.

The leadership of the freedom movement passed into the hands of reformists
like Raja Rammohan Roy, Bankim Chandra and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
During this time, the binding psychological concept of National Unity was also
forged in the fire of the struggle against a common foreign oppressor.

Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 which
aimed at urging the society of all its evil practices. He worked for eradicating
evils like sati, child marriage and purdah system, championed widow marriage
and women's education and favoured English system of education in India. It
was through his effort that sati was declared a legal offence by the British.

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) the disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa,

established the Ramkrishna Mission at Belur in 1897. He championed the
supremacy of Vedantic philosophy. His talk at the Chicago (USA) Conference
of World Religions in 1893 made the westerners realize the greatness of
Hinduism for the first time.

4.3.3 Rise of Indian Nationalism

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the first Indian nationalist to embrace Swaraj as the
destiny of the nation. Tilak deeply opposed the British education system that
ignored and defamed India's culture, history and values. He resented the
denial of freedom of expression for nationalists, and the lack of any voice or
role for ordinary Indians in the affairs of their nation. For these reasons, he
considered Swaraj as the natural and only solution. His popular sentence
"Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration
for Indians.

In 1907, the Congress was split into two. Tilak advocated what was deemed
as extremism. He wanted a direct assault by the people upon the British Raj,
and the abandonment of all things British. He was backed by rising public
leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point
of view. Under them, India's three great states - Maharashtra, Bengal and
Punjab shaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. Gokhale
criticized Tilak for encouraging acts of violence and disorder. But the
Congress of 1906 did not have public membership, and thus Tilak and his
supporters were forced to leave the party.

But with Tilak's arrest, all hopes for an Indian offensive were stalled. The
Congress lost credit with the people, A Muslim deputation met with the
Viceroy, Minto (1905–10), seeking concessions from the impending
constitutional reforms, including special considerations in government service
and electorates. The British recognized some of Muslim League's petitions by
increasing the number of elective offices reserved for Muslims in the
Government of India Act 1909. The Muslim League insisted on its
separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress, as the voice of a "nation
within a nation."

4.3.4 Formation of Indian National Congress (INC)

The foundations of the Indian National Movement were laid by Suredranath

Banerjee with the formation of Indian Association at Calcutta in 1876. The aim
of the Association was to represent the views of the educated middle class,
inspire the Indian community to take the value of united action. The Indian
Association was, in a way, the forerunner of the Indian National Congress,
which was founded, by A.O. Hume, a retired British official.

The birth of Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 marked the entry of new
educated middle-class into politics and transformed the Indian political
horizon. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay
in December 1885 under the president ship of Womesh Chandra Banerjee
and was attended among others by and Badr-uddin-Tyabji. Later in the Surat
Conference of the Congress there developed a cleavage between the
moderates headed by Gokhale and the extremists lead by Tilak.

At the turn of the century, the freedom movement reached out to the common
unlettered man through the launching of the "Swadeshi Movement" by leaders
such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Aurobindo Ghose. The Congress session at
Calcutta in 1906, presided by Dadabhai Naoroji, gave a call for attainment of
'Swaraj' a type of self- government elected by the people within the British
Dominion, as it prevailed in Canada and Australia, which were also the parts
of the British Empire.

Meanwhile, in 1909, the British Government announced certain reforms in the

structure of Government in India which are known as Morley-Minto Reforms.
But these reforms came as a disappointment as they did not mark any
advance towards the establishment of a representative Government. The
provision of special representation of the Muslim was seen as a threat to the
Hindu-Muslim unity on which the strength of the National Movement rested.
So, these reforms were vehemently opposed by all the leaders including the
Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Subsequently, King George V made
two announcements in Delhi: firstly, the partition of Bengal, which had been
effected in 1905, was annulled and, secondly, it was announced that the
capital of India was to be shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

The disgust with the reforms announced in 1909 led to the intensification of
the struggle for Swaraj. While, on one side, the extremist led by the great
leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal
waged a virtual war against the British, on the other side, the revolutionaries
stepped up their violent activities there was a widespread unrest in the
country.

4.3.5 Partition of Bengal

In 1905, Curzon, the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899–1905), ordered the

partition of the province of Bengal for improvements in administrative
efficiency in that huge and populous region, where the Bengali Hindu
intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. The
partition outraged Bengalis. Not only had the government failed to consult
Indian public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British resolve to
divide and rule.
Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the
Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of
swadeshi. People showed unity by tying Rakhi on each other's wrists and
observing Arandhan (not cooking any food).

During the partition of Bengal new methods of struggle were adopted. These
led to swadeshi and boycott movements. The Congress-led boycott of British
goods was so successful that it unleashed anti-British forces to an extent
unknown since the Sepoy Rebellion. A cycle of violence and repression
ensued in some parts of the country.

4.3.6 World War - I

World War I began with an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill

towards the United Kingdom from within the mainstream political leadership,
contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India contributed massively
to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million
Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East,
while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food,
money, and ammunition. However, Bengal and Punjab remained hotbeds of
anticolonial activities. Nationalism in Bengal, increasingly closely linked with
the unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to nearly paralyse the regional
administration. Also from the beginning of the war, expatriate Indian
population, notably from United States, Canada, and Germany, headed by the
Berlin Committee and the Ghadar Party, attempted to trigger insurrections in
India on the lines of the 1857 uprising with Irish Republican, German and
Turkish help in a massive conspiracy that has since come to be called the
Hindu-German Conspiracy This conspiracy also attempted to rally
Afghanistan against British India. A number of failed attempts were made at
mutiny, of which the February mutiny plan and the Singapore mutiny remain
most notable. This movement was suppressed by means of a massive
international counter-intelligence operation and draconian political acts
(including the Defence of India act 1915) that lasted nearly ten years.

