Functional Groups and Alkanes Final

Functional Groups
A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms within a molecule, that

prescribes a particular type of reactivity when subjected to a particular set of reaction
conditions.
The reactions occur directly at or immediately adjacent to the functional groups, and that
recognizing the functional groups is the key to identify the type of reaction.
What is a reaction ?
A reaction is the process by which one compound is transformed into a new compound.
List of Functional Groups

The more important functional groups are shown below, with the key structural
element and a 3D image of a simple example. It is important that you are
able to recognize these functional groups because they are the key to being able
to recognize the patterns within organic chemistry.
Hydrocarbons are compounds that only contain H and C atoms, but they can be subdivided
according to the following tree diagram depending on the bond types that are present.
Homologous series
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds that have the same general formula
and similar chemical properties. They react in a similar way because they have similar bonds;
they have the same functional group. Their physical properties show a gradual change as the
carbon chain gets longer the:
 Boiling point increases
 They become less flammable (don’t set fire as easily)
 They get more viscous (don’t pour as easily)
 They get less volatile (don’t evaporate as easily)
All organic compounds are made up of covalently bonded molecules. The molecules are held
together by weak forces called Van der Waals forces.
Alkanes
Alkanes are homologous series with the general formula CnH2n + 2 . They are
hydrocarbons and are found mainly in crude oil. Like all organic compounds they can be
represented by molecular formulae or graphical formulae. Alkanes are saturated
hydrocarbons as they only have carbon to carbon single bonds.
A molecular formula shows the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a molecule. For
example ethane .C2H6
A graphical formula shows how the atoms are actually joined together e.g. ethane . Below
shows some common alkanes and their molecular and graphical formulas :
In a skeletal structure, only the bonds between carbon atoms are represented. Individual
carbon and hydrogen atoms are not drawn, and bonds to hydrogen are not drawn. In the case
that the molecule contains just single bonds (sp3 bonds), these bonds are drawn in a "zig-zag"
fashion. This is because in the tetrahedral geometry all bonds point as far away from each
other as possible, and the structure is not linear. Consider the following representations of the
molecule propane:
Note also that two lines are sufficient to represent three carbon atoms. It is the bonds only
that are being drawn out, and it is understood that there are carbon atoms (with three
hydrogens attached) at the terminal ends of the structure.
Nomenclature:
Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains are simply named by the number of carbons in the
chain. The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named
as follows:
1. CH4 = methane = one hydrogen-saturated carbon

2. C2H6 = ethane = two hydrogen-saturated carbons
3. C3H8 = propane = three hydrogen-saturated carbons
4. C4H10 = butane = four hydrogen-saturated carbons
Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane to the
appropriate numerical multiplier, except the terminal -a is removed from the basic numerical
term. Hence, C5H12 is called pentane, C6H14 is called hexane, C7H16 is called heptane and so
forth.
Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix n- (for normal) to distinguish
them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is
not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important
difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. n-
hexane is a neurotoxin while its branched-chain isomers are not.
Naming Branched Alkanes
Rules for Systematic Nomenclature of Alkanes
1. Find the parent chain
a. Identify the longest continuous carbon chain as the parent chain.
b. If more than one different chains are of equal length (number of carbons), choose the one
with the greater number of branch points (substituents) as the parent.
2. Numbering the carbons of the parent chain

a. Number the carbon atoms of the parent chain so that any branch points have the lowest
possible number
b. If there is branching equidistant from both ends of the parent chain, number so the
second branch point has the lowest number.
3. Substituents
a. Identify and number the substituents and list them in alphabetical order.
b. If there are two substituents on the same carbon, assign them the same number.
4. Write out the name
a. Write out the name as a single word: hyphens (-) separate prefixes commas (,) separate
numbers
b. Substituents are listed in alphabetical order
c. If two or more identical substituents are present use the prefixes: di- for two tri- for three
tetra- for four note: these prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, etc.) are not used for alphabetizing
purposes
5. Complex Substituents (substituents with branching)

a. Named by applying the four previous rules with some modification
b. Number the complex substituent separately from the parent. Begin numbering at the point
of attachment to the parent chain.
c. Complex substituents are set off by parenthesis.
Alkyl
Alkanes can be described by the general formula CnH2n+2. An alkyl group is formed by
removing one hydrogen from the alkane chain and is described by the formula CnH2n+1. The
removal of this hydrogen results in a stem change from -ane to -yl. Take a look at the
following examples.
Using common names with branched alkanes
Certain branched alkanes have common names that are still widely used today. These
common names make use of prefixes, such as iso-, sec-, tert-, and neo-. The prefix iso-,
which stands for isomer, is commonly given to 2-methyl alkanes. In other words, if there is
methyl group located on the second carbon of a carbon chain, we can use the prefix iso-. The
prefix will be placed in front of the alkane name that indicates the total number of carbons.
Examples:
 isopentane which is the same as 2-methylbutane

 isobutane which is the same as 2-methylpropane
To assign the prefixes sec-, which stands for secondary, and tert-, for tertiary, it is important
that we first learn how to classify carbon molecules. If a carbon is attached to only one other
carbon, it is called a primary carbon. If a carbon is attached to two other carbons, it is called
a seconday carbon. A tertiary carbon is attached to three other carbons and last,
a quaternary carbon is attached to four other carbons. Examples:
 4-sec-butylheptane
 4-tert-butyl-5-isopropylhexane ; if using this example, may want to move sec/tert
after iso.
The prefix neo- refers to a substituent whose second-to-last carbon of the chain is

trisubstituted (has three methyl groups attached to it). A neo-pentyl has five carbons total.
Examples:
Neopentane
Neoheptane
Naming Cycloalkanes
Naming Cycloalkanes: General Formula: CnH(2n)
1. Parent Chain
a. Use the cycloalkane as the parent chain if it has a greater number of carbons than any alkyl
substituent.
b. If an alkyl chain off the cycloalkane has a greater number of carbon then use the alkyl
chain as the parent and the cycloalkane as a cycloalkyl- substituent.
2. Numbering the Cycloalkane
a. When numbering the carbons of a cycloalkane, start with a substituted carbon so that the
substituted carbons have the lowest numbers (sum).
b. When two or more different substituents are present, number according to alphabetical
order.
3. Halogen Substituents
Halogen substituents are treated exactly like alkyl groups:
-F -fluoro
-Cl-chloro
-Br-bromo
-I -iodo
Physical Properties:
The low polarity of all the bonds in alkanes means that the only intermolecular forces
between molecules of alkanes are the very weak induced dipole - induced dipole forces,
which are easily overcome. As a result, compared to other functional groups, alkanes tend to
have low melting and boiling points and very low solubility in polar solvents such as water
(remember "oil and water don't mix" and the solubility phenomena "like dissolves like").

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Functional Groups

A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms within a molecule, that

List of Functional Groups

1. CH4 = methane = one hydrogen-saturated carbon

2. Numbering the carbons of the parent chain

5. Complex Substituents (substituents with branching)

Using common names with branched alkanes

 isopentane which is the same as 2-methylbutane

The prefix neo- refers to a substituent whose second-to-last carbon of the chain is

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