In the aftermath of the World War I, high casualty rates, soaring inflation
compounded by heavy taxation, a widespread influenza epidemic, and the
disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India. The
Indian soldiers smuggled arms into India to overthrow the British rule. The
pre-war nationalist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups
within the Congress submerged their differences in order to stand as a unified
front. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in forging the Lucknow Pact, a
temporary alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution of
political power and the future of Islam in the region.
The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of
India's support during the war and in response to renewed nationalist
demands. In August 1917, Edwin Montagu, the secretary of state for India,
made the historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy for India
was "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration
and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the
progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part
of the British Empire." The means of achieving the proposed measure were
later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the
principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which both elected
Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. The act also
expanded the central and provincial legislatures and widened the franchise
considerably. Diarchy set in motion certain real changes at the provincial level:
a number of non-controversial or "transferred" portfolios, such as agriculture,
local government, health, education, and public works, were handed over to
Indians, while more sensitive matters such as finance, taxation, and
maintaining law and order were retained by the provincial British
administrators.

4.3.7 Gandhi Arrives in India

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (also known as Mahatma Gandhi), had been

a prominent leader of the anti-Apartheid movement in South Africa, and had
been a vocal opponent of basic discrimination and abusive Labour treatment
as well as suppressive police control such as the Rowlatt Acts. During these
protests, Gandhi had perfected the concept of Satyagraha, which had been
inspired by the philosophy of Baba Ram Singh (famous for leading the Kuka
Movement in the Punjab in 1872). The end of the protests in South Africa saw
oppressive legislation repealed and the release of political prisoners by
General Jan Smuts, head of the South African Government of the time.

Gandhi, a stranger to India and its politics after twenty years, had initially
entered the fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified
commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for.
Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational development
that the Europeans had brought with them were required to alleviate many of
India's problems. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran Congressman and Indian
leader became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent
civil disobedience initially appeared impractical to some Indians and
Congressmen. In Gandhi's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of
unmoral statutory enactments." It had to be carried out non-violently by
withdrawing cooperation with the corrupt state. Gandhi's ability to inspire
millions of common people became clear when he used Satyagraha during
the anti-Rowlett Act protests in Punjab.
Gandhi’s vision would soon bring millions of regular Indians into the
movement, transforming it from an elitist struggle to a national one. The
nationalist cause was expanded to include the interests and industries that
formed the economy of common Indians. For example, in Champaran, Bihar,
the Congress Party championed the plight of desperately poor sharecroppers
and landless farmers who were being forced to pay oppressive taxes and
grow cash crops at the expense of the subsistence crops which formed their
food supply. The profits from the crops they grew were insufficient to provide
for their sustenance.

The Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by

silencing the press, detaining the political activists without trial, and arresting
any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. In protest,
a nationwide cessation of work (hartal) was called, marking the beginning of
widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent. The agitation
unleashed by the acts culminated on 13 April 1919, in the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre (also known as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar, Punjab. The
British military commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, blocked the
main entrance, and ordered his soldiers to fire into an unarmed and
unsuspecting crowd of some 5,000 men, women and children. They had
assembled at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled in courtyard in defiance of the ban. A
total of 1,651 rounds were fired, killing 379 people (as according to an official
British commission; Indian estimates ranged as high as 1,499 and wounding
1,137 in the episode, which dispelled wartime hopes of home rule and
goodwill in a frenzy of post-war reaction.

4.3.8 Rowlett Act

To add to the already growing discontent among the people, Rowlett Act was
passed in 1919, which empowered the Government to put people in jail
without trial. This caused widespread indignation, led to massive
demonstration and hartals, which the Government repressed with brutal
measures like the Jaliawalla Bagh massacre, where thousands of unarmed
peaceful people were gunned down on the order of General Dyer.

4.3.9 Jalianwala Bagh Massacre

Jalianwala Bagh massacre of April 13, 1919 was one of the most inhuman
acts of the British rulers in India. The people of Punjab gathered on the
auspicious day of Baisakhi at Jalianwala Bagh, adjacent to Golden Temple
(Amritsar), to lodge their protest peacefully against persecution by the British
Indian Government. General Dyer appeared suddenly with his armed police
force and
fired indiscriminately at innocent empty handed people leaving hundreds of
people dead, including women and children.

Jail going for breaking the British law became a respectable thing for the
Indians. The Jallianwalla Bagh massacre in 1919, the Dandi March in 1935 for
making salt and the Quit India Movement in 1942 were some of the highlights
of the freedom struggle.

After a series of events including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Gandhiji

realized that there was no prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands
of British, so he planned to withdraw the nation's co-operation from the British
Government, thus launching the Non-Cooperation Movement and thereby
marring the administrative set up of the country. This movement was a great
success as it got massive encouragement to millions of Indians. This
movement almost shook the British authorities.

4.3.10 Gandhi and Independence Movement

After the First World War (1914-1918), Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

became the undisputed leader of the Congress. During this struggle,
Mahatma Gandhi had developed the novel technique of non-violent agitation,
which he called 'Satyagraha', loosely translated as 'moral domination'.
Gandhi, himself a devout Hindu, also espoused a total moral philosophy of
tolerance, brotherhood of all religions, non-violence (ahimsa) and of simple
living. With this, new leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra
Bose also emerged on the scene and advocated the adoption of complete
independence as the goal of the National Movement.

With the new leadership of Gandhi at the end of the world war, the Congress
became more belligerent. Equipped with a Degree in Law from England,
Gandhi was able to kindle a mass movement in India. He established
ashrams in Sabarmati and Wardha to follow his swadeshi ideals.

4.3.11 The Non-Cooperation Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement was pitched in under leadership of Mahatma

Gandhi and the Indian National Congress from September 1920 to February
1922, marking a new awakening in the Indian Independence Movement. After
a series of events including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Gandhiji realised
that there was no prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands of British,
so he planned to withdraw the nation's co-operation from the British
Government, thus launching the Non-Cooperation Movement and thereby
marring the administrative set up of the country. This movement was a great
success as it got massive encouragement to millions of Indians. This
movement almost shook the British authorities.
The first Satyagraha movement urged the use of Khadi and Indian material as
alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to boycott
British educational institutions and law courts; resign from government
employment; refuse to pay taxes; and forsake British titles and honours.
Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new Government of
India Act of 1919, the movement enjoyed widespread popular support, and
the resulting unparalleled magnitude of disorder presented serious challenges
to foreign rule. However, Gandhi called off the movement following the Chauri
Chaura incident, which saw the death of twenty-two policemen at the hands of
an angry mob.

Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six years of prison, but was released after
serving two. On his release from prison, he set up the Sabarmati Ashram in
Ahmedabad, on the banks of river Sabarmati, established the newspaper
Young India, and inaugurated a series of reforms aimed at the socially
disadvantaged within Hindu society - the rural poor, and the untouchables.

This era saw the emergence of new generation of Indians from within the
Congress Party, including C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai
Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose and others- who would later on come to form
the prominent voices of the Indian independence movement, whether keeping
with Gandhian Values, or diverging from it.

The Indian political spectrum was further broadened in the mid-1920s by the
emergence of both moderate and militant parties, such as the Swaraj Party,
Hindu Mahasabha, Communist Party of India and the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh. Regional political organizations also continued to
represent the interests of non-Brahmins in Madras, Mahars in Maharashtra,
and Sikhs in Punjab. However, Brahmins like Mahakavi Subramanya Bharathi,
Vanchinathan and Neelakanda Brahmachari played a major role from Tamil
Nadu in both freedom struggle and fighting for equality for all castes and
communities.

4.3.12 Simon Commission

The Simon Commission was sent to India in 1927 by the British Government
to suggest further reforms in the structure of Indian Government. The
Commission did not include any Indian member and the Government showed
no intention of accepting the demand for Swaraj. Therefore, it sparked a wave
of protests all over the country and the Congress as well as the Muslim
League gave a call to boycott it under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai. The
crowds were lathi charged and Lala Lajpat Rai, also called Sher-e-Punjab
(Lion of Punjab) died of the blows received in an agitation.
4.3.13 Purna Swaraj

Following the rejection of the recommendations of the Simon Commission by

Indians, an all-party conference was held at Bombay in May 1928. This was
meant to instill a sense of resistance among people. The conference
appointed a drafting committee under Motilal Nehru to draw up a constitution
for India. The Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress asked the
British government to accord dominion status to India by December 1929, or a
countrywide civil disobedience movement would be launched. By 1929,
however, in the midst of rising political discontent and increasingly violent
regional movements, the call for complete independence from Britain began to
find increasing grounds within the Congress leadership. Under the presidency
of Jawaharlal Nehru at its historic Lahore session in December 1929, The
Indian National Congress adopted a resolution calling for complete
independence from the British. It authorized the Working Committee to launch
a civil disobedience movement throughout the country. It was decided that 26
January 1930 should be observed all over India as the Purna Swaraj (total
independence) Day. Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of
a wide spectrum united to observe the day with honour and pride.

4.3.14 Salt March and Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi emerged from his long seclusion by undertaking his most famous
campaign, a march of about 400 kilometers from his commune in Ahmedabad
to Dandi, on the coast of Gujarat between 12 March and 6 April 1930. The
march is usually known as the Dandi March or the Salt Satyagraha. At Dandi,
in protest against British taxes on salt, he and thousands of followers broke
the law by making their own salt from seawater.

In April 1930 there were violent police-crowd clashes in Calcutta.

Approximately 100,000 people were imprisoned in the course of the Civil
disobedience movement (1930-31), while in Peshawar unarmed
demonstrators were fired upon in the Qissa Khwani bazaar massacre. The
latter event catapulted the then newly formed Khudai Khidmatgar movement
(founder Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Frontier Gandhi) onto the National
scene. While Gandhi was in jail, the first Round Table Conference was held in
London in November 1930, without representation from the Indian National
Congress. The ban upon the Congress was removed because of economic
hardships caused by the Satyagraha. Gandhi, along with other members of
the Congress Working Committee, was released from prison in January 1931.

In March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, and the government
agreed to set all political prisoners free (Although, some of the key
revolutionaries were not set free and the death sentence for Bhagat Singh and
his two comrades was not taken back which further intensified the agitation
against Congress not
only outside it but with in the Congress itself). In return, Gandhi agreed to
discontinue the civil disobedience movement and participate as the sole
representative of the Congress in the second Round Table Conference, which
was held in London in September 1931. However, the conference ended in
failure in December 1931. Gandhi returned to India and decided to resume the
civil disobedience movement in January 1932.

Mahatma Gandhi led the Civil Disobedience Movement that was launched in
the Congress Session of December 1929. The aim of this movement was a
complete disobedience of the orders of the British Government. During this
movement it was decided that India would celebrate 26th January as
Independence Day all over the country. On 26th January 1930, meetings were
held all over the country and the Congress tri-colour was hoisted. The British
Government tried to repress the movement and resorted to brutal firing, killing
hundreds of people. Thousands were arrested along with Gandhiji and
Jawaharlal Nehru.

But the movement spread to all the four corners of the country Following this,
Round Table Conferences were arranged by the British and Gandhiji attended
the second Round Table Conference at London. But nothing came out of the
conference and the Civil Disobedience Movement was revived.

During this time, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were arrested on the
charges of throwing a bomb in the Central Assembly Hall (which is now Lok
Sabha) and were hanged to death on March 23, 1931.

4.3.15 Elections and Lahore Resolution

The Government of India Act 1935, the voluminous and final constitutional
effort at governing British India, articulated three major goals: establishing a
loose federal structure, achieving provincial autonomy, and safeguarding
minority interests through separate electorates. The federal provisions,
intended to unite princely states and British India at the centre, were not
implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing privileges of
princes. In February 1937, however, provincial autonomy became a reality
when elections were held; the Congress emerged as the dominant party with
a clear majority in five provinces and held an upper hand in two, while the
Muslim League performed poorly.

In 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgow declared India's entrance into World War II
without consulting provincial governments. In protest, the Congress asked all
of its elected representatives to resign from the government. Jinnah, the
president of the Muslim League, persuaded participants at the annual Muslim
League session at Lahore in 1940 to adopt what later came to be known as
the Lahore Resolution, demanding the division of India into two separate
sovereign
states, one Muslim, the other Hindu; sometimes referred to as Two Nation
Theory. Although the idea of Pakistan had been introduced as early as 1930,
very few had responded to it. However, the volatile political climate and
hostilities between the Hindus and Muslims transformed the idea of Pakistan
into a stronger demand.

4.3.16 Revolutionary Activities

Apart from a few stray incidents, the armed rebellion against the British rulers
was not organized before the beginning of the 20th century. The Indian
revolutionary underground began gathering momentum through the first
decade of 1900s, with groups arising in Maharashtra, Bengal, Orissa, Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and the then Madras Presidency including what is now
called South India. More groups were scattered around India. Particularly
notable movements arose in Bengal, especially around the Partition of Bengal
in 1905, and in Punjab. In the former case, it was the educated, intelligent and
dedicated youth of the urban Middle Class Bhadralok community that came to
form the "Classic" Indian revolutionary, while the latter had an immense
support base in the rural and military society of the Punjab. Organisations like
Jugantar and Anushilan Samiti had emerged in the 1900s. The revolutionary
philosophies and movement made their presence felt during the 1905 Partition
of Bengal. Arguably, the initial steps to organize the revolutionaries were
taken by Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother Barin Ghosh, Bhupendranath Datta
etc. when they formed the Jugantar party in April 1906. Jugantar was created
as an inner circle of the Anushilan Samiti which was already present in Bengal
mainly as a revolutionary society in the guise of a fitness club.

The Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar opened several branches throughout

Bengal and other parts of India and recruited young men and women to
participate in the revolutionary activities. Several murders and looting were
done, with many revolutionaries being captured and imprisoned. The Jugantar
party leaders like Barin Ghosh and Bagha Jatin initiated making of explosives.
Amongst a number of notable events of political terrorism were the Alipore
bomb case, the Muzaffarpur killing tried several activists and many were
sentenced to deportation for life, while Khudiram Bose was hanged. The
founding of the India House and the Indian Sociologist under Shyamji Krishna
Varma in London in 1905 took the radical movement to Britain itself. On 1 July
1909, Madan Lal Dhingra, an Indian student closely identified with India
House in London shot dead William Hutt Curzon Wylie, a British M.P. in
London. 1912 saw the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy planned under Rash Behari
Bose, an erstwhile Jugantar member, to assassinate the then Viceroy of India
Charles Hardinge. The conspiracy culminated in an attempt to Bomb the
Viceregal procession on 23 December 1912, on the occasion of transferring
the Imperial Capital from Calcutta to Delhi. In the aftermath of this event,
concentrated
police and intelligence efforts were made by the British Indian police to
destroy the Bengali and Punjabi revolutionary underground, which came
under intense pressure for sometimes. Rash Behari successfully evaded
capture for nearly three years. However, by the time that World War I opened
in Europe, the revolutionary movement in Bengal (and Punjab) had revived
and was strong enough to nearly paralyse the local administration.

During the First World War, the revolutionaries planned to import arms and
ammunitions from Germany and stage an armed revolution against the British.

The Ghadar Party operated from abroad and cooperated with the
revolutionaries in India. This party was instrumental in helping revolutionaries
inside India catch hold of foreign arms.

After the First World War, the revolutionary activities began to slowly wane as
it suffered major setbacks due to the arrest of prominent leaders. In the
1920s, some revolutionary activists began to reorganize. Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association was formed under the leadership of Chandrasekhar
Azad. Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central
Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 protesting against the passage of the
Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill. Following the trial (Central
Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in
1931. Allama Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to direct particularly
the Muslims towards the independence movement.

On 13 March 1940, Udham Singh shot Michael O'Dwyer, generally held

responsible for the Amritsar Massacre, in London. However, as the political
scenario changed in the late 1930s — with the mainstream leaders
considering several options offered by the British and with religious politics
coming into play
— revolutionary activities gradually declined. Many past revolutionaries joined
mainstream politics by joining Congress and other parties, especially
communist ones, while many of the activists were kept under hold in different
jails across the country.

4.3.17 The climax: War, Quit India, INA and Post-War Revolts

Indians throughout the country were divided over World War II, as Linlithgow,
without consulting the Indian representatives had unilaterally declared India a
belligerent on the side of the allies. In opposition to Linlithgow's action, the
entire Congress leadership resigned from the local government councils.
However, many wanted to support the British war effort, and indeed the British
Indian Army was one of the largest volunteer forces, numbering 205,000 men
during the war Especially during the Battle of Britain, Gandhi resisted calls for
massive civil disobedience movements that came from within as well as
outside his party, stating he did not seek India's freedom out of the ashes of a
destroyed
Britain. However, like the changing fortunes of the war itself, the movement for
freedom saw the rise of two movements that formed the climax of the
100-year struggle for independence.

The first of these, the Azad Hind movement led by Netaji Subhash Chandra
Bose, saw its inception early in the war and sought help from the Axis Powers.
The second saw its inception in August 1942 led by Gandhi and began
following failure of the Cripps' mission to reach a consensus with the Indian
political leadership over the transfer of power after the war.

4.3.18 Indian National Army (INA)

The arbitrary entry of India into the war was strongly opposed by Subhash
Chandra Bose, who had been elected President of the Congress twice, in
1937 and 1939. After lobbying against participation in the war, he resigned
from Congress in 1939 and started a new party, the All India Forward Bloc.
When war broke out, the Raj had put him under house arrest in Calcutta in
1940. However, at the time the war was at its bloodiest in Europe and Asia, he
escaped and made his way through Afghanistan to Germany to seek Axis
help to raise an army to fight the shackles of the Raj. Here, he rose with
Rommel's Indian POWs what came to be known as the Free India Legion.
This came to be the conceptualizations in embryonic form of Bose's dream of
raising a liberation Army to fight the Raj. However, the turn of tides in the
Battlefields of Europe saw Bose make his way ultimately to Japanese South
Asia where he formed what came to be known as the Azad Hind Government
as the Provisional Free Indian Government in exile, and organized the Indian
National Army with Indian POWs and Indian expatriates at South-East Asia,
with the help of the Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force
that would build on public resentment to inspire revolts among Indian soldiers
to defeat the Raj.

The INA would ultimately fail, owing to disrupted logistics, poor arms and
supplies from the Japanese, and lack of support and training. The supposed
death of Bose is seen as culmination of the entire Azad Hind Movement.
Following the surrender of Japan, the troops of the INA were brought to India
and a number of them charged with treason. However, Bose's audacious
actions and radical initiative had by this time captured the public imagination
and also turned the inclination of the native soldiers of the British Indian
Forces from one of loyalty to the crown to support for the soldiers that the Raj
deemed as collaborators.

It was the INA and the mutinies it inspired among the British Indian Armed
forces that were the true driving force behind India's final independence.
The Second World War broke out in September of 1939 and without
consulting the Indian leaders, India was declared a warring state (on behalf of
the British) by the Governor General. Subhash Chandra Bose, with the help of
Japan, preceded fighting the British forces and not only freed Andaman and
Nicobar Islands from the Britishers but also entered the north-eastern border
of India. But in 1945, Japan was defeated and Netaji proceeded from Japan
through an airplane to a place of safety. But met with an accident and it was
given out that he died in that air-crash itself. "Give me blood and I shall give
you freedom" - was one of the most popular statements made by him, where
he urges the people of India to join him in his freedom movement.

4.3.19 After World War – II

World war-II brought about a great change in India. There was a powerful
national upsurge, since the Congress exploited the problems that the British
Empire faced due to the world war, to demand a definite promise of
Independence. Following the end of the war in 1945, the British took steps to
grant Independence in 1947.

The British Empire was completely shattered after the war and their first
priority was restructuring their own economy, which was in shambles. The
entire nation saw it as the victory of the Gandhian strategy of non-violence.
But it was a mixed package since the freedom at midnight was tied with the
partition of the country under communal lines.

4.3.20 Quit India Movement

On 8 August 1942, the Quit India resolution was passed at the Bombay
session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC). The draft proposed that
if the British did not accede to the demands, a massive Civil Disobedience
would be launched. However, it was an extremely controversial decision. At
Gowalia Tank, Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to follow a non-violent civil
disobedience. Gandhi told the masses to act as an independent nation and
not to follow the orders of the British. The British, already alarmed by the
advance of the Japanese army to the India–Burma border, responded the next
day by imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. The Congress
Party's Working Committee or national leadership was arrested all together
and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort. They also banned the party
altogether. Large-scale protests and demonstrations were held all over the
country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. The
movement also saw widespread acts of sabotage, Indian under-ground
organisation carried out bomb attacks on allied supply convoys, government
buildings were set on fire, electricity lines were disconnected and transport
and communication lines were severed. The Congress had lesser success in
rallying other political forces, including the Muslim League under a single mast
and movement. It did
however, obtain passive support from a substantial Muslim population at the
peak of the movement. The movement soon became a leaderless act of
defiance, with a number of acts that deviated from Gandhi's principle of non-
violence. In large parts of the country, the local underground organizations
took over the movement. However, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.

4.3.21 Round Table Conferences

First Round Table Conference - When the first Round Table Conference was
held in London from November 12, 1930 to January 19, 1931, not a single
member of the Congress attended it. The British now appealed to the
Congress to work with them. Lord Irwin also declared that Mahatma Gandhi
and the other members of the Congress Working Committee would soon be
freed to consider the matter ‘freely and fearlessly.’

The Mahatma and Lord Irwin finally met. The result was the Gandhi-Irwin
pact. Amongst other things, the Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn
under the pact, and a second Round Table Conference with Congress
participation was agreed upon.

Gandhi attended the Second Round Table conference in London in 1931 as

the sole representative of the Congress. He demanded control of foreign
affairs and defence, and the matter of minorities, with little help from
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, His Highness the Aga Khan and Dr Bhimrao Ramji
Ambedkar, ended in a complete deadlock. Gandhi returned to India on
December 28, 1931 empty- handed.

During World War II, the Congress decided that India should co-operate with
Britain on the understanding that complete independence would be granted to
India after that. The British however were unwilling to discuss the issue of
independence during wartime. This had the members of the Congress
wondering about the intentions of the government. Meanwhile, the divide
between Jinnah's Muslim League and the Congress' aims and demands had
grown sharper. In early 1940, Jinnah declared Pakistan as the goal of the
League.

After the fall of France in 1940, Gandhi declared, "We do not seek
independence out of Britain's ruin." The British reply to this was an offer to
discuss an Indian constituent assembly, as well as Dominion status `after the
war’. The offer was spurned. This resulted in yet status would be another
deadlock not to be resolved till 1947.

4.3.22 Partition of India and Pakistan

The partition of Indian subcontinent in 1947, following World War II is perhaps

the most tragic of all political events to affect India in its long political history.
The partition divided Hindus and Muslims who had lived together for hundreds
of years. It led to endless boundary disputes, three wars between the two
neighbors, a nuclear powered arms race, and state sponsored terrorism. The
agony and horrors of partition also gave rise to a new genre of moving art and
literature of India.

4.3.23 Reasons for Partition

The British who had followed "Divide and conquer" principle to rule India, had
to yield to the "Divide and Relinquish" demands of Muslims especially the
charismatic Mohamed Ali Jinnah.

The British overestimated the popularity of Muslim League that pressed for
creation of Pakistan, and didn't understand the fact that there were Muslims
living in every village of India, and possibly couldn't be relocated to Pakistan.

Some Congress leaders would rather have an early freedom for India rather
than convoluted delays in settlement by not agreeing to divide India.

4.3.24 Freedom of India with Creation of Pakistan

At the conclusion of the Second World War, the Labour Party, under Prime
Minister Clement Richard Attlee, came to power in Britain. The Labour Party
was largely sympathetic towards Indian people for freedom. A Cabinet
Mission was sent to India in March 1946, which after a careful study of the
Indian political scenario, proposed the formation of an interim Government
and convening of a Constituent Assembly comprising members elected by the
provincial legislatures and nominees of the Indian states. An interim
Government was formed headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.

However, the Muslim League refused to participate in the deliberations of the

Constituent Assembly and pressed for the separate state for Pakistan. Lord
Mountbatten, the Viceroy of India, presented a plan for the division of India
into India and Pakistan, and the Indian leaders had no choice but to accept
the division, as the Muslim League was adamant.

On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British

Governor-General of India, announced the partitioning of the British Indian
Empire into a secular India and a Muslim Pakistan. On 14 August 1947,
Pakistan was declared a separate nation from them. At midnight, on 15
August 1947, India became an independent nation. Violent clashes between
Hindus and Muslims followed. Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime
Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel invited Mountbatten to continue as
Governor General of India. He was replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti
Rajagopalachari. Patel took on the responsibility of unifying 565 princely
states, steering efforts by his “iron fist in a velvet glove”
policies, exemplified by the use of military force to integrate Junagadh,
Jammu and Kashmir, and Hyderabad state (Operation Polo) into India.

While Gandhi himself was opposed to partition of India, in the end, he could
not stop the unfolding of the history and many Hindus blamed his Muslim-
appeasement stance. A Hindu fanatic assassinated Gandhi in 1948 in the
aftermath of the partition.

In what is termed as the greatest human migration, some 15 million people

were displaced from their homes as a result of the partition with Hindus in
Pakistan moving to areas in Punjab and other bordering areas. Many Muslims
left India to succeed in Pakistan ("Land of the Pure") especially many writers
and intellectuals. The partition was marred by large scale violence with death
of a million (some estimate it up to 1.5 million) citizens and countless others
suffering.

Thus, India became free at the stroke of midnight, on August 14, 1947. (Since
then, every year India celebrates its Independence Day on 15th August).
Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minster of free India and continued
his term till 1964.

Giving voice to the sentiments of the nation, Prime Minister, Pandit

Jawaharlal Nehru said,

‘Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when
we will redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very
substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India
will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in
history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends and
when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance…. We end today
a period of ill fortune, and India discovers herself again.

4.3.25 Formation of Constituent Assembly

Earlier, a Constituent Assembly was formed in July 1946, to frame the

Constitution of India and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President. The
Constituent Assembly completed the work of drafting the constitution on 26
November 1949; on 26 January 1950 the Republic of India was officially
proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the
first President of India, taking over from Governor General Rajgopalachari.
Subsequently, a free and sovereign India absorbed three other territories: Goa
(from Portuguese control in 1961), Pondicherry (which the French ceded in
1953–1954) and Sikkim which was absorbed in 1975. In 1952, India held its
first general elections, with a voter turnout exceeding 62%.

4.3.26 Mahatma Gandhi’s Contribution in Independence

Mahatma Gandhi was born as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on 2nd
October, 1869. He was the most popular as well as the most influential
political and spiritual leaders of India. His contribution to the freedom struggle
of India is priceless and the country owes its independence, partly, to this
great man. The Satyagraha movement, which led to India's independence,
was founded by Mahatma Gandhi only. In India, Gandhi is known as the
'Father of the Nation' and his birthday is celebrated as a national holiday.

Early Life: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in the Porbandar city of
Gujarat, to Karamchand Gandhi, the diwan of Porbandar, and his wife,
Putlibai. Since his mother was a Hindu of the Pranami Vaishnava order,
Gandhi learned the tenets of non-injury to living beings, vegetarianism,
fasting, mutual tolerance, etc, at a very tender age. Mohandas was married at
the age of 13 to Kasturba Makhanji and had four sons. He passed the
matriculation exam at Samaldas College of Bhavanagar. In the year 1888,
Gandhi went to University College of London to study as a barrister. He came
back to India after being called to the bar of England and Wales by Inner
Temple. In 1893, he accepted a yearlong contract from an Indian firm to a
post in Natal, South Africa. There, he faced racial discrimination directed at
blacks and Indians. Such incidents provoked him to work towards social
activism.

Participation in Indian Independence Movement: Gopal Krishna Gokhale,

a leader of the Congress Party, introduced Mahatma Gandhi to the Indian
issues, Indian politics and the Indian people. Gandhi participated in the
following movements related to India's freedom struggle.

Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha: The Champaran Agitation and Kheda

Satyagraha of 1918 was the first major success of Mahatma Gandhi in his
struggle towards India's freedom. The reason for the agitation was the levy of
an oppressive tax by the British, which they insisted on increasing further. He
organized his supporters as well as volunteers to protest against this atrocity
and also began leading the cleanup of villages, building of schools and
hospitals as well as encouraging the village leadership to condemn the
numerous social evils affecting the society. Mahatma Gandhi was successful
in signing an agreement with the British, wherein the poor farmers were
granted more compensation and control over farming.

Non-Cooperation Movement and Swaraj: Non-cooperation Movement of

Mahatma Gandhi was one of his prime fights against the British. The
massacre at the Jallianwala Bagh of Punjab was what instigated him to take
this step. After the gruesome incident, he focused himself entirely on obtaining
complete autonomy for the country as well as the control of all Indian
government institutions. Soon, this movement turned into Swaraj (complete
individual, spiritual and political independence). His association with the Indian
National
Congress (INC) was further strengthened in December 1921, when he was
made the executive authority of the party.

Under Mahatma Gandhi, INC was restructured, accepting the goal of Swaraj,
having open membership, forming a hierarchy of committees, and so on. He
urged Indian citizens to boycott imported goods, British educational
institutions, law courts, government employment, and the like.
Non-cooperation became very popular and started spreading through the
length and breadth of India. However, the violent clash in Chauri Chaura town
of Uttar Pradesh, in February 1922, led to a sudden end of this movement.
Gandhi was arrested on 10th March 1922 and was tried for sedition. He was
sentenced to six years imprisonment, but served for only two years in prison.

Salt Satyagraha and Dandi March: During the period of 1920s, Mahatma
Gandhi concentrated on resolving the wedge between the Swaraj Party and
the Indian National Congress. Around 1928, Gandhi again started focusing on
Indian freedom struggle. In 1927, British had appointed Sir John Simon as the
head of a new constitutional reform commission. There was not even a single
Indian in the commission. Agitated by this, Gandhi passed a resolution at the
Calcutta Congress in December 1928, calling on the British government to
grant India dominion status. In case of non-compliance with this demand, the
British were to face a new campaign of non-violence, having its goal as
complete independence for the country. The resolution was rejected by the
British. The flag of India was unfurled in Lahore by the members of the INC on
31st December 1929. January 26, 1930 was celebrated as the Independence
Day of India. Soon, British government levied a tax on salt and Salt
Satyagraha was launched in March 1930, as an opposition to this move.
Mahatma Gandhi started the Dandi March with his followers in March, going
from Ahmedabad to Dandi on foot, to make salt himself. The campaign
became so successful that British ended up arresting over 60,000 people who
participated in the March. Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931, where
the British Government set all political prisoners free as an exchange for the
suspension of the civil disobedience movement.

Quit India Movement: As the World War II progressed, Mahatma Gandhi

intensified his protests for the complete independence of the Indian
subcontinent. He drafted a resolution calling for the British to Quit India. The
'Quit India Movement' or the 'Bharat Chhodo Andolan' was the most
aggressive revolt of the INC, with the aim of gaining complete exit of the
British from India. Gandhi was arrested on 9th August 1942 and held for two
years in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. There, he lost his secretary, Mahadev
Desai and his wife, Kasturba. The Quit India Movement came to an end by the
end of 1943, when the British gave hints that complete power would be
transferred to the people of India.
Freedom and Partition of India: The independence cum partition proposal
offered by the British Cabinet Mission in 1946 was accepted by the Congress,
in spite of being advised otherwise by Mahatma Gandhi. Sardar Patel
convinced Gandhi that it was the only way to avoid civil war and he reluctantly
gave his consent. After India's independence, Gandhi focused on peace and
unity of Hindus and Muslims. He launched his last fast-unto-death in Delhi,
asking for all communal violence to be stopped and the payment of Rs. 55
crores, as per the Partition Council agreement, to be made to Pakistan.
Ultimately, all the political leaders conceded to his wishes and he broke his
fast by sipping orange juice.

Assassination: The inspiring life of Mahatma Gandhi came to an end on 30th

January 1948, when he was shot by Nathuram Godse. Nathuram was a Hindu
radical, who held Gandhi responsible for weakening India by ensuring the
partition payment to Pakistan. Godse and his co-conspirator, Narayan Apte,
were later tried and convicted. They were executed on 15th November 1949.

Gandhi's Principles: Mahatma followed as well as preached the principles

throughout his life i.e. Truth, Nonviolence, Vegetarianism, Brahmacharya
(Celibacy), Simplicity, Faith in God.

Apart from this Gandhi ji gives a statement – Bura Mat Bolo, Bura Mat Suno
and Bura mat Dekho.

4.3.27 The chronology of major event from 1857 to 1947 (the period
from colonization to becoming independent India)

1857: The Sepoy Mutiny, which was the first battle for Indian Independence.
1858: The Indian Government is taken over by the British Crown.
1861: Introduction of the Indian Councils Act, Indian High Courts Act and the
Penal Code.
1877: The Queen of England is introduced as Empress of India.
1885: The first formal meeting of the Indian National congress was held.
1899: Lord Curzon is appointed as Governor-General, as well as Viceroy.
1906: The Muslim League was formed and Congress makes the declaration for
Swaraj.
1908: The Newspaper Paper Act was introduced.
1912: The capital of the imperial was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
1919: Massacre at Jalianwalla Bagh
1921: Mahatma Gandhi takes over leadership of Congress; beginning of the
Non-co-operation Movement.
 1922: Civil Disobedience Movement.
1923: Salt tax is certified.
1927: The Simon Commission was appointed.
1928: The Simon Commission arrives in India and is boycotted all the Indian
parties.
1929: Lord Irwin promises to provide Dominion status for the nation; the
National flag of India is hoisted by Jawaharlal Nehru in Lahore.
1930: Salt Satygraha, which took the form of the Dandi March; also the First
Round Table Conference.
1931: The pact between Irwin and Gandhi; as well as the Second Round Table
Conference.
1932: Third Round Table Conference.
1935: Introduction of the Government of India Act.
1942: Congress brings to the fore Quit India resolution; Indian National Army
formed by Subash Chandra Bose; Cripps Mission.
3rd June 1947: Lord Mountbatten announces his plan for partition of India.
15th August: Indian Independence; as well as India-Pakistan partition.

4.5 Summing Up

In ancient times, people from all over the world were keen to come to India. The
Aryans came from Central Europe and settled down in India. The Persians
followed by the Iranians and Parsis immigrated to India. Then came the
Mughals and they too settled down permanently in India. Lastly, the Britishers
came and ruled over India for nearly 200 years. After the battle of Plassey in
1757, the British achieved political power in India. The conquest of India, which
could be said to have begun with the Battle of Plassey (1757), was practically
completed by the end of Dalhousie's tenure in 1856. It had been by no means a
smooth affair as the simmering discontent of the people manifested itself in
many localized revolt during this period. However, the Mutiny of 1857, which
began with a revolt of the military soldiers at Meerut, soon became widespread
and posed a grave challenge to the British rule.

4.6 Assignments

1. Class Assignment: Explain in brief the landmarks of Mahatma Gandhi's

contribution in Indian Independence.
2. Home Assignment: Write short notes on:
(a) Non-Cooperation movement
(b) Dandi march
 4.7 Self-check questions

1. Gandhi's Principles: i) , ii) , iii) ,

iv) , v) vi) .

2. The First Round Table Conference was held in from

November 12, 1930 to January 19, 1931.

4.8 Terminal Questions

Describe in brief the landmarks of Indian freedom struggle movement.

4.9 Possible Answers of Self-check questions

1. London.

2. i)Truth, ii) Nonviolence, iii) Vegetarianism, iv) Brahmacharya (Celibacy),

v) Simplicity, vi) Faith in God.